INTRODUCTION

What Biology is?

What is biology?

“Biology” comes from Greek

Bios – life + Logos – word → speaking about life, about living
things.

Exactly – Biology is science that deals with living nature

What is nature?

“Nature” is derived from the Latin word natura - "the course of

things, natural character”. We say naturally and we mean
something obvious, common, normal and expected.

In the broadest sense nature is equivalent to the natural world

and also to life in general.

Are humans part of nature? Is our common environment (city, buildings, streets) nature?

At the beginning, there was no boundary line between humans and other living and non living objects.
Our early ancestors lived without significant effect on the surrounding areas.

In the times of antic civilizations, human population was numerous enough to make concrete changes
in “nature”, and philosophers, of course, separated humans from other living beings. (We became
“something more") But still term “nature” mend all world.

Nowadays, we live surrounded by our products. We made changes on the surface of Earth that are
even visible from space. Term “nature” usually means something like an area that we visit during our
free time - like going to a forest for a walk. We mean something, that is not made by men.

What is natural?

It might be difficult to say what is nature and what is not. Is the lake that exists just because of dam
natural? Is nature just the part of world that is not affected by man?

For our purpose, we shall use this:

NATURE IS THE PART OF WORLD THAT HAS NOT BEEN CREATED BY MEN.

But always bear in your mind, that it might be not that simple.
It is not easy to say exactly what nature is. So, it is also not easy
to define BIOLOGY as a science simply and exactly. Living
things depend on their environment, on non-living things.
Because of these, if you deal with one, you must often deal with
the other. Biology sometimes, deals with nonliving nature.
Biology “collaborates” with other sciences and biologists share
information wit other scientists

Where does the Biology come from?

In fact, the knowledge about plants and animals is the oldest
knowledge of humanity. For our early ancestors, it was matter or life or death.
Humans collected knowledge by practical experience, like hunting and gathering,
later by breeding animals and harvesting plants. Until the 16th and 17th century,
Biology was part of philosophy. The first “biologist” was probably ARISTOTELES. He
lived in 4th century B.C. and wrote many writings about animals and plants. He
tried to divide animals into groups (first classification).

There are so many names of so many scientists that participated on forming of

recent biological knowledge. Just mention two others.

CARL LINNÉ (18th century) was Swedish biologist that came with the binomial
nomenclature. Because of this, each living being is named by specific term, that
consist of genus and species = “name and surname” in Latin. These terms are
international and biologists all over the word can understand them. This way, we
can avoid misunderstandings among scientists of different nations.
Example: Populus nigra = Black Poplar = Topoľ čierny = Schwarzpappel

CHARLES DARWIN was British biologist. In his times (19th century)

biologists discussed much about the living beings – do they
change during geological epochs, or do they remain the same from the beginning of
the world? Charles wrote number of writings that supported the idea of change. He
didn’t try to explain the origin of the life; he never said that “man came from a monkey”.
He just developed the idea of change - that the species change during geological
epochs and the beings with similar structure probably came from the same ancestor.
He is considered to be father of Evolution theory.

What natural sciences do we know?

During our history, biological knowledge grows, and it is still growing. It is impossible to study all living
beings and nature deeply. Nowadays, biology is divided into Natural sciences studying specific fields.

Just for example:

1, according to basic groups of organisms: 2, according to traits of living systems:

Zoology – animals “static” study structure
Botany – plants Cytology – cells
Mycology – fungi, “mushrooms” Histology – tissues
Microbiology – bacteria and other unicellular Morphology – shapes and forms
organisms Anatomy– organs and systems
Virology – viruses “dynamic” – study processes
Paleontology – fossil remains of living Physiology – metabolism and reproduction
organisms Developmental biology – development of
individuals
Evolution biology – evolution of organisms
Ethology – behavior

And many others ….

Taxonomy, Embryology, Genetics, Molecular biology, Imunology, Parasitology, some combined with
other disciplines: Biophysics, Biochemistry, Biogeography, Ecology, Biostatistic.
Life and basic properties of living organisms.
What is living?

We, of course know that there are living and non living parts of nature. Each of us is usually able to
say that something (someone) is alive and something not. Sometimes, in some special cases, it might
be not that simple. Biology as a science have several definitions and criterions to establish weather “it
is alive”.

A, life is bound to the existence of organism

Organism is space-limited and time-limited highly complex organized system. What
does this mean?
space limited – we are able to distinguish its’ borders (here it starts, here it ends)
time limited – every living organism dies eventually
complex – consisting of numerous subunits that form its’ building blocks
organized – having subunits arranged in certain manner
system – complex organized unit which is showing to have some type of
relationship to surrounding area and also showing to have
relationships also between its’ own subunits

B, living things perform 7 basic life functions, that makes them able to implement the relationship
to surrounding area and to live on their own.
o 1, Movements
o 2, Sensitivity
1 + 2 => Living organisms are detecting signals and responding to them
o 3, Respiration
o 4, Feeding
o 5, Excretion
3 + 4 + 5 => Living organisms are absorbing materials and energy from the
surrounding area and passing them back.
o 6, Reproduction
o 7, Growth
6 + 7 => Living organisms are able to develop and to reproduce themselves by
producing offspring → “chain of life”

Some of these 1 – 7 can be provided also by nonliving units, but only living organisms are
able to perform all 7.

C, Living systems have common chemical composition

o 1, Biogenic elements are predominating elements in bodies of organisms
Four main C, H, O, N form 99% of organic mass and participate of formation
of organic molecules. Other common are S, P, Ca, Mg, Fe, Na and K.
o 2, Trace elements Zn, Cu, Ni, Co, Se, Li also appear in organisms, but in minimal
concentration.
Remaining elements are extremely rare to appear in bodies of organisms
o 3, Organic molecules are molecules produced by living organisms. We distinguish four
major categories of organic molecules - Proteins, Saccharides (carbohydrates, sugars),
Lipids (fats) and nucleic acids. Opposite of organic molecules are inorganic matters
such e.g. minerals.
o 4, Water is always present in living organism in certain amount.

D, Basic structural and functional unit of all living system is cell.

Cells are building blocks of organisms. Smallest organisms are unicellular = consist of single
cell. That is the simplest possible structure of true organism.
Cell is also the smallest possible unit which can fully provide all 7 life functions. This can bee
observed directly on living unicellular organisms. Multicellular organisms have bodies made
of billions of cells. Some of their cells can focus on certain life function and they don’t have
to provide all 7. But whole multicellular organism is able to provide all 7.

We are able to classify all living organisms according to structure of their cells
o 1, Non-cellular organisms – Viruses – are able to carry on life functions just if they
interact with host cell.
o 2, Cellular organisms
According to inner organization of cell we distinguish 3 big groups = Domains
I, Archaea – (Archebacteria) no real nucleus, no Peptidoglycan in cell wall
II, Bacteria - (Eubacteria, Prokaryota) no real nucleus, Peptidoglycan in cell wall
III, Eukaryota – real nucleus and more than one structure made of membrane
 CELL
Basic structural and functional element of all living system

Like organisms themselves, cell as their basic unit is

space-limited – it has borders and so, consequently, shape and size
time-limited – it has life cycle with beginning and end
organized complex system

There is a great variety among cells because of great variety of living beings and life itself. But all Cells
share some common properties
Chemical composition and some structural features
Life processes, metabolism – absorption and passing out of materials and energy
Type of reproduction and ability to transmit the genetic information

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION of CELL Chemical composition of CELL

nucleic
- vary a lot among different types of cells and also acids
changes during the life cycle of the cell, but as it 3%
was mentioned above, there are some features
common to all cells. proteins
12%
Chemicals in cells can carry out these functions

structural - they are “bricks” that build cellular lipids

structures 8%
metabolic - they make cells able to run metabolic
processes and they regulate the cell
reserve – they form deposited sources of energy saccharids
substrate - they create appropriate medium where 9%
variable metabolic reactions run water
65%
Water inorganic
- is the main component (structural f). It creates substances
universal environment for chemical reactions and 3%
minerals and salts dissolve in it (substrate f.). It also
helps cell with thermoregulation (metabolic f.)

Inorganic substances
- mainly salts and ions. Participate on formation of proteins and this way, they help to regulate the
amount of water in cell (metabolic f.)
simple →
Saccharides saccharide polymer
- contain C, H, O (carbohydrates),
- single saccharide molecules - monomers are able to form long, complex chains – polymers.
Different structure cause different properties. Single molecules like glucose, or fructose are less
stable and used like fast sources of energy. They also might be components of other complex
molecules with metabolic f. More stable polymers, like starch or glycogen are used like reserves.
Highly stable cellulose or chitin are used as structural material.

Lipids simple model of lipid →

- contain C, H, O; common term is fats
- relatively stable (they don’t dissolve in water) and used as reserves of energy.
- lipid molecules containing other elements are called composite lipid. They might have different
function – form parts of membranes or components of enzymes or other molecules with metabolic f.

Proteins simple model of protein →

- contain C, H, O, N, some of them S
- they are polymers made of amino acids. All proteins are made
of combinations of 20 amino acids. Properties of protein does not depend just on the type of
amino acids in it and their order, but also on the shape of the chain (it’s 3D structure).
- there might be also some other elements in the molecule, that can give it special function. E.g. the Fe
gives the molecule of protein in red blood cells (called hemoglobin) ability to carry O2.
- wide variety of structures gives proteins wide variety of functions – mainly structural and metabolic,
eventually reserve.
Nucleic acids
- complex organic polymers made of basic elements
Nucleotides. Each nucleotide is made of three parts –
phosphate acid, saccharide monomer and base (organic
molecule containing nitrogen).
- there are 2 types of saccharide – ribose or deoxyribose
and 5 types of bases Adenine, Thymine, Guanine,
Cytosine and Uracil. (together 10 possible types of
nucleotides.) We label the bases according to the first
letter in their name A, T, G, C, U.

According to types of nucleotides present in chain, we

distinguish two basic nucleic acids DNA - Deoxyribonucleic
and RNA - ribonucleic acid.

DNA
Whole molecule is spiral made of two parallel chains. In each chain, deoxiribose of previous
nucleotide is connected to the phosphate acid of following one. Together, they form sugar-phosphate
backbone and bases stick out perpendicularly from this backbone. Parallel chains are connected by
bases according following rules – Adenine is able to form pair just with Thymine, and Guanine with
Cytosine. Uracil is not present.

RNA
Whole molecule is made of one chain. Ribose of one
nucleotide is connected to the phosphate acid of following
one. Together, they form sugar-phosphate backbone and
bases Adenine Cytosine Uracil and Guanine stick out
perpendicularly from this backbone. Thymine is not
present.

Function of nucleic acids is to maintain genetic information,

to make organism able to pass in to further generations
and to regulate life processes.
Basic STRUCTURE of CELL

Same as the chemical composition, structure of cell vary a lot among different types of cells and also
changes during the life cycle of the cell. Generally, most of cells are microscopic and can bee seen
just by using microscope. Four structures are vital for the cell and they are present in all cells to make
them able run life processes.

1, BIOMEMBRANES or biological membranes made of lipids and proteins are present in all cells.
They are selectively permeable which mean that they posses ability to pass chemicals selectively,
certain molecules are allowed to pass through while other are not. Biomembrans are also elastic,
not firm. There is a biomembrane on the surface of each cell, called Cell membrane or Plasma
membrane. It contains special proteins called receptors. These receptors provide cell with
sensitivity by receiving signals from outer area.

2, CYTOPLASM is a liquid that is filling the cell. It consists mainly of water with some organic and
inorganic solutes. Composition of cytoplasm varies according to cell type and environment. In
cytoplasm flow structures called organelles. We divide organelles according into two basic groups
– membranal are made of bio membranes, non-membranal do not contain biomembrane.
Presence or absence of organelles in the cells is key for the classification of organisms.

3, RIBOSOMES are organelles present in all cells. They are small grains made of RNA and their
function is to produce proteins. Free ribosomes are floating in cytoplasm, remaining are attached
to membrane of organelles.

4, NUCLEOUS is the part of cell that carry DNA. It is command center of cell (“headquarters” of Cell).
This structure is key for the classification of organisms – presence of biomembranal wrapping
around DNA determine the type of cell to be Eukaryotic cell – present in Eukaryotic organisms.
DNA without membranal wrapping determined the type of the cell to be Prokaryotic – present in
Archaea and Bacteria.

PROKARYOTIC CELL

This type of cell is characteristic for Archaea and Bacteria. It is relatively simple comparing to
Eukaryotic cell. Microfossils of organisms with similar structure were found in rock 3,5 bil. years old
and they are considered to be one of the first living beings on Earth.

Structure:

- cell is surrounded by
flexible Cell Membrane
and rigid Cell Wall.
Capsule made of mucus
might be present for
protection.

- Cell membrane on the

surface of cell is the only
membrane present in cell
– there are no membranal
organelles. Cell
membrane It might form
inner folds or pleats called
together Tylacoid. Here
can be located pigments,
as it is in
Cyanobacterium.

- Cell is filled by Cytoplasm. Here flow Ribosomes. All of them are free since there is no membranal
organelle.

- Nucleus consists of one molecule of DNA called chromosome. It has no wrapping and it is freely
floating in cytoplasm in form of bundle.

- Some Prokaryotes have external whip-like flagellum for locomotion or hair like pili for adhesion –
attaching to something.
EUKARYOTIC CELL

This type of cell is characteristic for Eukaryotic organisms - Animals, Fungi and Plants. It contains
organelles made of membranes. Oldest eukaryotic cells were found in rock 2,0 bil. years old. Their
origins are explained by Serial Endosymbiotic Theory. T

Serial Endosymbiosis Theory (SET)

This theory was invented by Dr. Lynn Margulis. It explains evolution of membrane organelles by
following steps.

- Ancestral forms or recent Eukaryotic cells were bacterium without ability to respire in presence of
oxygen. These organism are so called anaerobic bacterium.

- Anaerobic bacterium were eating (absorbing) bacterium with ability to respire in presence of
oxygen – aerobic bacterium. Some of the absorbed bacterium were not digested but they had
started to exist in host cell as intercellular symbiote – enosymbiote. They evolve to organelles
called Mitochondrion and provide new, arisen Eukaryotic cell wit ability to respire in presence of
oxygen. Mitochondrion still contain own Mitochondrion DNA and because of this they reproduce in
cell without being regulated by nucleus.

- some Eukaryotic cells were absorbing Cyanobacterium. Some of the absorbed Cyanobacterium
were not decomposed and digested but they had started to exist in host cell as enosymbiote. They
evolve to organelles called Plastids and provide new, arisen Plant cell wit ability to trap energy from
sun rays. These organelles still contain own Plastid DNA and because of this, they can reproduce in
cell without being regulated by nucleus.
Structure

- cell is surrounded by flexible Cell Membrane. Rigid Cell Wall is present just in Plant or Fungal cells.

- cell is filled by Cytoplasm. Here flow membranal and non-membranal organelles. Non living
components of cell – drops of lipids or starch might be also present in the cytoplasm. They form
reserves.

- Fibrilar structures in cytoplasm are non-membranal organelles. Their function is mechanic, they help
to hold shape of the cell,
move organelles in the cell
and all cellular body in the
space. Centrosome is
fibrilar structure that
participates on the
processes of cell
reproduction.

- Nucleus – headquarters of
cell is membranal organelle
containing several DNA
chromosomes wrapped by
double membrane layer.
Nucleic membranes have
openings in them, so the
RNA, which is synthesized
here, can pass out.
Nucleolus is spherical
organelle present within
Nucleus and that’s the place
where RNA synthesis
proceeds.

- Plastids are membranal

organelles present just in
plant cells. These
organelles are made of
two membranes. Outer
cover the organelle and
inner is wrinkled to make
the inner surface larger.
Some plastids contain
green photosynthetic
pigment Chlorophyll and
provide cell with ability to
trap energy from sunlight.
These energy trappers are
called Chloroplasts.
Other plastids serve to
store starch and are called
Leucoplasts.
Chromoplasts are plastids
containing other pigments
and they give flowers and
fruits their color. Plastids
contain own DNA and
reproduce in cell without being regulated by nucleus.

- Mitochondrion are membranal organelles present in all Eukaryotic cells. These organelles are made
of two membranes. Outer cover the organelle and inner is wrinkled, it forms long, inward folds called
cristae. These make the inner surface larger. Mitochondrion are organelles that provide respiration.
Here, saccharides are decomposed with presence of oxygen and energy is released. Mitochondrio
are known as “power plans of cell”. They also contain own DNA and reproduce in cell without being
regulated by nucleus.

- Lysosomes is membranal organelle much more common in animal cells. These organelles are made
of single layer of membrane that separates inner materials from cytoplasm. Inner cavity is filled by
enzymes - chemicals which brake down proteins. Function of this organelle is to decompose
materials.
- Vacuoles are is membranal
organelles much more common
in plant cells. These organelles
are made of single layer of
membrane that separates inner
materials from cytoplasm. Inner
cavity is filled by fluid – cell sap.
The sap presses against the
walls of the vacuole, helping
cells to keep their shape.
Another function of this
organelle is to store reserve
materials. It can also play role in
decomposition of food in animal
cells.

- Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a

membranal organelle. It is a
network formed by a system of
single membranes which are
fold up and packed together in
layers. Here, chemical reactions
take place. Ribosomes which are present in the cell either float in cytoplasm, or are attached to ER.
ER wit attached ribosomes is called Rough, without them Smooth.

- Golgi Body is membranal organelle with structure similar to ER It receives materials from ER. and
modify them. It produces specific substances like enzymes for Lysosomes or hormones.

Basic structure of cell – SUMMARY

Types of cells
EUCARYOTIC
PROCARYOTIC
Components Animal Fungal Plant
Cell Wall present none present present
Cell Membrane present present present present
Cytoplasm present present present present
Nucleus simple, 1 mol. DNA with 2 membranes with 2 membranes with 2 membranes
Nucleolus none present present present
Ribosomes just free free, or on E.R. free, or on E.R. free, or on E.R.
Plastids none none present none
Mitochondrions none present present present
Lysosomes none common not common not common
Vacuoles none not common common common
E. Reticulum none present present present
Golgi body none present present present
Centrosome none present present present
VIRUSES – Basic structure of non-cellular organisms

Viruses are often discussed. Some scientists do not consider

them to be organisms since they do not have cells. Other are
sure that they must be organism due their ability to run 7 life
processes by attacking cells. Viruses are in fact intracellular
parasites. They are able to attacking cell, get in to the cell and
then to “live and reproduce”. Viruses attack all types of cells,
both Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic. Viruses attacking Bacterium
are called Bacteriophages and have special structure.

Structure
- the body of viral organism is represented by particle
called virion. Size and shape of virions vary, but they
are far smaller than cells and can be seen just by
using electron microscope
- virion consist of
- in the middle is core, one short molecule nucleic
acid (DNA or RNA)
- protein coat covering core is called capsid. This
determines size and shape of virion.
- some viruses might have envelope - membrane
on the surface of capsid

Life processes
- run during the process of attacking the cells. This is the only way viruses reproduce. Viral
reproduction is called Replication. Whole process can be divided in to following steps:

REPLICATION of virus
1, Attachment – virion attaches to receptors on Cell membrane of host cell.
2, Absorption – cell absorbs the Virion. Cells are trying to prevent from absorbing viruses, but the
membranal envelope helps virus to confuse the cellular receptor. This way the cell
literally “invites the enemy inside”. Absorbed virion is uncoated, which means that
the nucleic acid is released from the capsid to cytoplasm.
3. Replication – viral nucleic acid is implanted to cell Nucleus. Cell produce viral DNA/RNA and
capsids according to viral genetic information.
4. Assembly – newly produced viral components are assembled in to new virions.
5, Release – assembled viruses are released from the cell and can infect other cells. During
leaving, virions might pull Cell membrane and take it with as an envelope.
Basic METABOLISM of CELL
As we know from the previous text, metabolism is the sum of processes in an organism by which
- materials are obtained or produced (input), maintained, and destroyed or excreted (output)
- and by which energy is made available by absorbing or releasing and passed out.

These physical and chemical changes are done mainly by 3 living processes – respiration, feeding
and excretion.

There are 2 types of metabolic processes:

Catabolism – dissimilation, decomposition of chemical substances with releasing of
energy, example: cellular respiration
Anabolism – assimilation, synthesize of chemical substances with consumption of
energy, example: photosynthesis, proteosynthesis

1, MATERIALS – input, maintaining and output

A, Receiving and Passing out = “INPUT” and “OUTPUT” of materials

Everything, that goes in to the cell or out of it must pass selectively permeable Cell membrane. There
are two possibilities how can be substances transported through Cell membrane:

A, Passive transport
- does not involve consumption of energy
- is done by two processes Diffusion and Osmosis

1, Diffusion
In the absence of other forces,
molecules of a substance -
solute will diffuse from where
the solution is more
concentrated to where it is less
concentrated. This happens
also in inorganic systems. Any
substance will diffuse down its
concentration gradient. This
leads to equilibrium and finally
concentration will be same
within whole solution.

If there are the pores in

membrane large enough
and the molecules of
substance small enough,
membrane is not a barrier
for them. The process of
diffusion can run as if
there was no membrane
at all.

2, Osmosis
Osmosis is flow of water
(net water) through
selectively permeable
membrane. Molecules of
substance - solute do not pass through the
membrane. Selectively permeable membrane
is essential, osmosis won’t run in system
without it.
Water molecules always flow through
membrane from the area with lower
concentration to the area with higher
concentration. This leads to equilibrium and
finally concentration of solution will be same
on both sides of membrane. Concentration
gets equal due to change in the amount of
water, as it pass through membrane. The
amount of solute does not change since it
cant pass membrane.
Cytoplasm in always contains some amount of dissolved substances, it is solution. If the cytoplasm
and the liquid surrounding the cell have the same concentration, equal amount of water flows out and
in to the cell by osmosis. This type of liquid surrounding is called Isotonic solution.

Liquid with higher concentration of solute than there is in cytoplasm is called Hypertonic solution. The
cell in this type of solution loses water, because water flows move out from cell by osmosis. Due to
this, in inner pressure in the cell decreases. Change of its shape or even the death might follow. This
process is called Plasmolysis.

In Hypotonic solution, the solute concentration is lower than in the cytoplasm. Cell in this type of
solution will receive water, because water flows into cell by osmosis. That will increase the pressure in
the cell. Shape of the cell might change or cell could even snap. This process is called Plasmoptysis.

B, Active transport
- involve consumption of energy
- is done by protein carriers in Cell membrane, or by vesicles made of Cell membrane

3, Protein carriers
As we know, cell membrane is made of lipids and proteins. Some of these proteins are Carriers. They
have specific structure and function – to transport materials in to the cell.
1, Carrier, which is thicker than membrane and stick out perpendicularly from it
2, external part of Carrier joins with compounds (e.g. saccharide or amino acid) from the
environment
3, Carrier turns by 180°
4, compound is released into the Cytoplasm.

Bond between the carrier and compound is specific, each type of compound can be transported only
by responding carrier. This way the presence of carriers in the membrane determines, what kind of
compounds is cell going to accept. Cell accepts only those compounds that match to its’ carriers,
concentration of compound in the environment is irrelevant.
4, Endocytosis and Exocytosis - vesicles made
by cell membrane

Cells absorb big molecules or solid particles by

a process called Endocytosis.

If the component (bacterium, food) is big, or

made of solid material, the Cell membrane
forms arched folds called Pseudopods. These
wrap and engulf the particle and form a small
membranal bubble called vesicle. This
process is called Phagocytosis. When White
blood cells kill bacterium by “eating” them,
they do the same process – Phagocytosis.

If the component is has a form of solution, the

Cell membrane forms a small “cave” and
“suck” the component in. Small membrane
vesicle is formed. This process is called
Pinocytosis.

In bought cases, the absorbed substance is

accessible for the Cell after breaking down the
membrane of vesicle.

Exocytosis is a reverse of two previous

processes. This way, the Cell gets rids of wastes
or produces secretes. Substance in cytoplasm is enclosed by the membrane. Vesicle is formed and
transported to the Plasma membrane. Both membranes join, the membrane of vesicle becomes part
of Cell membrane and the substance is excreted out.

B, Metamorphosis of materials
Cells receive chemical substances from their environment. To build their bodies and make life
processes run, absorbed substances need to be dissembled (=decomposed) and rebuild. Each
change of chemical substance is related with energy - releasing, bounding and storage of energy. For
more - see Catabolism and Anabolism.

2., ENERGY

As it follows from the definition of anabolism and catabolism, change of materials is closely related
with energy. Energy was already mentioned in transport of materials. Now, if we want to deal with
energy, we must also deal with materials which serve for the cell as energy-storing devices.

A, Receiving - “input” of energy

The first law of thermodynamics states that the total amount of energy in the universe is constant. It
cannot be created or destroyed. It can only change the form. Energy cannot be produced by a cell. It
can only be borrowed from somewhere else. The sources can be:

1. sunlight – for organisms that contain Photosynthetic pigments. Thank to these pigments,
Cyanobacterium and Plants are able to trap energy from the sunlight and produce other own
organic energy-rich compounds. Whole process is called photosynthesis.

2. inorganic chemicals – for organisms that are able to decompose some inorganic chemical and
release energy stored in them. This process is called chemosynthesis. It is relatively rare
(done by some Bacterium Archaea) and often considered to be oldest way of obtaining
energy.

These first two processes, photosynthesis and chemosynthesis are both AUTOTROPHIC types of
getting energy. Autothrophic organisms do not need to “eat” another organisms or organic materials.
Autothrophic organisms use inorganic substances and solar or chemical energy to produce organic
substances.

3. energy-rich organic materials – are source of energy for Heterothrophic organisms. These
organism can obtain energy by decomposing - “eating” other organisms or their organic
products.
Heterotrophic type of getting energy is typical for Animals, Fungi, some Bacterium and Archaea.
These organisms can’t survive without Autotrophic. They are absolutely dependent on energy-rich
organic product, because they cannot trap solar or chemical energy and need to “eat”.
B, Conversion and passing out of the energy in organisms

Energy in organisms changes from one form to another. These

processes are rather similar in all living beings.

Organisms store energy in chemicals like we store energy in batteries.

ATP (Adenosine-triphosphate) is special molecule that can store
energy. Structure of ATP is similar to structure of nucleotide, but with
three phosphates instead of one. If the molecule is decomposed by
releasing one phosphate, energy is released from
energy rich bond. By this, ATP changes to ADP
(adenosine-diphosphate). To synthesize ATP back
again, phosphate must be attached back to ADP.
During this process energy is stored to energy rich
bound.
ATP can store energy only for short periods. It
works like primary source of energy for life
processes. Energy released by decomposition of
these molecules might be used for synthesizing
other organic chemicals such saccharides, lipids
or proteins.

Scheme below describe processes related with

energy conversion that run in all living beings

Energy gained from variable

resources is used to
synthesize molecules of ATP.
ATP is primary resource of
energy. Only energy released
by its decomposing might be
used for life processes.

To deposit the energy for

longer periods, it is
released from ATP
molecule (by
decomposing it) and
used to synthesize
saccarides.
Saccharides are
secondary sources of
energy.

To use energy stored in

saccharides for life
processes,
saccharides must be
decomposed by
respiration and
released energy used
to synthesize ATP.

Energy released from

saccharides might be
also used to
synthesize lipids or
proteins. These
compounds can form
reserves (tertiary
sources of energy)
and energy can be
produced by their
decomposition.

Released energy is used for work: synthesize of molecules and movements.

The second law of thermodynamics states that the each change of energy from one form to another
brings lost of some part of energy - it results in production of heat. Heat is form of energy that is
usually unavailable for organisms and it usually does not help them to maintain life processes.
CELL CYCLE and REPRODUCTION
Reproduction, one of basic life function and is also one of the basic features of Cells. All Cells store
Genetic information in DNA and all reproduce by cell division. However, in different types of
organisms, the amount of DNA and manner of dividing vary a lot.

GENETIC INFORMATION IN CELL

Genetic information stored in DNA, in Chromosomes (molecules of

DNA), in Nucleus.

- nucleus of Prokaryotic cell is made of one chromosome – one

molecule of DNA, that is not separated from cytoplasm.

- Eukaryotic cell have Nucleus which is separated from Cytoplasm

by double membrane layer. It contains several Chromosomes.
When the cell is in a resting state (= that is not dividing, which is
nearly all life of cell) the Chromosomes are long, thin and
bundle-like. In this stage, we are not able to recognize distinct
chromosomes and mass in Nucleus is called Chromatin.
- Chromosomes can be clearly seen just during the division of cell,
moment before and after. Before cell division, Chromosomes
become short and thick.
- after division, chromosome looks like single stick (strands), called
Chromatid divided in to two halves (arms) by Centromere.

- Number, shape and size of Chromosomes are characteristic for each species. Completed group of
chromosomes in cell is called Set. It carries the complete genetic information of organism.
- Unicellular, mainly asexually reproducing organisms have one set of Chromosomes. These cells and
organisms are called Haploid and labeled by [n], where the n means number of chromosomes in the
set.
- Multicellular, mainly sexually reproducing organisms have two sets of Chromosomes in their body
cells (somatic cells). These Cells and organisms are called Diploid, [2n]. But reproductive cells
(Gametes) produced in reproductive organs of these organisms have just one set of chromosomes.
Gametes are haploid, so the offspring (“child”) gets one set from the mother and one from the father.

CELL CYCLE

All life processes in the Cell run happen during the Cell Cycle. Whole cycle can be divided in to 2
phases: Interphase and Cell division, usually labeled as M phase.

1, INTERPHASE
.
- is the “holding” stage or the stage
between two successive cell divisions.
90% of cellular lifetime may be spent in
this phase. The Cell might appear
dormant, but there are many
biochemical processes running within.
The Cell grows, accumulate nutrients
needed for mitosis and duplicate its
DNA
- Interphase might be divided into three
stages

G1 stage
- in this stage, proteins and RNA are
synthesized.
- at the end of this stage, just before
entering into next stage, is G1 Cell
cycle checkpoint. Here, cell makes the key
decision of whether it should continue,
delay next phase, or enter a stage called
G0. In the bodies of multicellular
organisms, lot of cells pass to this stage.
Cells in G0 do not divide anymore and
work in tissues until their death.
 S stage
- is called also synthetic, since DNA synthesis commences at the beginning of this stage. When it is
complete, all of the chromosomes are replicated. Now, each chromosome has two identical
Chromatids called sister Chromatids, connected by Centromere. We can’t see this, because the
Chromosomes are in form of Chromatin, but we can expressed it by 2[2n].
- during this phase, the amount of DNA in the cell has actually doubled. Diploid cell now contains 4
sets of chromosomes – 2 originals and 2 copies of them.

G2 phase
- protein synthesis occurs during this phase, mainly the production of fibrilar structures, which are
necessary throughout the process of a dividing.

2, CELL DIVISION

- is done in two steps. First, the Nucleus divides. That is called Karyokinesis. Then, Cytoplasm and all
organelles included are sorted into 2 groups, each surrounds one Nucleus. Finally, the whole Cell
divides in to two Daughter cells. This is called Cytokinesis.

We distinguish three types of cell division:

Amitosis – direct, linear division, the way the Prokaryotes reproduce. When this type of division
appear in Cell Cycle of Eukaryotic cell, it is pathogenetic symptom.
Mitosis – indirect, non-linear division, that is way the body cells of Eukaryotic organisms
reproduce. It involves a few steps, that’s why we call it indirect.
Meiosis – reducing division, this way the sexual cells develop from body cells. This division
reduces the number of chromosomes from two
set to one, that’s why it’s called reduction.
Amitosis
Prokaryotic organisms have just one Chromosome. It is usually
attached to Cell membrane. Before division, the chromosome is
replicated, and both copies remain attached to the membrane.
During the division, the membrane becomes larger and the Cell
is lengthened. This way, the membrane pulls two chromosomes
apart. Finally, the cell divides. Each daughter Cell gets one
Chromosome.

Mitosis
Before this process, during the S phase DNA in mother (=parent)
cell is replicated and the Chromosomes went from single-
chromatid to double-chromatid (with two sister Chromatids). Cell
became 2[2n].
During mitosis, doubled DNA is divided into two identical sets
(“original” and “copy”) and delivered in to two, identical daughter
cells. The whole process consists of 4 phases.

1,PROHASE

- during this phase chromosomes become

shorter and thicker, so they are visible. Now,
each has two chromatids. This is because of
doubled amount of DNA.
- nucleic membranes break up and disappear
in Cytoplasms
- Centrosome divides into two parts. Protein
fibers are formed between them, and a
structure called Spindle is formed.

2, METAPHASE
- Chromosomes become attached to Spindle
fibers at their Centrosomes, and line up side by
side at the equatorial plain
- after this, double-chromatide Chromosomes
divide, sister Chromatids separate and form
distinct single-chromatide Chromosomes.

This way, original and copy

become separated
 3, ANAPHASE
- single-chromatid Chromosomes are pulled
by shortening of Spindle fibers toward
opposite poles
- at the end, the chromosomes reach the
poles of the Cell. Finally, one pole contains
the same number of chromosomes as
opposite pole. Each pole has two sets [2n].
- Karyokinesis is done

4, TELOPHASE

- the Spine fibres disappear

- nucleic membrane begins to reappear,
chromosomes become longer and thinner.
At the end, they are invisible again and
form mass of Chromatin
- Cytoplasm begins to divide, along with
the organelles in it.
- final step of division - Cytokinesis

At the end of Mitosis, two identical

Daughter Cells are produced.

Meiosis
Before this process, during the S phase DNA in mother (=parent) cell is replicated and the
Chromosomes went from single-chromatid to double-chromatid (with two sister Chromatids). Cell
became 2[2n].
Meiosis consist of two cell divisions, first is called Heterotypical and second Homeotypical. Finally, four
daughter cells are produced, each gain one set of chromosomes – it is Haploid [n].

Heterotypical division.
Diploid parent Cell contains 4 sets of chromosomes, 2 original sets and 2 copies 2[2n]. Stages of
this division are similar to stages of mitosis.

- PROPHASE I (1) is same as prophase of mitosis.

- during METAPHASE I (2), sister Chromatids of Chromosomes remain in couples – they do not
divide. This is key moment and because of this, new cells went haplod.

- in ANAPHASE I (3) and TELOPHASE I (4). In chromosomes, sister Chromatids of remain connected.
Because of this, each new Cell receives just one original set together with its identical copy. It
can be expressed by 2[n]. Since the original sets are not identical, new cells are also not
identical.

After Heterotypical division (5) short period of

inactivity follows. During this period no DNA
replication commerce and cells stay as they are 2[n].
Homeotypical division.
Cells produced in Heterotypical division enter this
division. Both contain 2 sets of chromosomes, one
original set and its identical copy. Stages of this
division are same to stages of mitosis.

- PROPHASE II (6) is same as prophase of mitosis.

- during METAPHASE II (7), Sister Chromatids of

Chromosomes divide - original and copy become
separated.

- ANAPHASE II (8) & TELOPHASE II (9) are identical with

mitosis. Single-chromatide Chromosomes get to
the opposite poles. Thanks to this, each daughter
cell receives 1 set of chromosomes – is haploid
[n]. Couple of cells derived from single is identical
– like original and copy.

(10) All together, 4 Daughter cells are produced from

single mother cell during Meiosis. Each of these
cells contain one set of chromosomes – is Haploid

sexual cell.
DIFFERENTIATION OF CELLS

In multicellular organisms, not all cells are alike. For example, cells that make up the human skin are
different from cells that make up the brain.

At the beginning, nearly all multicellular organisms are made of one single cell called Zygote. It is
formed by fusion of reproductive cells – Gametes. All of the different cell types in the human body are
derived from a single through the process of differentiation.

Differentiation is the process by which an unspecialized cell becomes specialized into one of the many
cells that make up the body, such as a skin, liver, or nerve cell.

During differentiation, certain

parts of DNA get turned off -
inactivated while other parts of
DNA remain switched on, or
activated. Only activated parts
of genetic information regulate
metabolism to make the cell
look the way it is supposed to
look and work the way it is
supposed to work. As a result, a
differentiated cell will develop
specific structures and perform
certain functions.

The Zygotes and first

generations of Daughter cells
are Totipotent, they can create
all types of cells by mitosis and
following differentiation. Later
generations, are Pluripotent.
Pluripotent cells already reach
some level of specialization, but
still can create number of cell
types by mitosis and following
differentiation. These
Pluripotent Cells are called
Stem cells in animals and
Meristematic cells in higher
plants.

Some cells get so specialized,

that the loose ability to divide.
They enter G0 stage of Cell
Cycle (Nerve Cells, Red blood
Cells). Specialized Cells that
have ability to divide can create
only the same type of cell as
their own type (Skin Cells divide
to form new Skin Cells during
scar formation.)