1.

SPECIFIC RESISTANCE OF THE MATERIAL OF THE COIL USING 𝑹l

5. By using the formula , 𝑿𝟐 = unknown resistance X2 is calculated.
METRE BRIDGE (𝟏𝟎𝟎 −l )
AIM: To determine the specific resistance of the material of the given coil using 6. Average of X1 and X2 gives X.
metre bridge. 7. From the values of X, r and L, using the formula the specific resistance of the
material of the wire is calculated.
APPARATUS REQUIRED : Meter bridge, galvanometer, key, resistance box,
connecting wires, Lechlanche cell, jockey and high resistance. OBSERVATION
Formula: Length of the coil L=1.5 m
Table 1 To find the resistance of the given coil

ρ → Specific resistance of the given coil (Ω m)

X → Resistance of the given coil (Ω)
L → Length of the coil (m)
r → Radius of the wire (m)
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Table 2 To find the radius of the wire

PROCEDURE
1. Connections are given as shown in the circuit.
2. By connecting, Known resistance R in the left gap and the unknown resistance X
in the right gap, balancing length l is found.
𝑹 (𝟏𝟎𝟎 −l )
3. By using the formula , 𝑿𝟏 = ,unknown resistance X1 is calculated.
l
4. By connecting, Known resistance R in the right gap and the unknown resistance
X in the left gap, balancing length l is found.

1.Metre bridge Jaya Physics – Youtube S.Jayachandran PG.Asst, GHSS, Manali, Thiruvallur dT, 9840430109 Page 1
 IV. To determine the specific resistance of the
CALCULATION material of the given coil
I. To Calculate X1

III.To calculate mean resistance X

Result:
The specific resistance of the material of the
given coil 𝝆 = 𝟓. 𝟐𝟖 𝐱𝟏𝟎−𝟕 (Ωm)

II. To Calculate X2

1.Metre bridge Jaya Physics – Youtube S.Jayachandran PG.Asst, GHSS, Manali, Thiruvallur dT, 9840430109 Page 2
 2. HORIZONTAL COMPONENT OF EARTH’S PROCEDURE To calculate Mean I/tanθ
MAGNETIC FIELD USING TANGENT 1. Connections are given as shown in the circuit.
GALVANOMETER
2. After doing all initial adjustments, aluminium
AIM :To determine the horizontal component of the
pointer is made to read 00 - 0° in the compass box.
Earth’s magnetic field using tangent galvanometer. 3. By passing suitable current in the TG, deflections θ1
APPARATUS REQUIRED : Tangent galvanometer and θ2 of the aluminium pointer are noted in the tabular
(TG), commutator, battery, rheostat, ammeter, key column.
and connecting wires. 4. By using commutator, current in the TG is reversed
and deflections θ3 and θ4 of the aluminium pointer are
FORMULA: noted in the tabular column.
5. Average of θ1 , θ2 ,θ3 and θ4 gives θ.
6. Reduction Factor k of TG is calculated.
7. By measuring the circumference of the coil using a
thread, radius of the circular coil is found.
8. From the values of r, n and k, the horizontal
𝑩𝑯 →Horizontal component of the Earth’s component of Earth’s magnetic field is calculated.
magnetic field (T)
−7 −1
µ𝟎→ Permeability of free space (4π × 10 Hm ) OBSERVATION
n → Number of turns of TG in the circuit(No unit)
k → Reduction factor of TG (A)
r → Radius of the coil (m)
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM To calculate BH

Number of turns of the coil n = 2

Circumference of the coil 2πr = 𝟓𝟎 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟐
𝟓𝟎 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 𝟓𝟎 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟐
Bt- Battery K-Key Diameter of the coil 2r = =
𝝅 𝟑.𝟏𝟒
Rh-Rheostat A-Ammeter RESULT
𝟐𝒓 = 𝟏𝟓. 𝟗𝟐𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟐
C-commutator The horizontal component of Earth’s magnetic field
TG-Tangent Galvanometer is found to be 𝟐. 𝟗𝟎 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 tesla

2.Tangent Galvanometer Jaya Physics – Youtube S.Jayachandran PG.Asst, GHSS, Manali, Thiruvallur dT, 9840430109 Page 3
 3. COMPARISON OF EMF OF TWO CELLS PROCEDURE
USING POTENTIOMETER 1. Connections are given as shown in the circuit.
AIM: To compare the emf of the given two cells 2. Using the DPDT switch, Lechlanche cell is included
using a potentiometer. in the circuit.
3. By sliding the jockey on the potentiometer wire, the
APPARATUS REQUIRED: Battery eliminator, key,
balancing point is found and the corresponding
rheostat, DPDT switch, Lechlanche and Daniel cells,
balancing length l𝟏 is measured.
galvanometer, high resistance box, pencil jockey and
4. Using the DPDT switch, Daniel cell is included in the
connecting wires.
circuit.
5. By sliding the jockey on the potentiometer wire, the
balancing length l𝟐 is measured for Daniel cell.
FORMULA:
6. By using the formula , the ratio of emf of
the two cells is calculated
𝛆𝟏 is the emf of Lechlanche cell (volt) 7. The experiment is repeated for different sets of
𝛆𝟐 is the emf of Daniel cell (volt) balancing lengths by adjusting the rheostat
l𝟏 is the balancing length for Lechlanche cell (cm)
OBSERVATION
l𝟐 is the balancing length for Daniel cell (cm)
To find the ratio of emf of two cells
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

RESULT
Ratio of emf of the given two cells = 1.321 (no unit)

CALCULATION

Bt- Battery CD-Potentiometer

K-Key Rh-Rheostat
G-Galvanometer HR-High Resistance
J-Jockey

3.Potentiometer Jaya Physics – Youtube S.Jayachandran PG.Asst, GHSS, Manali, Thiruvallur dT, 9840430109 Page 4
 4. REFRACTIVE INDEX OF THE MATERIAL OF THE PRISM

AIM: To determine the refractive index of the material of a prism using

spectrometer.
APPARATUS REQUIRED: Spectrometer, prism, prism clamp, sodium vapour
lamp, spirit level.
FORMULA:
𝐀+𝐃
𝐒𝐢𝐧 ( 𝟐 )
𝐧=
𝐀
𝐒𝐢𝐧
𝟐
n → Refractive index of the material of the
prism (No unit)
A → Angle of the prism (degree)
D → Angle of minimum deviation (degree)

PROCEDURE
1. Initial adjustments of the spectrometer are made.
Angle of Prism
2. Light from collimator is made to fall on both reflecting surfaces of the prism.
3. Telescope is rotated on both sides of direct ray to see reflected image of slit
4. Both Vernier readings A and B are noted for two reflected image of slit.
5. Difference between two readings gives 2A from which Angle of prism (A) is
calculated.
Angle of Minimum Deviation
6. Light from collimator is made to fall on only one refracting surface of the prism.
7. Telescope is rotated to see refracted image of slit and Prism table is adjusted to be
at minimum deviation position.
8. Vernier readings A and B are noted for minimum deviation position and also for
direct ray.
9. Difference between two readings gives Angle of minimum deviation (D).
𝐀+𝐃
𝐒𝐢𝐧( )
𝟐
10. From the values of A and D, using the formula 𝐧= 𝐀 , the refractive
𝐒𝐢𝐧
𝟐
index of the material of a prism is calculated.

4.Prism Jaya Physics – Youtube S.Jayachandran PG.Asst, GHSS,Manali, Thiruvallur dT, 9840430109 Page 5
CALCULATION III. To Calculate refractive index of the material of a 5. WAVELENGTH OF THE CONSTITUENT
I. To Calculate Angle of prism A prism n COLOURS OF A COMPOSITE LIGHT USING
DIFFRACTION GRATING
AIM: To find the wavelength of the constituent
colours of a composite light using diffraction grating
and spectrometer
APPARATUS REQUIRED Spectrometer, mercury
vapour lamp, diffraction grating, grating table, and
spirit level.
FORMULA:

𝛌 →Wavelength of the constituent colours of

mercury light (𝐀𝟎 )
𝐍 →Number of lines per metre length of
grating(/m)
n →order of diffraction (No unit)
θ→ angle of diffraction (degree)

II. To Calculate Angle of Minimum Deviation D

PROCEDURE
1. Initial adjustments of spectrometer are done.
2. Grating is mounted on prism table and set for Normal
incidence position.
3. Telescope is rotated on both sides of direct ray to see
first order diffracted Blue, green, yellow and red images
of slit.
4. Both Vernier readings A and B are noted for each
RESULT diffracted image of slit on both sides of direct ray.
1. Angle of the Prism (A) = 𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟓′
5. Difference between two verniers gives 2Ɵ, from
2. Angle of the minimum deviation
which, angle of diffraction (Ɵ) is calculated.
of the prism (D) = 𝟑𝟗𝟎 𝟑′
3. Refractive index of the material 6. Knowing N, n and Ɵ, and using the formula
of the Prism 𝐧 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟏𝟗 (No unit)
wavelength of blue, green, yellow and
red spectral lines are calculated.
4 Prism and & 5 Grating Jaya Physics – Youtube S.Jayachandran PG.Asst, GHSS,Manali, Thiruvallur dT, 9840430109 Page 6
OBSERVATION To find the of wave length of prominent colours the mercury spectrum

Calculation

RESULT
1. The wavelength of blue
line = 𝟒𝟑𝟑𝟒𝑨𝟎
2. The wavelength of green
line = 𝟓𝟑𝟔𝟎𝑨𝟎
3. The wavelength of yellow
line = 𝟓𝟔𝟗𝟐𝑨𝟎
4. The wavelength of red
line = 𝟕𝟎𝟐𝟎𝑨𝟎

5.Grating Jaya Physics – Youtube S.Jayachandran PG.Asst,GHSS,Manali,Thiruvallur dT, 9840430109 Page 7

 6.VOLTAGE-CURRENT CHARACTERISTICS PROCEDURE
OF A PN JUNCTION DIODE i) Forward bias characteristics OBSERVATION
AIM: To draw the voltage-current (V-I) characteristics 1. In the forward bias, the P- region of the diode is Table 1 Forward bias characteristic curve
of the PN junction diode and to determine forward connected to the positive terminal and N-region
resistance to the negative terminal of the DC power supply.
APPARATUS REQUIRED PN junction diode 2. The connections are given as per the circuit
(IN4007), variable DC power supply, milli-ammeter, diagram.
micro-ammeter, voltmeter, resistance and connecting 3. The forward voltage (VF) across the diode is
wires. increased from 0.1 V in steps of 0.1 V up to 0.8 V
and the forward current (IF) through the diode is
FORMULA noted from the milli-ammeter. The readings are
tabulated.
4. A graph is drawn taking the forward voltage
𝑹𝑭 → Forward resistance of the diode (Ω) (VF) along the x-axis and the forward current
∆𝑽𝑭 → The change in forward voltage (volt) (IF) along the y-axis.
∆𝑰𝑭 → The change in forward current (mA) 5. The reciprocal of the slope in the linear portion
of the forward characteristics gives the forward
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM resistance of the diode.

Reverse bias characteristics Table 2 Reverse bias characteristic curve

1. In the reverse bias, P- region of the diode is
connected to the negative terminal and N-region
to the positive terminal of the DC power supply
2. The connections are made as given in the circuit
diagram.
3. The reverse voltage (VR) across the diode is
increased from 0.5 V in steps of 0.5 V up to 5 V and
the reverse current (IR) through the diode is noted
from the micro-ammeter. The readings are
tabulated.
4. A graph is drawn taking the reverse bias voltage
(VR) along negative x-axis and the reverse bias
current (IR) along negative y-axis.

6.Junction diode Jaya Physics – Youtube S.Jayachandran PG.Asst,GHSS,Manali,Thiruvallur dT, 9840430109 8

 CALCULATION

RESULT
The V-I characteristics of the junction diode are
studied.
1. Forward resistance of the PN junction diode
RF = 40 Ω
2. Knee voltage of the PN junction diode = 0.5V

6.Junction diode Jaya Physics – Youtube S.Jayachandran PG.Asst,GHSS,Manali,Thiruvallur dT, 9840430109 9

 7.VOLTAGE-CURRENT CHARACTERISTICS PROCEDURE OBSERVATION
OF A ZENER DIODE i) Forward bias characteristics Table 1 Forward bias characteristic curve
AIM: To draw the voltage-current (V-I) characteristics 1. In the forward bias, the P- region of the Zener
of the Zener diode and to determine its knee voltage, diode is connected to the positive terminal and
forward resistance and reverse breakdown voltage. N-region to the negative terminal of the DC
APPARATUS REQUIRED Zener diode 1Z5.6V, power supply.
variable dc power supply (0 – 15V), milli ammeter, volt 2. The connections are given as per the circuit
meter, 470 Ω resistance, and connecting wires. diagram.
FORMULA 3. The forward voltage (VF) across the diode is
increased from 0.1 V in steps of 0.1 V up to 0.8 V
and the forward current (IF) through the diode is
noted from the milli-ammeter. The readings are
tabulated.
𝑹𝑭 → Forward resistance of the diode (Ω) 4. A graph is drawn taking the forward voltage
∆𝑽𝑭 → The change in forward voltage (volt) (VF) along the x-axis and the forward current
∆𝑰𝑭 → The change in forward current (mA) (IF) along the y-axis. Table 2 Reverse bias characteristic curve
5. The reciprocal of the slope in the linear portion
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM of the forward characteristics gives the forward
resistance of the Zener diode.

Reverse bias characteristics

1. In the reverse bias, P- region of the Zener diode is
connected to the negative terminal and N-region
to the positive terminal of the DC power supply
2. The connections are made as given in the circuit
diagram.
3. The reverse voltage (VR) across the diode is
increased from 0.5 V in steps of 0.5 V up to 6 V and
the reverse current (IR) through the diode is noted
from the milli-ammeter. The readings are tabulated.
4. A graph is drawn taking the reverse bias voltage
(VR) along negative x-axis and the reverse bias
current (IR) along negative y-axis.

7 Zener diode Jaya Physics – Youtube S.Jayachandran PG.Asst, GHSS, Manali, Thiruvallur dT, 9840430109 Page 10
CALCULATION
RESULT
The V-I characteristics of the Zener diode are
studied.
1. Forward resistance of the zener diode
RF = 7.1 Ω
Knee voltage of the Zener diode = 0.7 V
2. The breakdown voltage of the Zener diode 𝑽𝒁 = −𝟓. 𝟔 𝑽

7 Zener diode Jaya Physics – Youtube S.Jayachandran PG.Asst, GHSS, Manali, Thiruvallur dT, 9840430109 Page 11
8. CHARACTERISTICS OF A NPN-JUNCTION PROCEDURE Input characteristics
TRANSISTOR IN COMMON EMITTER The connections are given as shown in the diagram.
CONFIGURATION I. Input characteristic curve:
AIM: To study the characteristics and to determine 𝑽𝑩𝑬 vs 𝑰𝑩 (𝑽𝑪𝑬 constant)
the current gain of a NPN junction transistor in 1. The collector-emitter voltage 𝑉𝐶𝐸 is kept constant.
common emitter configuration. 2. The base-emitter voltage 𝑉𝐵𝐸 is varied in steps of
APPARATUS REQUIRED: Transistor - BC 0.1V and the corresponding base current (𝐼𝐵 ) is
548/BC107, bread board, micro ammeter, milli noted.
ammeter, voltmeters, variable DC power supply and 3. The experiment is repeated for different value of
connecting wires. 𝑉𝐶𝐸 .
FORMULA 4. A graph is plotted by taking 𝑉𝐵𝐸 along x-axis and
𝐼𝐵 along y-axis for all the values of 𝑉𝐶𝐸 .
5. The reciprocal of the slope of these curves gives
the input impedance of the transistor. Output characteristics
II. Output characteristic curve:
𝑽𝑪𝑬 vs 𝑰𝑪 (𝑰𝑩 constant)
1. The base current 𝐼𝐵 is kept constant.
2. The collector-emitter voltage 𝑉𝐶𝐸 is varied in steps
of 1V and the corresponding collector current (𝐼𝐶 )
is noted.
𝒓𝒊 → Input impedance (Ω)
3. The experiment is repeated for different value
∆𝑽𝑩𝑬 →change in base-emitter voltage (volt) of 𝐼𝐵 .
∆𝑰𝑩 →change in base current (μA) 4. A graph is plotted by taking 𝑉𝐶𝐸 along x-axis and
𝒓𝒐 → Output impedance (Ω) 𝐼𝐶 along y-axis for all the values of 𝐼𝐵 .
∆𝑽𝑪𝑬 →change in collector-emitter voltage (volt) 5. The reciprocal of the slope of these curves gives Transfer characteristics
∆𝑰𝑪 → change in collector current (mA) the output impedance of the transistor.
𝜷 → Current gain of the transistor (No unit) III. Transfer characteristic curve:
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM 𝑰𝑩 vs 𝑰𝑪 (𝑽𝑪𝑬 constant)
1. The collector-emitter voltage 𝑉𝐶𝐸 is kept constant.
2. The base current 𝑰𝑩 is varied in steps of 50μA and
the corresponding collector current (𝑰𝑪 ) is noted.
3. A graph is plotted by taking 𝑰𝑩 along x-axis and
𝑰𝑪 along y-axis.
4. The slope of the plot gives the current gain of the
transistor.

8.Transistor Jaya Physics – Youtube S.Jayachandran, PG.Asst, GHSS, Manali, Thiruvallur Dt 9840430109 Page 12
Calculation

RESULT
The input, output and transfer characteristics of the
NPN junction in common emitter mode are drawn.
1. Input impedance = 3333 Ω
2. Output impedance = 1000 Ω
3. Current gain β = 80 (no unit)

8.Transistor Jaya Physics – Youtube S.Jayachandran, PG.Asst, GHSS, Manali, Thiruvallur Dt 9840430109 Page 13
 9. VERIFICATION OF TRUTH TABLES OF CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
LOGIC GATES USING INTEGRATED
CIRCUITS
AIM : To verify the truth tables of AND, OR, NOT,
NAND, NOR and EX-OR, gates using integrated
circuits
COMPONENTS REQUIRED AND gate (IC
7408), NOT gate (IC 7404), OR gate (IC 7432),
NAND gate (IC 7400), NOR gate (IC 7402), X-OR
gate (IC 7486), Power supply, Digital IC trainer kit,
connecting wires.
BOOLEAN EXPRESSIONS

PROCEDURE
1. To verify the truth table of a logic gate AND, OR,
NOT, NAND, NOR, and EXOR suitable IC 7408,
IC 7432, IC 7404, IC 7400, IC 7402, and IC 7486
respectively are taken. Connections are given using
the circuit diagram.
2. For all the ICs, 5V is applied to the pin 14 while the
pin 7 is connected to the ground.
3. Logical inputs of the truth table are applied and the
corresponding output is noted.
4. Similarly the output is noted for all other
combinations of inputs.
5. In this way, the truth table of a logic gate is
verified d.

9.Logic gates Jaya Physics – Youtube S.Jayachandran, PG.Asst, GHSS, Manali, Thiruvallur Dt 9840430109 Page 14
LOGIC CALCULATION

RESULT
The truth table of logic gates AND, OR, NOT, EX-OR,
NAND and NOR gates using integrated circuits is
verified.

9.Logic gates Jaya Physics – Youtube S.Jayachandran, PG.Asst, GHSS, Manali, Thiruvallur Dt 9840430109 Page 15
 PROCEDURE: 1.De-Morgan’s Second theorem
10 VERIFICATION OF DE MORGAN’S
I.Verification of De Morgan’s first theorem
THEOREMS 1. Connections are made for ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨 + 𝑩 and 𝑨 ̅.𝑩̅ of the
AIM: To verify De Morgan’s first and second theorem as shown in the circuit diagram using
theorems. appropriate ICs Separately.
COMPONENTS REQUIRED: Power Supply (0 – 2. All combinations of Logical inputs of truth table are
5V), IC 7400, 7408, 7432, 7404, and 7402, Digital IC applied and the corresponding output is noted and
trainer kit, connecting wires. tabulated.
3. From the truth table, ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨+𝑩=𝑨 ̅.𝑩 ̅ is verified.
FORMULA
II.Verification of De Morgan’s Second theorem
1. Connections are made for ̅̅̅̅̅̅𝑨 . 𝑩 and 𝑨 ̅ +𝑩 ̅ of the
theorem as shown in the circuit diagram using Calculation
appropriate ICs Separately.
I.De-Morgan’s first theorem
2. All combinations of Logical inputs of truth table are
applied and the corresponding output is noted and
tabulated.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: 3. From the truth table, ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨 .𝑩 = 𝑨 ̅ +𝑩 ̅ is verified
De Morgan’s first theorem

OBSERVATION
1.De-Morgan’s first theorem

II.De-Morgan’s second theorem

De Morgan’s Second theorem

RESULT
De Morgan’s first and second theorems are verified.

10.De Morgan’s theorem Jaya Physics – Youtube S.Jayachandran PG.Asst,GHSS,Manali,Thiruvallur dT, 9840430109 Page 16