Chapter 1

Limit State Method

CHAPTER HIGHLIGHTS

☞☞ Introduction ☞☞ Characteristic load

☞☞ Methods of design of reinforced concrete ☞☞ Limit state of serviceability

Introduction •• For concrete, a factor of safety of 3 is used. For steel, it is

1.78.
In this chapter, the various methods used for design of rein-
•• In working stress method, the failure criterion is the stress.
forced concrete structures are discussed. The principles of
•• This method is simple and reasonably reliable.
limit state of design and serviceability are also discussed.
The drawbacks of this method are as follows:
Methods of Design of •• This method gives uneconomical sections.
Reinforced Concrete •• Stress strain curve for concrete is assumed as linear,
•• The aim of design is to decide the size of member and which is not true.
amount of reinforcement required, so that the structure •• Factor of safety does not predict the true margin of safety.
will satisfactorily perform during its lifetime at minimum •• The failure criteria assumed is stress, but strain criteria is
cost. the reliable.
•• The following three methods were developed for the
design of reinforced structures.
1. Working stress method
2. Ultimate load method Ultimate Load Method (ULM)
3. Limit state method
or Load Factor Method (LFM)
•• In ultimate load method, the structural members are
Working Stress Method (WSM) designed for ultimate loads which are obtained by multi-
•• In this method, the design is based on elastic theory. plying the working loads with a factor called ‘load factor’.
Hence, the reinforced concrete is assumed as an elastic •• This method uses the actual stress—strain curve of
material. concrete.
•• In working stress method, the structural members are •• In ultimate load method, the failure criterion is based
designed for working loads and design stresses or per- on ultimate strain.
missible stresses in material are obtained by dividing the •• This method gives economical sections and also true mar-
ultimate stress by a factor called ‘factor of safety’. gin of safety.

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•• The only drawback of this method is excessive cracking

and deformation, fails to satisfy the serviceability and
durability criteria.

Frequency
Limit State Method (LSM) 45% Area
•• In limit state method, the structural elements are designed 5% Area
for ultimate load and checked for serviceability (i.e.,
deflections, cracking, etc.) at working loads, so that the
structure is fit for using throughout its life period. fm k = 1.64 fc
•• The acceptable limit for safety against strength and ser- Load
viceability requirements before failure occurs is called
‘limit state’.
•• Characteristic load (  fc) = fm + k S
•• The loads and strength of materials, i.e., the characteristic
values are estimated by probabilistic approach. f c = f m +1.64 S
•• The design loads and design strengths are obtained from
characteristic values through the use of partial safety
factors. Where
•• Two important limit states to be considered in the design ∑ Fi
are limit state of collapse and limit state of serviceability. fm : Mean load =
n

Limit State of Collapse Σ( f m − fi ) 2

S : Standard deviation =
A structure is said to have collapsed if the material ruptures n −1
at one or more critical sections or loss of overall stability
due to buckling or overturning. •• As statistical data of loads is not available, dead loads
This limit state may correspond to: given in IS:875 (part-1), imposed loads given in IS:875
(part-2), wind loads given in IS:875 (part-3), snow
1. Flexure loads given in IS:875 (part-4) and seismic forces in
2. Shear IS:1893 shall be assumed as characteristic load as per
3. Compression IS:456–2000.
4. Torsion
Characteristic Strength of Materials
Limit State of Serviceability
This limit state relates to the performance of structure at •• Characteristic strength is defined as the strength below
working loads. which not more than 5% of the test results are expected
This limit state may correspond to: to fall.
•• It is based on statistical analysis, and it also follows nor-
1. Deflection mal distribution.
2. Cracking
3. Other limit states (i.e., vibration, fire-resistance,
durability)
Frequency

Characteristic Load 45% Area

•• The maximum working load that the structure has to 5% Area
withstand and, for which it has to be designed is called
Fc
‘characteristic load’.
k = 1.64 fm
•• The characteristic loads are calculated based on statistical Strenth
analysis and follows normal distribution.
•• As per the code, the characteristic load is defined as the Characteristic strength
value of load which has 95% of probability of not being
exceeded during the life of structure. Characteristic strength (Fc) = mean strength (  fm) - 1. 64S
•• Normal distribution means, distribution symmetric about
mean value are as follows: Fc = Fm −1.64 S

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 Chapter 1 ■ Limit State Method | 3.319

Where
SOLVED EXAMPLE
Fm: Mean strength
S : Standard deviation Example 1
•• For concrete, characteristic strength is compressive Un-factored maximum bending moments at a section of a
strength of 150 mm cubes of 28 days in N/mm2, below reinforced concrete beam resulting from a frame analysis are
which not more than 5% of test results are expected to fall. 50, 80, 120 and 180 kN-m under dead, live, wind and earth-
•• Concrete grades are specified based on this strength. quake loads. The design moment (kN-m) as per IS:456–
•• For steel, the minimum yield strength or 0.2% proof 2000, for limit state of collapse (in flexure), is:
strength is taken as the characteristic strength of steel. (A) 195 (B) 250
(C) 345 (D) 372
 [GATE, 2008]
Design Values and Partial Safety Factors
Solution
Material Given:
The design strength of materials is obtained by dividing Dead Load (DL) = 50 kN-m
the characteristic strength by a factor called ‘partial safety Live Load (LL) = 80 kN-m
factor’. Wind Load (WL) = 120 kN-m
Earthquake Load (EL) = 180 kW-m
Characteristic strength ( f ) If both wind load and earthquake load are acting considering
Design strength( f d ) =
Partial safety factor maximum of two. Therefore, consider earthquake load.
Design moment (kN-m) = (characteristic load) × g f
The values of partial safety factors recommended by gf : Depends on load combination .
IS:456–2000 are given in the following table.
For DL + LL:
Partial Safety Factors for Material Strengths, gm (as per fd = 1.5DL + 1.5LL
IS:456–2000)
= 1.5(50) + 1.5(80)
Limit State of Limit State of
Material Collapse Serviceability fd = 195 kN-m (1)
Steel 1.15 1.0 For DL + EL:
Concrete 1.5 1.0 fd = 1.5DL + 1.5EL
= 1.5(50) + 1.5(180)
Loads fd = 345 kN-m (2)
Design loads or factored loads, for which the structure is to For DL + LL + EL:
be designed, are obtained by multiplying the characteristic
fd = (1.2)(DL) + 1.2)(LL) + (1.2)(EL)
load with a factor called ‘partial safety factor’.
= (1.2)(50) + (1.2)(80) + (1.2)(180)
Design load ( fd) = Characteristic load (  fc) × Partial safety fd = 372 kN-m (3)
factor(gf)
\ Design moment (  fd) is maximum of (1), (2), (3).
The values of partial safety factors recommended by \ fd = 372 kN-m.
IS:456–2000 are given in the following table. Hence, the correct answer is Option (D).
Partial Safety Factor for Loads, gf
Load
Combination Limit State of Collapse
Limit State of
Serviceability
Limit State of Serviceability
DL LL WL DL LL WL Deflection Limits as per IS:456–2000
DL + LL 1.5 1.5 - 1.0 1.0 - The following criteria are adopted in IS:456, for ensuring
DL + WL 1.5 or 0.9* - 1.5 1.0 - 1.0 proper performance of beams and slabs.
DL + LL + WL 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.8 •• The final deflection due to all loads (including the effects
of temperature, creep and shrinkage) should not exceed
•• This value is to be used when stability against overturning span/250. This limitation is to control the cracks.
or stress reversal is critical. •• The deflection occurring after the construction of finishes
•• While considering earthquake load (EL), substitute EL and partitions (including the effects of temperature, creep
for WL. and shrinkage) should not exceed span/350 or 20 mm
•• If EL and WL, both are acting as structure, consider max- whichever is less. This limit is intended to avoid damage
imum of two. of partitions and finishes.

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Deflection in RC members may be divided into two Support Conditions leff/d

types. These can be described as follows.
Span 10 m Span > 10 m
1. Short-term deflection
Cantilever 7 Deflection calculation
2. Long-term deflection should be made

Short-term Deflection Simply supported 20 (20 × 10)/span

Short-term or instantaneous deflection caused by the service Continuous 26 (26 × 10)/span
loads may be calculated by using the elastic theory using
short-term modulus of elasticity and effective moment of
2. For two way slabs, the basic values of l/D are given
inertia (Ieff).
as under for spans up to 3.5 m and for maximum live
For example, a simply supported beam is subjected to a
load up to 3 kN-m2.
central point load (P), the maximum deflection at center is
PL3
given by: (δ ) = . Types of Slabs Type of Reinforcement
48 EI
To get short-term deflection, replace E by Ec and I Fe250 HYSD
by Ieff. This is a theoretical method of calculating short
term-deflection. Simply supported slabs 35 0.8 × 35

Continuous slabs 40 0.8 × 40

Long-term Deflection
•• It mainly consists of deflection due to shrinkage and
3. Depending upon the area and the stress in tension or
creep.
compression reinforcement, the above values are to
•• Deflection due to shrinkage depends on support condi-
be modified with some factors called ‘modification
tions, shrinkage strain, overall depth of section, percent-
factor’.
age of tension and compression reinforcement and length
of beam.   The graphs for various modification factors (K1,
•• Approximate value of shrinkage strain of concrete is K2, K3) are shown below.
0.0003.
•• Deflection due to creep depends only upon the permanent 2.0
loads (perm).
•• Deflection due to creep may be calculated from the fol- 1.6
fs: 120
lowing equation.
fs: 145
1.2
acc ( perm) = ai ,cc ( perm) − ai ( perm) fs: 190
fs: 240
0.8
fs: 290
Where
acc(perm) = Creep deflection due to permanent loads. 0.4
ai,cc(perm) = Initial plus creep deflection due to perma-
nent loads obtained using an elastic analysis with an 0
0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.8 3.0
effective modulus of elasticity (Ece).
Ece = Long-term modulus of elasticity. Percentage tension reinforcement

Modification factor for tension reinforcement (K1)

EC
Ece =
1+θ
1.5
Modification factors (k1)

q = Creep coefficient depends on age of loading. 1.4

ai(perm) = Short-term deflection due to permanent load 1.3
using Ec. 1.2
1.1
1.0
Alternate Method of Ensuring Limit State
Requirement of Deflection 0 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.0 2.50 3.0
Code provisions Percentage Compression Reinforcement

1. Basic values of span to effective depth ratios for Modification factor for compression
rectangular beams and slabs: reinforcement (K2)

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 Chapter 1 ■ Limit State Method | 3.321

1.00 Limit State of Serviceability—Cracking

0.95 IS:456–2000 specifies the following acceptable limits of
crack widths keeping in mind that cracking should not affect
0.90
the appearance or durability of the structure.
Reduction

0.85
•• 0.3 mm in members, where cracking is not harmful to the
0.80
durability of the strcture.
0.75 •• 0.2 mm in members continuously exposed to moisture or
in contact with soil or water.
0.70
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.10 •• 0.1 mm in members exposed to aggressive environment.
Ratio of web width to flange width

Modification factor for flanged beams (K3)

Important Points
NOTES •• Concrete and steel exhibits reduced strength after being
1. The value of modification factor (K1) decreases subjected to high temperature.
with increase in stress for the same percentage •• Durability depends on condition of exposure, quality
tension reinforcement. Thereafter, the deflection of concrete, cover to steel reinforcement and width of
will increase with increase in stress. cracks.
2. As the value of percentage compression rein-
forcement increases, the modification factor
(K2) value increases and, thus, decreases the
deflection.
3. In case of flanged beams, the modification factor
(K3) is less compared to value of modification
factor for rectangular beams. Thus, from deflec-
tion point of view, flanged beams are more effec-
tive compared to rectangular beams.
4. However, from overall point of view, flanged
beams are more efficient compared to rectangu-
lar beams.

Exercises

1. The factored loads at the limit state of collapse for DL of Dead Load (DL), imposed load or live load (IL),
+ LL, DL + WL, and DL + LL + WL combinations, wind load (WL) and earthquake load (EL). Which of
according to IS:456–2000 are respectively the following load combination is not considered?
(A) 1.5DL + 1.5LL, 1.2DL + 1.2WL, 1.5DL + 1.5LL (A) 0.9DL + 1.5WL
+ 1.5WL (B) 1.5DL + 1.5WL
(B) (0.9 or 1.5)DL + 1.5LL, 1.5DL + 1.5WL, 1.2DL (C) 1.5DL + 1.5WL + 1.5EL
+ 1.2LL + 1.2WL (D) 1.2DL + 1.2IL + 1.2WL
(C) 1.2DL + 1.2LL, 1.5DL + 1.5WL, 1.5DL + 1.5LL 4. The partial factor of safety for concrete as per IS:456–
+ 1.5WL 2000 is
(D) 1.5DL + 1.5LL, (0.9 or 1.5)DL + 1.5WL, 1.2DL + (A) 1.50 (B) 1.15
1.2LL + 1.2WL (C) 0.87 (D) 0.446
2. The characteristic strength of concrete is defined as that 5. In a random sampling procedure for cube strength
compressive strength below which not more than of concrete, one sample consists of X number of
(A) 10% of results fall specimens. These specimens are tested at 28 days and
(B) 5% of results fall average strength of these X specimens is considered
(C) 2% of results fall as test result of the sample, provided the individual
(D) None of these variation in the strength of specimens is not more than
3. For avoiding the limit state of the collapse, the safety of Y percent of the average strength. The value of X and Y
RC structures is checked for appropriate combination as per IS:456–2000 are

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(A) 4 and 10 respectively (A) to ensure compression failure.

(B) 3 and 10 respectively (B) to avoid rupture of steel in case a flexural failure
(C) 4 and 15 respectively occurs.
(D) 3 and 15 respectively (C) to hold the stirrup steel in position.
6. If the characteristic strength of concrete fck is defined (D) to provide enough ductility to the beam.
as the strength below which not more than 50% of the 14. The working stress method of design specifies the value
test result are expected to fall, the expression for fck 280
in terms of mean strength fm and standard deviation s of modular ratio, m = , where scbc is the allow-
(3σ cbc )
would be able stress in bending compression in concrete. To what
(A) fm − 0.16455 (B) fm − 1.645S extent does the above value of ‘m’ make any allowance
(C) fm (D) fm + 1.645S for the creep of concrete?
7. The stress-stain curve of the concrete as per IS:456 is (A) No compensation
(A) a perfect straight line upto failure. (B) Full compensation
(B) straight line upto 0.002 strain value and then para- (C) Partial compensation
bolic upto failure. (D) The two are unrelated
(C) parabolic upto 0.002 strain value and then uniform 15. Minimum grade of concrete for structural purpose
upto failure. (A) M15 (B) M20
(D) linear upto 0.002 strain and uniform upto failure. (C) M25 (D) M30
8. The characteristic strength of concrete is 16. Minimum percentage of steel in both directions in a
(A) higher than the average cube strength. slab when HYSD bars are used is _____% of (bD).
(B) lower than the average cube strength. (A) 0.1% (B) 0.15%
(C) the same as the average cube strength. (C) 0.12% (D) 0.2%
(D) higher than 90% of the average cube strength.
17. In the limit state design of serviceability the deflection
9. The span to depth ratio limit is specified in IS:456– after erection of partitions and erection of finishes is
2000 for the reinforced concrete beams, in order to limited to
ensure that the (A) span/250 (B) span/325
(A) tensile crack width is below a limit. (C) span/350 (D) span/150
(B) shear failure is avoided.
18. Calcium lignosulphate is an example of
(C) stress in the tension reinforcement is less than the
(A) retarder (B) accelerator
allowable value.
(C) dispersal agent (D) hardness agent
(D) deflection of the beam is below a limiting value.
19. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer
10. The final deflection due to all including effects of
from the codes given below.
temperature, creep and shrinkage measured from a
cast level of the supports of floors, roofs and all other List I (Admixtures) List II (Example)
horizontal members of reinforced concrete should not P. Retarder 1. Volcanic Tuff
normally exceed Q. Accelerator 2. Natural wood resins
(A) span/350 R. Pozzolona 3. Calcium sulphate
(B) span/250 S. Air entraining agent 4. Calcium chloride
(C) span/350 or 20 mm whichever is less Codes:
(D) 5/384 of span P Q R S P QRS
11. In the limit state design of serviceability the deflection (A) 1 2 3 4 (B) 1 2 4 3
after erection of partitions and application of finishes is (C) 3 4 1 2 (D) 2 1 3 4
restricted to
20. Consider the following statements regarding the
(A) span/350 (B) span/250
Portland Puzzolana Cement:
(C) span/325 (D) span/150
I. It produces less heat of hydration.
12. Which one of the following set of values gives the min- II. Addition of Pozzolano does not contribute to the
imum clear cover (in mm) for the main reinforcements strength at early stages.
in the slab, beam, column and footing respectively, III. Strength of this cement at any time is always less
according to IS:456–2000? than the strength of the Portland cement.
(A) 20, 25, 40, 50 (B) 5, 15, 25, 50 IV. It is particularly useful in marine and hydraulic
(C) 15, 25, 40, 75 (D) None of these construction.
13. IS 456–2000 recommends providing certain minimum (A) I, II, III are correct
steel in a RCC beam (B) II, III, IV are correct

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 Chapter 1 ■ Limit State Method | 3.323

(C) I, III, IV are correct 25. In limit state method of design of concrete structures;
(D) I, II, IV are correct stress is assumed to be linear up to ______.
21. Unfactored maximum bending moments at a section of (A) failure
a reinforced concrete beam resulting from a frame anal- (B) proportionality limit
ysis are 330, 420 and 150 kN-m under dead, live and (C) elastic limit
wind loads respectively. The design moment (kN-m) as (D) None of these
per IS:456: 2000 for the limit state of collapse is 26. For a given concrete of M20 mix and creep coefficient
(A) 720 kN-m (B) 840 kN-m of 1.6; Consider the following statements.
(C) 1125 kN-m (D) 1530 kN-m I. Flexural strength of the concrete is 3.13 N/mm2
22. In under reinforced concrete beam, which of the fol- II. Short term modulus of elasticity of the concrete is
lowing statements are correct? 22.36 kN/mm2
I. Actual depth of neutral axis is less than the critical III. Long term modulus of elasticity of the concrete is
depth of neutral axis. 8.6 kN/mm2
II. Concrete reaches ultimate stress prior to steel reach- 27. Un-factored maximum bending moments at a section
ing the ultimate stress. of RC beam under dead, live wind and earthquake loads
III. Moment of resistance is less than that of balanced are given as 60, 90, 130 and 190 kN-m respectively.
section. Then find the design moment (in kN-m) as per IS:456–
IV. Lever arm of resisting couple is less than the bal- 2000 for the limit state of collapse? ______.
anced section. (A) 308 (B) 408
(A) I and II only (B) I and III only (C) 508 (D) 608
(C) II, III and IV (D) I, II and IV 28. Factor of safety (FOS) adopted for concrete and steel as
23. Maximum depth of Neutral axis, xu, max depends on per working stress method of design is ________.
______. (A) 3 and 1.15 (B) 1.5 and 1.15
(A) grade of concrete (C) 1.5 and 1.78 (D) 3 and 1.78
(B) grade of steel 29. The main reinforcement of a RC slab consisting of 10
(C) grade of concrete and steel mm bars at 10 cm spacing. It is desired to replace 10
(D) independent of material grades mm bars by 12 mm bars, then the spacing of 12 mm
24. For an axially loaded short column, the maximum com- bars in mm would be _______.
pressive strain in concrete is _______. (A) 123 mm (B) 143 mm
(A) 0.0035 (C) 163 mm (D) 183 mm
(B) 0.002 30. Reinforced concrete slab is 75 mm thick. The maxi-
fy
(C) 0.002 + mum size of reinforcement bar that can be used is of
1.15 Es (A) 6 mm diameter (B) 8 mm diameter
(D) 0.035 (C) 10 mm diameter (D) 12 mm diameter

Previous Years’ Questions

1. Unfactored maximum bending moments at a section 3. As per IS:456–2000, in the limit state design of a
of a reinforced concrete beam resulting from a frame flexural member, the strain in reinforcing bars under
analysis are 50, 80, 120 and 180 kN-m under Dead, tension at ultimate state should not be less than
Live, Wind and Earthquake loads respectively. The  [GATE, 2012]
design moment (kN-m) as per IS:456–2000 for the f f
limit state of collapse (flexure) is [GATE, 2008] (A) (B) + 0.002
E E
(A) 195 (B) 250
(C) 345 (D) 372 f f
(C) (D) + 0.002
1.15 E 1.15 E
2. For limit state of collapse, the partial safety factors
recommended by IS:456–2000 for estimating the 4. The creep strains are [GATE, 2013]
design strength of concrete and reinforcing steel are (A) caused due to dead loads only
respectively  [GATE, 2009] (B) caused due to live loads only
(A) 1.15 and 1.5 (B) 1.0 and 1.0 (C) caused due to cyclic loads only
(C) 1.5 and 1.15 (D) 1.5 and 1.0 (D) independent of loads

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5. The target mean strength fcm for concrete mix design (B) initial tangent modulus
obtained from the characteristic strength fck and stand- (C) secant modulus
ard deviation σ, as defined in IS:456–2000 is (D) chord modulus
 [GATE, 2014] 7. According to the concept of Limit State Design as per
(A) fck + 1.35σ (B) fck + 1.45σ IS:456-2000, the probability of failure of a structure
is ________. [GATE, 2015]
(C) fck + 1.55σ (D) fck + 1.65σ
6. The modulus of elasticity, E = 5000 fck where fck 8. For M25 concrete with creep coefficient of 1.5, the
is the characteristic compressive strength of concrete, long-term static modulus of elasticity (expressed
specified in IS:456–2000 is based on [GATE, 2014] in MPa) as per the provisions of IS:456–2000
(A) tangent modulus is ________. [GATE, 2016]

Answer Keys

Exercises
1. D 2. B 3. C 4. A 5. D 6. C 7. C 8. B 9. B 10. B
11. A 12. A 13. D 14. C 15. B 16. C 17. C 18. A 19. C 20. D
21. C 22. B 23. B 24. B 25. B 26. D 27. B 28. D 29. B 30. B

Previous Years’ Questions

1. D 2. C 3. D 4. A 5. D 6. B 7. 0.09 to 0.10 8. 10000

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