Theme 1: Population

1.1- Population Dynamics:

● Since the quality of living has improved (better hygiene, better access to medicine) after the
industrial revolution, the population has exploded.
● Natural increase is calculated by: birth rates - death rates

Overpopulation
● When they are too many people for the resources available

Example: Nigeria

● Nigeria has a population of over 200 million people - which makes it the 7th most populated
country in the world!
● This is expected to rise to over 400 million people by 2050.
● 70% of people live on less than $1 a day.

This has brought many problems to the country such as:

1. Lack of food - there are too many mouths to feed for the food the country can produce.
2. Lack of money - it is estimated that 61% of Nigerian are living in poverty, meaning that they do
not have enough to support themselves and their families
3. Overcrowding - There is not enough room in cities, such as the capital city Ambuja, so people live
in very cramped conditions.
4. High crime rates - People have to resort to crime in order to provide for their families.
5. Lack of education - There are not enough teachers and schools for the high number of children.

Underpopulation:
● When there are more resources available and not enough people to exploit them.

Example: Australia

● Australia has a population of 25 million people - which makes it the 55th most populated country
in the world!
● It is the 7th largest country in the world by area.
● Australia has lots of natural resources such as good farming land and minerals for mining such
as gold and uranium.

This has brought many benefits to the country:

● Lack of unemployment - there are plenty of jobs for people.

● Lack of poverty - the country is able to feed all the people that live there.
● High education - there are plenty of schools for all children.
● Lack of overcrowding - there is plenty of available land for people to live on.

HOWEVER, there are also some issues:

● Resources are under used - Australia could be richer and the country better off if there were
more people to use the resources.
 ● Shortage of workers - some businesses are unsuccessful as there are not enough people to work
for them!

Demographic transition model

Stage 1- High fluctuating

● High birth rate

● High death rate

→ small population growth (eg: indigenous tribes)

reasons behind this:

1. Poor levels of hygiene

2. Limited access to birth control
3. Religions encourage large families
4. Children are the source of future outcome

Stage 2- Early expanding

● High birth rates

● Rapidly decreasing death rates

→ rapidly increasing population (eg: Afghanistan)

reasons behind this:

1. Improved public health

2. Decrease in child mortality

Stage 3- Late expanding

● Rapidly decreasing birth rates

● Slowly decreasing death rates

→ population is slowly increasing (eg: Brazil)

reasons behind this:

1. Emancipation of women (career before children)

2. Changing socio-economic reasons

Stage 4- Low fluctuating

● low birth rates

● low death rates

→ Small population growth (eg: USA)

reasons behind this:

1. Drop in fertility due to better access to contraception

2. Good health care access
Stage 5- declining

● declining birth rates

● increasing death rates

→ Population declines (eg: Germany)

reasons behind this:

1. Ageing population
2. Emancipation of women
3. Increase in same-sex relationships

Factors for a high birth rate:

● poor family planning

● little access to contraception
● children required to work on land
● children support their parents in old age
● desire to have a son, so parents keep trying
● religious beliefs or traditions

Factors for a low birth rate:

● emancipation of women, including education and increased career-mindedness

● access to contraception
● high cost of raising children
● anti-natal policies
● increased age of marriage
● urbanisation

Factors for a high death rate:

● low life expectancy and high infant mortality

● food scarcity, resulting in starvation
● lack of medical infrastructure and doctors, so disease can not be treated properly
● poor hygiene and sanitation allows the easy spreading of disease
● sexually transmitted diseases such as HIV/AIDS

Factors for a low death rate:

● long life expectancy and low infant mortality rate

● good hygiene and sanitation
● abundant food supply, so no starvation
● good access to medicine/hospitals

Case study: Niger- high rate of population growth

location: North East of Africa

key facts:

● annual growth rate of 3.8%

● average number of child/family- 7.2
● 50% of population is under 15
 ● population of 21M and is expected to triple by 2050

Positive sides:

1. More people → more labour → more productivity

Negative sides:

1. Really poor country- 50% live with 2$/day

2. Children can't access healthcare & education
3. High rates of unemployment since the employment market is already saturated

Case study: Japan- declining population

location: East of Asia

key facts:

● 20% of the population is over 65, it will double by 2060.

● Ageing population causes higher death rate

Less fertility:

- ⅓ of Japanese prioritise their personal life over marrying and having kids

- Have kinds in the 30's rather than the 20

- Celibacy syndrome: people aren't interested in being in relationships anymore.

HIV/AIDS as a factor of birth & death rates

impacts:

● Less workforce available which impacts on the economy

● Treatment costs a lot of money to the government
● Families have to pay for the treatment or funerals so decreases family wealth
● Deaths result in many orphans so it decreases youth education since the older siblings have to
care for their younger siblings

solutions:

● Antiretroviral drugs are given to pregnant women to limit HIV positive childrens.

Government policies: One child policy of China

What is the one child policy ?

● Couples can have only one child, women can be sterilised or abort future pregnancies
● The families respecting the policy were offered a salary rise
● It was abandoned in 2015 and moved to a 2 child policy
Reasons behind the policy:

● After the great famine in China, the country needed to be repopulated by having large families
● After a while the country was overpopulated, since the job market was saturated people couldn't
pay the taxes
● The government needed money

The problems of the policy:

● Forced abortion
● Preference for boys leading to gender imbalance. Female orphans and femicides.

Its influence on China's population:

● Gender imbalance leads to many males never getting married

● Has reduced the population → it worked

1.2- Migration:
definition: Migration is the movement of people from one place to another. Migration happens for a range
of reasons. These can be economic, social, political or environmental. Push and pull factors drive
migration.

examples of each reasons:

economic:

● Cost of living becoming too expensive

● Better job opportunities

social:

● Cultural reasons
● Be closer to family/loved ones

political:

● escape from war or corruption

environmental:

● frequent natural disasters

● extreme temperatures

Internal Migration
push factors: Positive factors which draw people towards a new living space.

pull factors: Negative factors which drive people away from the place they are living.

Rural to urban migration:

Push factors

● Basic education so wanting to offer higher education to their kids

● Lack of health care
● Far from everything
● Difficult to start a career
● Less transport

Pull factors

● Greater range of careers, well-paid jobs.

● Education opportunity, university.
● People could be more open minded
● Safer live
● Diverse/multicultural
● Better housing

International migration:
Push factors:

● Lack of resources
● Lack of education
● Extreme weather
● Wars
● Bad economy

Pull factors:

● Security = better life

● Better salaries
● Safety
● More modern society
● Better weather

Case study: Migration from Syria to Europe

● Syria is a country in the middle east, which faces an ongoing civil war since march 2011
● It started with protests demanding the end of Bashar Al-Assad’s presidency which eventually
escalated and turned into an armed rebellion
● This has caused international forced migration by Syrians seeking asylum in European countries.
● 13.5M are displaced and 13.4M syrians require humanitarian help

push factor (from Syria):

● War
● Violence
● Lack of safety, education, healthcare.
● No more houses.
● Poverty.
● Famine.

pull factor (to Europe):

● Safe.
 ● Better economy.
● Job opportunities.
● Healthcare.
● Asylum.
● Education for their kids.

Impacts:

impacts on destination countries:

positive:

● immigrants can do the job that population doesn't want

● more diversity

negative:

● difficult to organise with many groups of immigrants

impacts to migrants

positive:

● Access to public, free education and better healthcare.

negative:

● Could face xenophobia, racism or discrimination. Or even severe violences.

● Difficulty to practice religion such as islam

1.3- Population structure:

How to calculate dependency ratios:

young + ederly / working class x 100

Population pyramids:

● Population structure can be represented by population pyramids

● Those pyramids can have concave or convex angles

● These can fit accordingly to the demographic transition model:

Case study- A high dependent population: Japan

How is this high elderly population going to influence Japan ?

● The economically active will not be able support the elderly population
● Due to this there are going to be:

1. Higher taxes to cover public transportation since older people can't drive, this discourages people
to immigrate to Japan since the cost of life will be too high
2. Pressure on healthcare

-> overall this will have a negative impact on Japan's economy

What strategies have Japan used against this problem ?

● Japan's population will soon start falling by nearly a million people every year
● Japan introduced in 1994 the Angel plan and the Plus one policy. The goal was to make having
children a more attractive option and easier. It has been done by promoting child development or
improving the educational environment for children.

1.4- Population density and distribution:

● population density: Population density is the measure of how many people are living in an area,
which is measured in the number of people per square kilometre (km2)
○ population distribution: the way that people are spread around an area.

→ an area can be densely or sparsely populated

Population distribution in the world:

→ most populated continent is Asia

→ least populated continent is Africa

Factors influencing population distribution:

→ economic factors:

● transport: in more densely populated areas, there is a better transport system especially for
young people or elderly population who can't drive
● industry: offers job opportunities so people might be more likely to move near the area

→ environmental factors:

● relief: flat land is easy to build on but steep mountains would be difficult to build on
● climate: in areas where there is a nice climate contrasting to places with extreme weather
● access to natural resources: rich and good quality soil offer easy to grow crops

Case study- Bangladesh:

population distribution & density:

● Population of 161M people, with average growth rate of 1.75%/year

● Overpopulated
● Same size as Iowa but has 50x times more people
causes of population distribution:

● early marriage, girls don't go to school to learn

● illiteracy due to lack of education
● poverty and unemployment

impacts of the high population density:

● shortage on food & water

● high crime rates
● traffic
● oversaturated hospitals

Case study- Canada:

population distribution:

● population of 37M
● 90% of population lives close to the U.S border where the bigger cities are located
● Largest city occupy 5% of total territory
● Large difference between rural and urban population density

causes of population distribution:

● emigration, difficulty to obtain a visa

● a lot of the land is protected parks or forests
● most of life centred in the main cities, but high living costs

impacts of the low population density:

● social isolation
● abandonment of agricultural land
● difficulty to access to infrastructures like schools or hospitals
● Lower crime rates

1.5- Settlements:
● Site: the actual location of a site on Earth

Types of settlements:

● Linear settlements: A settlement based in a narrow band along a road or other feature

Reasons for this type of settlement:

● Next to a road, easier transportation

● Next to a river, irrigation for crops

 ● Nucleated settlements: Settlements centred around a focus point, such as a bridge or major
crossroad

Reasons for this type of settlement:

● Central feature eg a church, or a statue

● Mountains surrounding

● Dispersed settlements: Settlements where few buildings are spread over a large area

Reasons for this type of settlement:

● Physical geography: mountains surrounding the settlement

● Space needed for farming for crops, animals

Settlement hierarchy:
Facilities available to populations of high order- city:

● international airports
● Hospitals
● shopping mall
● police office

Facilities available to populations of middle order- town:

● doctor's surgery
● small shops
● police office

Facilities available to populations of low order- village:

● small shops
● small local restaurants/bars

Why do capital cities have high order services ?

● Large population so there is a market for the services

● Many tourists can use the infrastructures
● Capital cities have good transport network
● Wealthy people that can afford the services live in cities

Why service provision declines in some rural areas ?

● People move away from rural areas to cities
● Not enough profit is made by the services
● People use the services in the urban areas they work in
● Increased mobility due to cars
● Rise of internet shopping
● Ageing population

Spheres of influence:

● definition: the area served by a settlement

Factors affecting spheres of influence:

● Size and services of settlement → if there are many services, it would affect a larger area
● Population density → In a sparsely populated area, services will be widely spaced and spheres
of influences will be larger.
● Physical geography → if there are any geographical factor causing settlements to be sparsely
populated, the sphere of influence will be larger
● Transport facilities → if the services are easily accessible, the sphere of influence will be larger
● Wealth of people in the area → rich people are more likely to buy goods and services which will
increase the services offered so the sphere of influence is reduced.
● Competition from other settlements → if there is competition sphere of influence is reduced

Threshold populations - This is the minimum number of people needed to provide a large enough
demand for a service

1.6- Urban settlements:

Urban models:

Urban Sprawl:
→ the uncontrolled expansion of urban areas

Problems of urban growth/urban sprawl:

Problems faced by the CBD:

→ Decline in retailing:

● high rents so small shops can't stay in the CBD + larger shops leaving to inner city
● Solution: create a safer environment through pedestrianisation to attract more people

→ Decentralisation of companies and administrations:

 ● poor parking space leads to CBD not being seen as the best place to have an office
● Solution: Shopping malls have many options and attract different types of clients

→ The CBD in the evening:

● no one is in the CBD at night unless there are bars/clubs which could potentially create an unsafe
area (drunk people/drug usage)
● Solution: visual improvements: make the area pleasant and appealing to stay at

Problems faced by wider urban areas:

→ Crime and racial conflict:

● immigrants living in poorer areas of cities can have conflict between each other.
● This could cause crime rates rising
● Solution: more security, provide education and education

→ Housing shortages:

● immigration and natural growth caused a high demand for housing, but not everyone can afford
it.
● causes dense population and overcrowding
● Solution: use the land of water

→ Squatter settlements

● people who can't afford any rent leave in those areas, facing the harsh weather, and no proper
sanitation causing the spread of diseases
● High rates of poverty + overcrowding
● Solution: building of low cost housing, providing basic services

Problems causing Urban Sprawl:

Environmental problems:

● Greenhouse gas emissions from cars: people use vehicles to move through the city
● Building on countryside land: this causes damage to natural areas as trees are cut down and
affects the natural ecosystems

Economical problems:

● Costs of public transports: providing transports costs a lot of money especially if the city is
bigger
● Work time spent for going to work: if the cities are big a lot of money is spent on fuel

Social problems:

● Racial and class segregation: separation between poor people who can't afford rent living in
'ghettos' and richer people living in nicer areas
● Loss of rural way of life: as a city continues to spread it could eventually reach the rural areas
where people live , usually because they want a rural lifestyle far away from cities

Greenbelts:

→ Rural urban fringe: an area of transition between urban and rural, where the city meets the
countryside.
→ Greenbelt: an untouched area, where it is not allowed to build on. It is used to protect field or woods

● used to limit the spreading of cities as they usually surround big cities

Congestion- London Case study:

Causes of congestion in London:

● 2M people travel out of the city for work so there is a lot of traffic in the morning + afternoon
● An old city so it was not building for the need of mass transportation

Solutions to congestion:

● congestion charge
● bus lanes

Inequality in London:

→ Causes:

● High rates of immigration: this causes many people to arrive at once and most can't find a job so
they live in the poor areas of London, rate of poverty increased by 16% from 1980 and 2010
● Lack of education: many people in poorer areas don't have a good access to education which
reduces the opportunities for better paid jobs

→ Effects:

● difference in life expectancy and health between people who live in richer part of London vs
poorer parts
● High unemployment rate
● High crime rates

1.7-Urbanisation:
Characteristics of squatter settlements:

● Low crime rate as the population 'polices' itself

● Chaotic street plan as there is little planning
● Poor quality housing which makes it prone to hazards, but are rent free
● High population density
● Many diseases spread by water or rats and attracts mosquitoes
● Poor hygiene, lack electricity and clean water

Case study- Dharavi in Mumbai:

Key facts and figures:

● Very dense population, 1M/square mile

● 500 people/toilet
● High employment: 85% of people are employed
 ● squatter settlements are made from different materials, people surrounded by sewage and waste,
bad smell

Negative effects:

● Diseases caused by contaminated water

→ cholera

→ tuberculosis

● Low sanitation and hygiene in general

● Illegal industries

→ cheap labour (children)

→ no taxes so is inexpensive, 1B $ of benefit

Positive effects:

● Sense of community

→ no crime rate

→ high employment

→ sense of belonging

● Recycling of plastic in Mumbai

→ 80% of plastic is recycled, people are paid for sorting plastic in landfills.

Future of Dharavi:

→ A redevelopment plan, costing 2B $

● people living in the slums are moved tower blocks and buildings
● improve access to clean water and electricity as well as better infrastructures (roads)

Migration to Mumbai:

→ higher GDP and life expectancy in Mumbai than in the countryside

Pollution in Mumbai:

Air pollution:

● very dirty air with high levels of nitrous oxide

● 22M of cars so there is a lot of pollution caused by car

→ Solutions:

● encourage uses of non motorised transports

● better control of industrial emissions

Water pollution:
 ● 77% of households have poor water quality due to toxic chemicals dissolved in the water
● causes high levels of diseases like cholera or typhoid.

→ Solutions:

● filter water
● introduce to portable toilets to improve sanitation

Theme 2: The natural environment

2.1- Earthquakes and Volcanoes:

The structure of the Earth:

● crust, solid

● mantle (semi-molten) 1 000°C

● outer core, liquid 4 500°C

● inner core, solid 5 500°C

Plate Tectonics:

Convection currents:

1. The rock is heated by the core and rises to the crust which causes the rock to spread
2. As the rock is pushed it, the drags the crust with it and the rock loses heat
3. As the rock cools down, it descends
4. The rock is pushed along the bottom before being heated and rising again

Crust types:

Continental crust:

● 70km of thickness (thicker)

● density of 2.7 g/cm3 (less dense)
● 4B years (older)
Oceanic crust:

● 5-10 km of thickness (thinner)

● density of 3 g/cm3 (denser)
● 270M years (younger)

Plate boundaries:
● they all create earthquakes

Destructive:

→ the denser oceanic plate is subducted under the continental plate

→ the crust is destroyed into the mantle, forming magma which rises at the surface, forming a volcano

→ the place where the plates meet forms an ocean trench

Constructive:

→ the tectonic plates are pulled away from each other by convection currents

→ a gap is formed

→ magma rises from the gap and cools down, creating new crust and volcanoes

Conservative:

→ two plates move past each other at similar speeds

→ friction and irregularities cause the two plates to lock so pressure can build up. When they unlock it
creates earthquakes
Collision:

→ two plates with a similar density are forced onto each other

→ this means that they are not forced into the mantle and instead fold upwards and create mountains

Volcanoes

Magma vs Lava:

→ magma:

● molten rock found under the earth's crust

→ lava:

● magma that comes to the surface of the earth

Types of volcano activity:

→ active:

● has erupted in the past 10 000 years and could erupt again

→ dormant:

● has not erupted but is likely to

→ extinct:

● is considered to never erupt

How do volcanoes erupt ?

→ occurs at a destructive plate boundary

● the oceanic plate subducts below the continental plate

● the plate melts, forming magma which rises at the surface
 ● This causes pressure in the magma chamber to build up.
● The pressure causes the magma to erupt out of the volcano through the crater or the secondary
vents .
● When it erupts a volcano can produce ash, lava and volcanic bombs.

diagram of a volcanic explosion:

→ pyroclastic flows: fast moving winds of hot gas and rock

The two types/shapes of volcanoes:

Composite volcano:

● found on destructive plates

● steep sides
● violent eruptions
● stratovolcano
● viscous lava

How is it created ?

-> sticky lava builds up overtime, combined with layers of ash and rocks which creates a cone shape

Shield volcano:

● found on constructive plates

● gently sides
● more gently eruptions
● no layers, just lava
● Basaltic (runny) lava

How is it created ?

-> fluid lava runs over a long distance so it overtime creates layers

Earthquakes
→ violent shaking of the ground

Keywords:

● Richter scale: the scale by which the strength of an earthquake is measured

● Magnitude: a measure of how strong an earthquake is

 ● Seismometer: an instrument to measure the magnitude of an earthquake

● After shock: a smaller earthquake which occurs after the main, large earthquake

● Focus: the place in the earth where the rocks are moving

● Epicentre: the point at the surface above the focus

How does an earthquake happen ?

1. earthquakes occur at plate margins

2. as the plates move past each other, the surface is not smooth and causes the plates to interlock
3. this causes pressure to build up which is suddenly released, this release of pressure is called an
earthquake

Volcano Case Study- Montserrat eruption, 1995-1997

→ Montserrat is a small island in the Caribbean, located on a destructive plate margin (Subduction of
north american plate under the caribbean plate)

→ the peak eruption was in 1997, the volcano was dormant 300 years before, many pyroclastic flows

Primary effects:

● destroyed houses/building or left them covered in ashes

● 19 people died

Secondary effects:

● collapse of tourism
● collapse in healthcare, due to destruction of hospitals
● psychological trauma

Long term responses:

● evacuation of 11 000 people

● 41M £ were donated
● rise in unemployment rate

Immediate responses:

● volcano observatory, which helped with growth of adventure tourism

● new infrastructures built
● exclusion zone is set up so many relocation to other part of the island

Earthquake case study, Haiti Earthquake the 12th of January 2010

→ epicentre was at Port au Prince, the capital city

→ located on the caribbean plate which is conservative plate boundary

→ magnitude of 7.0
Primary effects:

● 190 000 destroyed building

● 1.5M people left homeless
● 220 000 people killed
● 3000 injuries

Secondary effects:

● psychological trauma/survivor's guilt

● Cholera epidemic brought by the U.S staff
● immigration by the help of embassies
● rise in crime rates

Immediate responses:

● inflatable hospital was built to increase surgical capacity

● planes carrying 85 tons of medical supplies
● hygiene kits are distributed

Long term responses:

● 28 000 jobs are provided

● 50M$ are donated
● earthquake resistant structures are built, and some buildings are rebuilt.

Mitigating volcanoes:
Identify hazard areas: avoid living/building in areas near zones at risk of volcanic eruption

Monitor volcanoes: an increase in seismic activity can be in indicator of a future eruption

Develop an emergency plan: awareness of the procedure if an eruption occurs.

Mitigating earthquakes:

1. Preventing damages to houses/population:

● practice, 'drop, cover, and hold on' method
● secure large objects
● earthquake insurance policy
1. Have a warning system when earthquakes strike:
● countries like Mexico, Japan and china have a warning system developed after deadly
catastrophes
● The sensor is placed at a fault line so if a strong vibration occurs it directly sends a message to
people through telecommunications.
1. Make buildings earthquake proof:

In MEDCs:

● using a damper (giant ball of metal) at the top of a building to counter balance it if an earthquake
occurs
● building a structure on top of a separate base so that the foundations are not grounded to the
floor
In LEDCs:

● lightweight roof to avoid it from collapsing but still give good insulation
● Using materials such as bamboo which is flexible and lightweight
● Use a layer of concrete so that the ground doesn't have foundations on the floor

How to reduce the impacts of earthquakes and volcanoes on people:

● evacuation procedures
● education about what to do when an earthquake or volcanic eruption occurs
● Train emergency services
● Having an exclusion zone
● wear masks to be protected from the dust
● Monitor the volcano
● Strengthen roofs

Why do earthquakes and volcanoes cause more deaths and injuries in LEDCs than MEDCs ?

● MEDCs can invest more in infrastructures to protect people

● MEDCs can better investigate in evacuation procedures
● Educate people so that they can protect themselves from the impacts;
● MEDCs can provide better healthcare after a disaster
● Can build stronger buildings/have better road networks.

Advantages of living in hazardous areas:

Economic:

● cheaper homes
● presence of mines which can bring jobs
● buildings being earthquakes proof also creates jobs

Environmental:

● the ashes can produce fertile soil which helps with agriculture so high yield of crops
● volcanoes can be used for geothermal energy

Social:

● inhabitants believe they are warned if an earthquake happens

● the volcano can attract tourists

2.2- Rivers

Drainage basin:

→ A drainage basin is the area of land that it drained by a river and its tributaries

Drainage basin diagram:

Keywords:

● confluence: The meeting point to river

● meander: A curve of bend of a river
● watershed: The area which marks the boundary between two drainage basins
● source: The starting point of a river
● tributary: The smaller branches leading into the main river
● main channel: The main river of a basin
● lake: An area filled by water in basin surrounded by land
● mouth: The end point of a river

River processes:
Characteristics of rivers:

● Velocity: the rapidity of a river's flow

● Discharge: how much water a river contains

Load quantity: how much quantity it carries

**Bradshaw's model:**

Types of erosion:
1. Attrition: Rocks becoming smoother and smaller by getting crushed on the banks losing their
sharp edges
 2. Abrasion: The rocks from the river banks that fell in the riverbed grimes the riverbed like
sandpaper
3. Solution: Rocks contain salts which dissolve the water, causing it to be slightly acidic and erode
4. Hydraulic action: Due to the level of water rising after heavy rainfall, the water is pushed into
tiny cracks in rocks on the bank causing pressure to build up. When this pressure is released it
causes the rock to detach itself and sink into the river bed

Types of transportation:
1. Traction: Rocks rolling down the riverbed (only moving when there is high velocity)
2. Solution: Dissolved minerals carried by water
3. Suspension: Materials made of tiny particles is lifted by turbulence in the river
4. Saltation: Small stones/pebbles are bouncing on the river bed

Cross profile and long profile:

→ Cross profile: This shows the cross section of a river's channel along a certain point at its course.

→ Long profile: It shows how a river changes from its source until its mouth, shows the gradient and the
height changing

Upper course:

● steep sides and gradient, V shaped

● Narrow and shallow channel
● Vertical erosion

Middle course:

● gently sloping sides, medium gradient

● wider, deeper channel
● Lateral erosion

Lower course:

● gently gradient, very vide, almost flat

● very wide and deep channel
● Lateral erosion

Waterfalls:
→ vertical erosion

→ found in upper course

How is it formed ?

1. On the walls there is alternating hard and soft rock

2. Hard rock resists erosion so the softer rock is eroded rapidly
3. Overhang develops and eventually collapses;
4. The process repeats, as a plunge pool is created which expands as a soft rock keeps getting
eroded
Oxbow lakes:
→ lateral erosion

→ found in the middle course, on flat land

How is it formed ?

1. Due to meanders forming, lateral erosion occurs

2. lateral erosion changes the shape of meanders, forming a swan neck
3. When the river floods the neck breaks and the water than has a more direct route to flow
4. Due to water flowing into a new river bed no water comes in the meander so it becomes sealed
with sediments

Meanders:
How is it formed ?

1. When water flows faster on one side of the river it is eroding at a faster rate
2. the side where there is less flow causes sediment being deposited
3. the difference between the pace of the flow causes the river to bend

Delta:
→ lateral erosion

→ found at the mouth of large rivers

How is it formed ?

1. Once a river meets a still body of water, the river’s water loses energy and becomes slower, as it
loses energy, deposition occurs faster than what the sea is capable of removing.
2. However, since the river needs to be trained it forms distributaries to increase drainage
1. The river transports material from upstream due to previous erosion
2. When the mouth of the river meets the sea, it causes a reduction in the speed flow of the river
3. This means that the excess of sediment can’t be carried further
4. It stays deposited due to the lack of tides to remove material

Flood plains:
→ the area near a river which is likely to flood

● floodplains are great for agriculture since the sediment deposited creates fertile soil

Levees:
● levees are formed when the movement of sediment is pushed sideways due to flooding
● the sediments are deposited on the banks of the river and on the riverbed
● it causes a rise in the river banks and river bed

Potholes:
→ oval shaped holes in the rock of a river
 ● Due to turbulences in the flow, pebbles can spin and erode a hole in the rock
● The pothole increases it's size as larger sediments get trapped inside the hole

Opportunities of rivers:
● Water supplies for agriculture- agriculture on floodplains
● Fishing
● Transportation routes
● Tourism

Causes of flooding:

Physical factors:

● Geology: some rocks are impermeable, this means that no percolation occurs and the water
becomes surface runoff which lands in rivers and increases their discharge.
● Increased precipitation: If there is too much precipitation it can't be absorbed and becomes
surface runoff, landing in river channels and increasing their discharge.
● Relief: If there is a steep gradient the water is transported more rapidly into rivers but if it is too
gentle the water is difficult to be removed.

Human factors:

● Deforestation: if there are not trees interception can't occurs and water becomes surface runoff
● Urbanisation: Buildings and roads are impermeable surfaces so any water becomes surface
runoff

Impacts of floods:

Social:

● deaths and injuries

● destruction of houses
● children unable to go to school
● hospitals closed

Economical:

● cost of rebuilding roads

● people unable to go to work
● loss of possession/insurance

Environmental:

● destruction of natural habitats

● Destruction of farmer's crops
● Contaminated water pipes

Mitigating floods:

Human flood management strategies:

Dams:

→ a lot of water can be trapped and release in a controlled way

● generate electricity + highly effective/red

● expensive + perturbates the flow of sediments and wildlife

Embankments/ artificial levees:

→ banks of rivers are artificially raised which means river can hold more water

● are effective
● expensive if made out of concrete + doesn't provide natural habitat for wildlife

Flood relief channels:

→ excess water is moved by river channels created artificially

● effective + provides natural habitats to animals

● requires a lot of maintenance and takes a lot of land

Natural flood management strategies:

Wetland storage areas:

→ areas are deliberately left to be flooded and water can be stored in wetlands so that less flooding
downstream occurs

● creates habitats for wildlife

● unpopular amongst farmers

River restoration:

→ return river to original course which gets rid of meanders

● recreates natural habitats

● can create problems further downstream

Afforestation:

→ planting tree in order to improve interception and water absorbed by plants

● cheap and environmentally friendly

● takes a lot of time to become effective
Case study- Indus river basin:
Key figures:

→ located in Pakistan

Advantages of living in this area:

● good opportunities of irrigation and agriculture

● flat land for building
● hydro electricity

Causes of flooding:

● melting snow and glaciers from the Himalaya

● Monsoon rain, 312mm of precipitation in 24 hours
● Deforestation as there was agricultural land which means there is no interception and water
becomes surface runoff

Effects of flooding:

● 1700 deaths
● 4M of people with food shortages
● 1.89M houses destroyed
● Diseases spreading such as Cholera due to stagnant water

2.3- Coasts:
→ coast: an area where land meets the sea

→ waves are caused by the wind blowing which gives the energy the waves need to travel

Keywords:

● swash: the water which is pushed to the beach

● backwash: the water which is dragged
● fetch: the distance over which a wave has travelled

How are constructive waves formed ?

→ small waves with a swash stronger than a backwash:

● they carry sediments which gets deposited on the shoreline, forming wide and flat beaches

How are destructive waves formed ?

→ big waves with a weak swash and a strong backwash:

● they are closely spaced together

● they become high before plunging down on the beach, their strong backwash erodes the beach
● they form narrow and steep beaches

Coastal erosion:
 1. Abrasion: This happens when the sediments carried by the sea grind along the cliff and overtime
smoothen it.
2. Attrition: The rocks at the bottom of the sea are knocked against each other, this causes them to
become smaller and rounder.
3. Hydraulic action: The waves are crashing along the cliff, this leads to air being trapped in cracks
in the rocks and being put under pressure, once this pressure is released it causes the rocks to
break apart
4. Corrosion: In some certain types of rocks such as limestone, the salty water dissolves itself in
the rocks and causes them to break apart.

Formation of landforms by erosion:

Caves, Arches, Stacks:

● Cave: a crack is opened in a cliff, through hydraulic action. The cave becomes larger as it is
eroded by hydraulic action and ablation.
● Arch: As the cave is eroded and becomes bigger it eventually erodes until it breaks the headland
and forms an arch.
● Stack: Arches eventually erode to the point they collapse, leaving a tall rock stack.

Wave-cut platforms and cliffs:

→ Differential erosion: When different rocks are eroded at a different pace.

Formation of wave-cut platforms:

1. Due to erosion processes, erosion occurs at the base of the cliff

2. Overtimes, due to hydraulic action and abrasion the cliff collapses
3. Therefore, a wave cut platform remains as the cliff retreats

Headlands and bays:

1. To to differential erosion, softer, less resistant rock is eroded at a fast pace

2. This cause the land to curve inwards forming bays
3. Harder, more resistant rock is left which causes some part of the cliff to stick out, forming
headlands.

Formation of landforms by deposition:

Sand dunes:

→ Dunes are formed as the sand is blown by the wind which causes deposition of the sand which
means the dune grows larger overtime. At one point, marram grass starts to grow on the dune.

● Embryo Dune: Small dunes that form around obstacles like pieces of wood or larger rocks
● ForeDune: Dunes which develop further back from the sea
● Yellow Dune: Dunes where marram grass starts to grow on these dunes; it helps them to
stabilise and bind them together.
● Grey Dune: Vegetation which has decomposed and therefore fertilised the soil, causes even
more vegetation to grow
● Mature Dune: Dunes which are the largest. The widest range of vegetation grows there.

Longshore drift:

→ The zigzag movement of sediment along a shore caused by the swash and returning at right angles
(backwash).

Sand spits:

→ Sand spits are formed by longshore drift:

Spits develop where there is a change in the coastline.

This happens due to longshore drift where the material is moved in a zigzag manner due to a swash
coming at an angle and a vertical backswash.

● material gets deposited along the coast which creates a spit

● the spit can have a hooked end if the prevailing wind changes directions
● due to the spit, waves can't move past it which creates salt marsh

Bars and Tombolos:

Bars:

● A bar is formed when a spit grows across a bay and joins two headlands due to longshore drift
● A lagoon is formed behind the bar
Tombolo:

● The formation of a tombolo is similar to the formation of bars except it connects the shore of an
island to the land rather than two headlands.

Opportunities:
1. Creates jobs: beaches attract a lot of tourists which means a lot of new jobs can be offered in this
sector in like hotels, restaurants
2. Improved quality of life: facilities are built for tourists to make coastal areas more attractive and
accessible, which locals can benefit from
3. Fishing: requires low levels of capital and education → good for LEDCS, reliable source of food

Hazards:
→ tropical storms and coastal erosion.

effects of it:

● kills people and cut access to people to basic necessities

● trees are uprooted, released CO2
● costs a lot of money since infrastructures need to be rebuilt.

Coastal Management:
Hard engineering strategies:

Sea walls:

→ high walls are built on the shore. Waves crash on the wall which prevents any further erosion of the
shore.

● effective, can provide a pedestrian area for tourists

● expensive, waves can erode the wall

Rock armour:

→ large rocks are placed further on the coastline to absorb the power of the waves.

● cheap, habitat for fishes

Groynes:

→ A structure built on the shore to trap the sediments from longshore drift.

● cheap, creates wider beaches

● can creates problems further down the coast as it deprives other beaches from sediments

Soft engineering strategies:

Dune regeneration:

→ Consists of planting marram grass on the dunes to stabilise them.

 ● sustainable, cheap
● not rapid results

Dune fencing:

→ Method to amplify the formation of existing dunes by putting wood fences around the dunes

● sustainable, regulates public access

● need to be replaced regularly

Case study- the threat of coastal erosion in Lyme Regis:

→ Lyme Regis is located in the county of Dorset in the south of the UK. It faces the jurassic coast in the
English Channel

Opportunities in Lyme Regis:

Opportunities for local people:

● better investment in infrastructure for tourists

→ Lyme Regis depends on tourism to create jobs and generate income:

● 37 500 people are employed in this sector, 65% of these work in the coastal area
● 800 M pound is generated in the dorset coast
● Mains sources of outcome within tourism: hotels, buying food/drinks, entertainment.
● Fishing

Opportunities for tourists:

● entertainment activities
● natural and built attractions
● events

Problems faced by Lyme Regis:

● unstable ground
● coastal erosion, beaches and cliffs eroded at a fast pace
● landslides
● mudflows

Solutions against the hazards:

● Wooden groynes deteriorated the beach so two concrete groynes were built.
● Sea wall was replaced in 1995, rock armour was added to protect it.
● The beach was replenished

Mangroves:
→ found in tropical and subtropical areas as they need a certain temperature, there is no cold ocean
currents

Importance of mangrove swamps:

● protection for the coast: stabilises the coast as it absorbs the power of destructive waves
 ● protection for the land: absorbs carbon dioxide
● important habitat: safe space for young marine species to hide from their predators

Coral reefs:
→ found in tropical and subtropical areas

Conditions they require:

● corals require a certain temperature temperature to produce calcium carbonate:

● Clear water with no suspension as the algae which live on corals need sunlight.
● No sediments on polyps as they can’t feed themselves if it is covered
● Not near a river mouth as it is where sediments enter the sea and the water is not salty enough.
● Not too deep as they can’t get sunlight,

2.4- Weather:
→ Weather describes conditions in the atmosphere at any time or period of time. Weather can change
suddenly, it is temporary.

Measuring weather:

The Stevenson Screen:

→ A box-like structure which contains weather instruments.

● It is raised on poles which are 1 metre above the ground to avoid radiation
● It is coated in white paint to reduce absorption of heat from the sun's rays
● It has louvred sides to allow air flow for the weather instruments
● It is located away from buildings as they might block the sunlight for reaching the Stevenson
screen

Rain Gauge:

→ measures rainfall in mm

● Works by being placed slightly above ground level, the graduated cylinder collects rainfall which
is measured from determining the total amount of water collected

Hygrometer (Wet-and-dry bulb thermometer):

→ measures humidity in %

● the dry bulb thermometer measures the air temperature

● the wet bulb thermometer is wrapped around a cloth which stays moist
● If the air is not saturated in humidity the cloth will dry out as the water evaporates so the bulb
cools down which causes the mercury in it to contract
● the difference in temperature shows the humidity (the higher the diff is the less humid it is)

Sunshine recorder:

→ measure the hours of sunshine

 ● In bright sunshine, the glass sphere concentrates the sun’s rays on a point in the card, placed at
its focal point, this causes the sunlight to make a mark on the card as it burns it.
● This marking, called a trace, is measured and converted into a duration of time

Maximum-Minimum Thermometer:

→ measures temperature in °C

● The thermometer contains mercury in its glass tube

● As the temperature rises, the mercury expands, displaying the temperature on the scale of the
thermometer.
● If the temperature falls, the mercury contracts

Barometer:

→ measures pressure in mb

● composed of a needle mounted inside of a metal box partially empty of air

● box expands when pressure is low and is compressed when the pressure is high
● changes from the box are shown by the needle

Anemometer:

→ measures wind speed in km/hour

● As the wind blows, the cups rotate and the rod spins.
● The anemometer counts the number of rotations effectuated by the rotations to calculate the
wind’s speed.
● Therefore, the faster the wind blows, the faster the cups rotate.

Wind Vane:

→ shows the direction of the wind, in compass directions

● As the wind blows in a certain direction, it catches the thick end of the light weight arrow,
therefore the end of the arrow points towards the direction of the prevailing wind.

Clouds:
→ clouds are a mass of water floating in the sky.

→ the unit of measure for the cloud cover are oktas

The four main type of clouds:

 1. Cirrus clouds: high level clouds (above 5500 metres), they are thin and wispy. Have the 'cirro'
prefix
2. Stratus clouds: medium level clouds (below 2000 metres) are grey and usually produce light
rain.
3. Cumulonimbus clouds: very high and wide. They produce rain, thunder and lightning.
4. Cumulus cloud: low level clouds (60-1200 metres). They look like cotton wool and produce light
rain.

2.5- Climate and Natural Vegetation:

Distribution and characteristics of ecosystems:

Hot deserts:

→ Located along the tropics of Cancer or Capricorn

→ Receive a tiny amount of rainfall, hot and dry climate, not a lot of vegetation

● period where there is rainfall is May-October, peaks in August

Why do deserts have high daily temperatures:

● High temperatures during the day, colder temperatures at night:

● Lack of clouds means there is a high isolation during the day
● Lack of clouds means that heat escapes at night

Why do deserts don’t receive high rainfall:

● Deserts tend to be located near the tropic of Capricorn, where there is high air pressure
● This means that there is descending air which cools down.
● The angle of the sun causes high temperatures
● Deserts are inland:
- Deserts are a long way from the sea so the moist air from it can’t reach the area
- Prevailing winds blow over large areas of land
- This means that the winds are dry when they reach inland areas

Case study- The Namib desert:

→ Located in the Atlantic coast of Namibia

● Arid climate, it is the driest desert in Africa

● Extreme temperatures: very cold in night, very hot during the day: this is because sand cools
and heat very fast
● little rainfall: 0 to 2.5 cm per year, this is due to being located in an area with high pressure so
no clouds are forming
Human activity:

● destruction of animal habitats, in Namibia is rich in mineral; 50% of export learning come from
mining
● Attracts tourists: people are interested to see wildlife

Plant adaptations:

→ plants which are found are succulents, aloe, cacti

● root system near the surface to absorb any type of moisture

● plants don't have leaves to reduce transpiration, instead they have waxy skin to retain water
● Have spikes to protect from predators
● Only flower for a short time after the rain

Animal adaptations:

→ apex predators get their moisture from the animals they eat

● animals have light coloured fur: reflects the sun's rays and serves as camouflage
● animals have fur: this makes them regulate their body temperature, esp. when it gets cold at
night
● Animals shelter in underground burrows to avoid heat
● Animals only hunt at night to avoid heat in the day
● example:

CAMEL:

● Can drink at lot of water in one go so it can survive without water for a long time
● Long legs to avoid the hottest air which is around 1m above the ground
● Does not sweat a lot and little urine

Tropical rainforests:

→ Located along the equator, in subtropical regions

→ Receive a lot of rainfall, hot and humid climate, high biodiversity (many plant species have adapted)

● temperature is constant all year around, less rainfall from June to November

Why is there a lot rainfall in equatorial climates:

● Due to high temperatures, the water present on leaves heats up and evaporates in the process of
evapotranspiration
● This causes warm air to rise
● As it rises, it cools down and condenses into clouds

Case study- The rainforest of Borneo:

→ Borneo is an island located in Southeast Asia in the Indonesian archipelago.

● faces the threat of deforestation, many area of the land is lost due to it

Animal and Vegetations :

 ● large emerging tree such as Shorea, which can go up to 65m is used to make furniture
● middle of the canopy area is above 30m, ironwood tree is found here
● in the shrub layer, many shade tolerant species are found and a range of animals and insects
● the orangutan and monkeys move through the forest to find fruits
● Highland forest is home to 25% of species

Deforestation (in Malaysia):

Key facts/figures:

● 14.4% rate of deforestation /year

● In the last 18 years, superficy of forest went down by 17%

Causes of deforestation:

● trees are cut down as a source of timber (trees which are grown for their wood), in the 1980's
Malaysia was the biggest wood exporter
● raise in global demand of palm oil, so more palm oil plantations are needed, over 6M ha are
established in areas in Malaysia and Indonesia. The owners get tax benefits from the government
so more area is taken
● Road construction- it is need for communication or the palm oil/timber industry, the Pan Borneo
Highway

Impacts of deforestation:

● If forests are opened up by humans, they dry out which increases the risks of fire hazards
● emits a lot of pollution- 20% of CO2 emissions come from deforestation and forest degradation
● Causes soil erosion:

→ compaction: soil is tightly compacted so plants can't access nutrients

→ loss of soil structure: disrupts nutrient cycle so soil becomes infertile

● Loss of biodiversity !

The three types of rainfall:

1. Relief rainfall:
● Warm, moist air comes from the sea
● Due to the relief, the warm air is forced to cool and condenses which creates precipitation
● As it descends, the air loses temperature which means the clouds can hold more water so there
is less rain occurring

1. Convectional rainfall:
● The rays of the sun heat the ground in the process of radiation which causes the air to become
warm and raise
● As the air rises, it eventually cools down and condenses, forming clouds
● water droplets accumulate in the cloud until it is saturated with water, causing the raindrops to fall
as precipitation due to gravity.

1. Frontal rainfall:
 ● colder air is denser and heavier, when it meets with warmer air, the warmer air rises upwards as
it is lighter
● The warm air eventually cools down and condensates, forming clouds.
● Once the clouds are saturated with water, raindrops fall due to gravity.

Factors affecting climate:

1. Latitude:
● The rays of the sun hit the earth at different angles. They directly hit the equator but hit poles at a
smaller angle:

→ this means that they rays spread less at the poles which means less solar energy falls on the area

● The earth is slightly tilted: this means the poles don't get sunlight for months as the rays can't
reach the area
● The sunlight takes a larger time to travel to the poles and it is also scattered by particles in the
atmosphere

1. Altitude:
● temperature falls as the altitude increases

→ as the radiations emitted by the sun heat the ground, this causes warm to rise until it eventually cools
down

→ This is because as you go higher, the pressure becomes lower so the air molecules expands as there
is less particles

1. Ocean currents:
● The currents in the oceans move from the equator to the poles
● When the winds come in contact with the current they cool
● The colder wind leads towards the land and lowers the temperature in a given area

The global atmospheric circulation model:

Low pressure ( depression) areas:

1. At a certain point (name it A for the example) warm air rises

2. the warm air rises causing the formation of clouds through condensation
3. The clouds eventually lead to precipitation on area B, this means that area B is at high pressure
4. Since the air pressure is higher at B than A, the air rushes back to area A in the form of wind

High pressure (anticyclone) areas:

1. Warm air is rising in area X

2. This means cold air is pushed aside
3. Further away, the cold air sinks at Y
4. now, area Y has a high pressure
5. As the cold air sinks it warms up so no condensation is formed which means no clouds are
formed at Y

The Coriolis effect:

Theme 3: Economic Development

3.1- Development:

The HDI:

→ The HDI, Human Development Index is a set of factors which is used to measure the development of
a country.

→ It helps to motivate countries to spend money on things that will benefit the population

→ It is majorly based on three factors:

1. Life expectancy
2. Education (literacy rates, years in school)
3. A GNI per capita

Why is the HDI a good method to compare development:

● uses more than 1 factor

● indicator focus on different areas like life expectancy or GNI
● it is out of one so the comparison between countries is easier

Causes of uneven development:

Physical factors

● Being landlocked: since landlocked countries don't have any access to oceans, it limits
exportation and international trade and impedes the chances of expanding the economy.
● Extreme weather: due to climate change there is an increase in droughts or tropical storms.
These can destroy crops and infrastructure which can cost money to rebuild.
● Climate related diseases and pests: a warmer climate creates ideal conditions for parasites
and mosquitos to grow who can transfer deadly diseases like malaria. This reduces the workforce
and thus, has an impact on the economy. Furthermore it can kill livestock or crops.

Human factors
 ● Access to technology: this makes farming, which can be a source of income, a lot more
profitable. Technology also gives access to opportunities for creating networks and widen the
range of opportunities.
● Civil unrest: conflicts impede development and can cause corruption so this has an impact on
the economy.
● Access to food and water: Water is the capital for living and growing crops. Limited access to
clean water can kill people with illnesses like cholera. No food means that there is malnutrition so
the health care services are saturated and have an impact on the workforce.

Globalisation:

→ countries and nations being more united through exchange of goods and services

Causes of globalisation:

● containerization (shipping on boat containers) → large amounts of goods can be transported

at a time which makes the access to goods easier.
● improved air travel: air travel is cheaper, therefore more accessible to the public and it inclines
people to travel and discover the world
● Advances in communication technology: Access to internet and electronic devices has
improved communication between the country as well as the access to knowledge through
resources online.
● International organisations: organisations like the UN for example make the countries
cooperate between each other about different activities, like economic or military.

Impacts of globalisation:

Positive:

● TNCs (Transnational Corporations) can create new jobs for people in LEDCs when the company
changes location.
● TNC can bring wealth in the LEDCs are resources are bought or taxes payed to the country and
this can be used for development within the country
● Increases the awareness of different events happening in other parts of the world through news
channels

Negative:

● economic leakage, local businesses might fail

● impact on traditions and languages by taking out the identity of a country to replace it with the
western, and capitalistic society.
● People in MEDCs lose their jobs as TNCs move to LEDCs, in LEDCs people are paid low wages
to keep the manufacturing costs low. Infinite cycle of MEDCs getting richer and LEDCs getting
poorer.

Impacts on different scales:

Local:

● Reducing ecosystems and wildlife (chemical in the water pollution) which can cause acid rain
● can cause local stores to shut down
● decrease in authenticity within traditions

National:
 ● The companies pay taxes to the country
● Countries can get access to any products within the world

Global:

● Forest loss, wildlife at danger due to the pollution

● More communication between nations which can solve global conflicts

Transnational corporations:

advantages:

● brings in foreign currency which can be used to help development

● guarantees a constant revenue for workers + creates jobs
● can help people develop new skills

disadvantages:

● economic leakage
● very low wages
● damage on the environment through pollution

Case study- Toyota:

→ automobile industry from Japan

key facts:

● Founded in 1937, in Japan

● Worth 40% of Japanese motor vehicle market
● 5th largest TNC in the world, became officially TNC in 1995
● Sells vehicles in 170 countries

Positive effects of globalisation of Toyota:

● can benefit each countries for the specific skills required (e.g: cheap labour in LEDC and skilled
workforce in MEDCs)
● improve the sell of the cars as it can adapt to each market

Negative effects of globalisation of Toyota:

● causes environmental issue trough pollution

● bribery in political parties

Positives to the local country of Toyota opening a factory:

● Provides jobs, training and education to employees

● infrastructure in the country (roads, internet ect) have improved
● TNCs pay taxes to the government
● multiplier effect as worker might by food from local cafes etc

Negatives to the local country of Toyota opening a factory:

 ● Some corporations take advantage of the lack of laws regarding the environment/their workers.
● the most paid jobs are given to people from the country of origin of the TNC
● harsh/inhumane working conditions = problems within ethics

Sectors of industry:

Primary sector:

→ the extraction of raw material/natural resources

● e.g: fisherman, farmer

Secondary sector:

→ manufacturing: transforming raw materials into products

Tertiary sector:

→ services. no products are consumed

● e.g: teachers, nurses

Quaternary sector:

→ research, providing information services

3.2- Food production:

Types of agriculture:

Subsistence:

● When food is grown for private consumption, it is mostly found in LEDCs

Commercial:

● When the food is grown in large quantities to make profit by being sold. It is mostly found in
MEDCs

Intensive:

● When many inputs are used, like machinery, chemicals or labour in order to grow crops/livestock
in large quantities at a fast rate

Extensive:

● When more 'traditional' methods are being used, with goods cultivated in large areas with
minimal chemicals.

Pastoral:

● land used to produce livestock

Arable:
 ● soil made to grow crops:

Advantages of mixed farming:

● If crops fail the farmers will be able to depend on animals / crops;

● Animal manure can be used for crops;
● Crops waste can be used for animal feed;
● Animals used to plough fields;
● Work will be spread throughout the year;
● Income will come into the farm

Factors influencing farming:

Physical factors:

● Relief: if there are steep slopes it will be harder to plant crops and it also prevents tractors from
going to the crop site. In addition, rain will wash the soil of steep slopes
● Climate: Different crops require different climates. Plants also require different amounts of
rainfall, temperature and sunlight to grow.
● Soil fertility: If there aren't enough nutrients in the soil the crops won't grow effectively. In
addition the soil needs to be deep enough for the plant roots to develop and be more stable.

Human factors:

● Capital: if farmers have more money they can invest in improvements for their farm.
● Labour: if farmers can afford machinery they will need to reduce the workforce this makes it
cheaper and more efficient for farmers.
● Technology: technology provides a lot of support for farmers and allows more productive
outcomes.

Mini case study- Farming in Swaziland:

location:

Swaziland is an LEDC located in southern Africa. It is within the north east of south Africa. Its main
activity is exporting sugar made from sugar canes.

Inputs:

Human:

● Capital:
1. Buy the land
2. Build irrigation canals
3. Buy machinery
● Labour:
1. Skilled workers like engineers ect
2. People working in the field

Physical:
 ● Hot climate with a lot of hours of sunshine, which is necessary for growing sugarcane
● Flat land
● Water from unnatural sources

Processes:

● Due to the lack of rainfall, irrigation is needed. The water is brought from the irrigation canal
● Harvesting the sugar cane by burning the fields to remove the leaves
● Growth takes about a year

Outputs:

● Raw sugar and brown sugar

● Refined sugar
● Bagasse (fibre) is fed to animals
● Molasses (for production of alcohol which is sold to customers)

Food shortages:

Causes of food shortages:

Human causes:

● Wars: they impede investments in food production and increase malnutrition especially among
children.
● Soil exhaustion: over cropping land means that the soil will eventually lose its minerals and
therefore its fertility.
● Low capital investment: Leads to a vicious circle of not being able to afford improvements for
the crops and eventually causing a decrease in food production.

Natural causes:

● Floods: Many plantations are grown on floodplains because it requires less fertiliser, however
when floods occur crops are lost.
● Tropical storms: they destroy crops due to the strong winds.
● Droughts: if there is not enough rainfall, crops can be destroyed as plants need water to grow.

Effects and responses to food shortages:

Effects:

→ MALNUTRITION

● makes the body weak by reducing strength in bones and muscles

● limits activity and independence
● Leads to the saturation of medical services.

Responses:

Strategies to increase food supply:

● Hydroponic Aeroponic: ways of growing plants in air/water. This means that no soil is used so it
limits any pests spreading but is expensive.
● Green revolution: introduces farmers to new and stronger varieties, increasing yield. However, it
has left farmers in debt and destroys the environment due to fertilisers and chemicals.
 ● Biotechnology: using hybrid seeds or genetically modified seeds which brings more knowledge
and higher yield.
● Crop rotation

Food aid:

→ food aid is crucial and can save lives in places where there is famine

→ However, food aid does not have many long term effects

Negative impacts of food aid:

● can cause African farmers to grow out of business since they have competition against the food
aid, this means that they can't sell their crops and in the future can't provide food to the
population.

Case study- Horn of Africa

→ this was a severe drought which occurred from 2010 to 2011

→ the most impacted country was Somalia

→ impacted 9.2 M

Causes:

Natural causes:

● no rainfall, (climate change)

→ loss of 90% of livestock in Somalia

→ crops can't grow

→ decline of 30% of rain in eastern Africa

Human causes:

● Population increase: in Kenya the population has gone up by more than six times in the span of
just 60 years. This causes pressure on food suppliers, and creates less availability for food per
person.
● Poor infrastructure: makes it difficult for suppliers to access the areas.
● Civil war occurring in Somalia: Causes insecurity and violence
● Time taken by food aid to arrive: by the time it was here, many people had died

Effects:

Social:

● 260 000 deaths in Somalia

● 920 000 refugees have left from Somalia to neighbouring countries, causing overcrowding in
refugee camps.
● Rise in infant mortality, deaths due to famine among children under 5, 30% of children suffering
from acute malnutrition
Economic:

● 12M of people are in need of food aid, with almost 3M in Somalia only.
● Price of stable food has significantly risen, more than 68%
● Almost 2.5B $ were requested to address the crisis

Environmental:

● Many crops in drought prone land have died

● Rates of deforestation increase as wood is needed for the shelters.

Responses:

● fortified food is distributed to enhance nutritional intake

● rehabilitation of infrastructures, like ports or roads to facilitate access.

3.3- Industrial Systems:

Industrial sectors and economic development:

● As a country becomes more economically developed, the % of population employed in the

primary industries decreases while the % of population employed in tertiary sector
increases
● MEDCs are developed enough to offer services and therefore a better quality of life to the
population.
● In MEDCs there are less jobs in the primary sector since a lot is imported from LEDCs.
● In LEDCs, services are difficult for people to afford so it makes most of its profit in primary sector
by extracting raw materials and selling them to MEDCs

System model:

inputs (raw materials, site, water supply, labour, capital) → processes (manufacturing, assembling)→ it
can have NEGATIVE (waste, pollution) or POSITIVE (products) outputs → ←feedback

Transnational companies (TNC) :

Influences on LEDCs:

positive:

● provides jobs
● improves skills
● brings in foreign currency
● helps with the development of local infrastructures (road, ect..)

negative:

● TNCs can suddenly leave the country, leaving unemployed people

● the jobs are low payed and the workers can work in bad conditions
● not a lot of local people are employed, most of them come from the origin country
● foreign currency can cause inflation
Factors affecting TNCs location:

Human factors:

● Capital: finance is more freely available in certain countries

● Labour: different levels of skills are needed in different industries
● Transport: access to shipping for bulky good, air transport for high tech
● Markets: increasing importance of access to customers
● Governments: tax systems on goods

Physical factors:

● Raw materials: important to be close to raw materials to facilitate transport

● Site: cheap land, flat and well drained
● Energy: cheap power

Case study- The Silicon Valley:

→ The Silicon Valley stretches along the south shore of San Francisco bay in California.

→ it regroups high tech industries

Reasons for the location of the Silicon Valley:

1. Companies supply and help each other, e.g: HP and Apple get their microprocessor chips from
the same companies
2. Proximity to universities: the silicon valley is located to Stanford so the knowledge of research
students can help to develop the industry and the industries also have access to the research
paper to have advantage on competitors
3. Location near roads and airport: this facilitates the transport of good and communication
4. Pretty scenery and good climate : this attracts skilled workforce to work there

3.4- Tourism:
→ Tourism is defined as travel away from your home environment, for leisure, holidays and to visit
friends and family.

Reasons for the growth of tourism:

● Paid vacations: people have more time to go on holidays without worrying about their salary.
● Decreasing costs of travelling and higher wages: Travelling abroad is more affordable and
faster, increase in commercial availability of air traffic.
● More elderly populations: elderly population have more free time and money to spend on
leisure activities and tourism.
● Global connectivity: there are more options of destination, increase of international migration so
people travel to see family and friends. Book flights or hotels

Impacts of tourism:

positive:

● Jobs are created which brings more money to the country

● Local traditions are kept alive as tourists enjoy them
● Money can be used to protect the natural environment
 ● Providing jobs in rural areas reduce the rural urban migration and prevent development of slums
● Building new infrastructures with money gained: building airports, roads, installation of electricity
grid, sewage system…

negative:

● Economic leakage occurs (tourist spending money on international companies rather than local
businesses)
● The use of resources by tourists can create an inflation of prices for local population
● the jobs are only seasonal, overreliance on tourism which creates economical problems
● Causes damage on the natural environment due to littering for example

Case study- Jamaica:

→ located in the Caribbean sea

→ Jamaica is popular for beaches + good climate

Positive impacts of tourism in Jamaica:

● 16% of GDP comes from tourism

● Tourism is popular on northern coast, many resorts + beaches
● Many job opportunities and helps Jamaican to gain skills
● Taxes paid by businesses help Jamaica to develop

Negative impacts of tourism in Jamaica:

→ Impacts on natural environment:

● In Negril, mangroves are removed which increases the erosion of beaches.

● Jet ski damages coral reefs
● Increase of congestion and noise pollution

3.5- Energy:
→ Renewable energy sources: resources that can be easily replaced or renewed

→ Non-renewable energy sources: resources that can be used up and cannot be replaced

Energy and Development:

Why do richer countries use more energy:

● Availability of electricity increases with development
● Lack of national grid and homes being connected to it in rural areas in LEDCs
● MEDCs use more energy in industrial processes or farming
● Where there is from GDP people are more likely to use home appliances

→ As the world’s population continues to grow and as people's level of development continues to grow,
so does the demand for energy. In traditional less developed societies the main source of energy tends
to be fuelwood.
→ As countries begin to develop they can begin to afford to buy raw materials and to build power
stations. Most commonly fossil fuels are burned because the technology exists and at the moment they
are widely available.

→ However, as countries develop further their sources of energy may change again. They will probably
still be heavily dependent on fossil fuels, but will begin to use more renewable energy and probably more
nuclear power.

The reasons for the change include:

● Greater concern for the environment

● Rising prices of fossil fuels
● The knowledge that fossil fuels are finite
● Aim to reduce reliance on fossil fuel exporting countries
● Improvements in renewable technology
● The hope of developing and selling renewable technology
● Better technology and increased stability allowing nuclear development

Why should LEDCs not rely on MEDCs for gas supply:

● Expensive on the long term
● prices fluctuate
● reliance on a non renewable fuel
● could be damages on pipelines
● the supply could be restricted due to political issues

Non-renewable energy:

Fossil fuels:

How are they formed ?

1. Million years ago, dead animals and plants have built up on the sea bed.
2. Their remains were covered by mud
3. The mud layer started to change into rock as the temperature and pressure increased
4. The remains were chemically changed to form fossil fuels and gas

Name ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

:

Coal - No processing needed - Cheap to - Gives off sulphur dioxide which causes
mine - Coal supplies last longer than acid rains - Releases greenhouse gases
oil and gas when burnt

Oil - Cheap to extract - Easy to turn into - price of oil is rising

energy

Gas - Cheap - Easy to transport - Cleaner - a lot of economies are more and more
fuel than oil or coal relying on gas

Nuclear energy:

Positive aspects:

● Only a small amount of radioactive material is needed to produce a lot of energy

 ● Raw materials are cheap and last a long time
● Doesn’t release atmospheric pollutants

Negative aspects:

● Nuclear waste is highly toxic and needs to be stored for thousands of years
● Radioactive radiation released which can cause accidents
● Radioactivity causes diseases like cancer or leukaemia.
● Expensive

Fuelwood:

→ In LEDCs the countries don't have a lot of access to electricity so they rely on burning wood to release
energy

● it is very accessible

BUT:

● causes deforestation
● is only sustainable if it is replaced

Renewable energy:

Solar energy:

→ Energy from sunlight is collected by solar panels and then converted into electricity.

advantages:

● Doesn't produce atmospheric pollutants

● Free fuel
● Individuals can have their own electricity supply

disadvantages:

● Doesn't generate enough power for certain things

● Can be expensive
● Depends on the weather

Hydro-electric energy:

→ Energy made from the movement of water through dams and reservoirs

advantages:

● creates energy supplies

● the water reservoirs created can be used for other things

disadvantages:

● causes displacement of population

 ● destroy wildlife habitat
● expensive

Wind energy:

→ Wind turbines turn wind energy into electricity

advantages:

● fuel is free
● wind is stronger in winter and consumption of energy peaks in winter
● energy can be stored
● space efficient

disadvantages:

● noise + visual pollution

● only works when there is wind
● expensive

Tidal and wave energy:

→ using the movement of water to create energy

advantages:

● tidal barrage can double up as bridges

● has potential to create a lot of energy

disadvantages:

● turbines kills aquatic animals

● only suitable for certain estuaries
● blocks shipping routes
● not available for landlocked countries

Biomass energy:

→ Using decaying plant/animal matter to burn and produce energy

advantages:

● very cheap
● is 'carbon neutral' i.e: the crops absorb CO2 when they grow put it back in atmosphere when it is
burnt

disadvantages:

● can only be considered renewable if it is replaced

● decrease in food supply
● too many resources are used to make the crops grow
Case study- Energy use in the UK:

Decrease in the use of coal:

→ most brutal decrease was in the mid 1980 to the 1990 due to the miner’s strike

→ cheap import from the USA means price has fallen in past 4 years

→ COP26 was hosted in Scotland to reduce the use of coal around the world

Decrease in the use of oil:

→ Big fall in 1990s as use of gas from the north sea increased

→ production declining in the long term, about 8%/year

→ more import than export of oil

Increase in the use of gas:

→ gas is dominant fossil fuel: less polluting+easier to transport

→ it is also cheaper because there are a lot of gas reserves in the north sea so it is piped from there
which reduces transport costs

Increase in the use of biofuels:

→ Biofuel is very popular but not so good for environment as it releases greenhouse gases

→ The source of biomass burned is generally wood pellets

→ This source of energy is easy, quick and cheap

Increase in the use of wind power:

→ Wind energy is the most popular renewable energy source in the UK and a lot of money has been
invested

→ Many windfarms in Scotland & Wales + they are increasing in size and number as people don’t mind
living near the wind turbines
Expansion of renewable energy:

→ UK aims to reach 15% of energy coming from renewable energy in 2020

→ The UK is investing more and more money in this area

→ Many agreements have sparked to reduce the use of fossil fuel like the ‘Energy Bill’ in 2013

3.6- Water:

Causes and impacts of water shortages:

● long periods of drought, with pressure from population
● overuse of water supply from agriculture of irrigation
● inadequate supply of bodies of water

→ Water Pollution:

● If the water is polluted, it cannot be used in many fields of economic sectors which reduces the
availability of water to the rest of the population
● The water treatment costs increases which makes it more difficult for some countries to afford it,
leading to death due to water pollution

→ Waterborne diseases:

● Diseases caused by contaminated water such as cholera can spread and cause death
● The viruses can pollute groundwater and surface which means there are many chances of
getting the disease if it is not treated.

→ Food production:

● Agriculture uses a lot of water to grow fruits and vegetables.

● This means that in countries with a lack of rainfall, farmers can’t harvest anything, ending up
having to sell possessions.
● Less calories available, worse health as no nutrients from fruits and vegetables.

→ Conflict:

● Control of water sources, access to water is limited, and causes tensions.

● Conflict in a country means the water from systems or sources is used for powering weapons.
● Buildings dams to increase supply can affect downstream flow of other countries which creates
tensions between countries

Strategies to increase water supply:

Boreholes and Wells:

→ When machines dig down underground to reach the water table where underground water is found.
The water is taken out from the hole either using a bucket or pump
Advantages:

● Good for small settlement in poorer countries to have a source of water for the village
● Gives access to nearly endless supply of water

Disadvantages:

● The equipment used to dig the ground can be expensive and requires knowledge so poor
countries depend on MEDCs to build them
● The water requires treatment to bacteria and it could contains harmful things like arsenic

Dams and Reservoirs:

→ Consist of building a large wall across a river which stores the water in reservoirs

Advantages:

● The water can be released gradually in drier periods

● Large amount of water can be stored at once

Disadvantages:

● Expensive to build and maintain

● Causes displacement of population
● Reduces flow of water downstream

Desalination:

→ Extract the salt from sea water to obtain purified water.

Advantages:

● Good for countries which are rich but dry

● Makes a large volume of clean water

Disadvantages:

● Uses a lot of energy so it tends to be more expensive

● Impacts of ecosystems as the salt remains are put back to the sea

Case Study- Lesotho’s Highland Water Project:

Location of Lesotho:

● Lesotho is an LEDC, which is enclosed in a mountainous region of South Africa

● The orange river passes through it which causes precipitation, meaning there is a lot of water

What does the Highland Water Project consist of ?

→ Involves building dams of the Orange River and creating huge artificial lakes.
→ This water is diverted through tunnels under the mountains to the Vaal Dam which supplies the urban
densely populated areas around it.

Why was this location chosen ?

● 1000mm of rainfall/year
● The dam can generate hydro electricity as well as create large reservoirs.
● Deep and steep valleys
● Water collected is sold in regions of Johannesburg and Pretoria

How does it affect Lesotho ?

Advantages for Lesotho:

● Provides with 75% of GDP since South Africa pays about 1.5M$ a month for the water supply
● Hydroelectricity generated and the money gained has improved the quality of life for the
inhabitants.
● Better transport infrastructures since roads were built for the construction site

Disadvantages for Lesotho:

● Caused the displacement of 30 000 people to build the dam and it has decreased the agricultural
land available
● Conflict in land use and corruption has prevented investments to occur
● The dams has threatened the alpine and wetland wildlife which could go extinct

How does it affect South Africa ?

Advantages for South Africa:

● Since 10% of the population doesn’t have access to safe water, it can be supplied to them
● The Vaal Dam was previously acidic due to pollution from industries and was destroying
ecosystems, the fresh water has made it less acidic

Disadvantages for South Africa:

● Very expensive: costs are reaching up to 4B$

● Leakages occur which causes about 40% of the water to be lost

● Inflation in the price of water

3.7- Economic development on the environment:

Pollution:
Types of pollutions:

Air pollution:

→ Causes:

● vehicle pollution
 ● fumes produced by factories

→ Problems:

● Causes breathing conditions such as asthma

● Can create acid rains
● contributes to global warming

Water pollution:

→ Causes:

● pesticides from farming

● oil spills
● sewage

→ Problems:

● Destroys ecosystems due to eutrophication

● Disturbs the water cycle

Visual pollution:

→ Causes:

● people throwing trash on the streets

● graffities

→ Problems:

● attracts animals like rats or cockroaches which spread diseases

Noise pollution:

→ Causes:

● Noise of traffic
● Renovations

→ Problems:

● reduces sleep so it impacts on mental health and performance at work

● Can cause hear loss
● Disrupts migration patterns

Climate Change:
How does the enhanced greenhouse effect occur ?

1. Solar radiation is emitted by the sun which passes through the Earth’s atmosphere. Some of this
radiation is absorbed but the rest is re-emitted back into the atmosphere.
2. However, greenhouse gases absorb the solar radiation and trap it in the earth’s atmosphere
which causes less heat to escape into space.
 3. Therefore, there is an increase in temperature in the atmosphere

Causes of climate change:

Agriculture:

How is it responsible:

→ In agriculture, methane, a gas which traps even more heat than carbon dioxide, is released.

→ In cattle ranching, methane is produced in large amounts.

→ This is an issue since as the standards of life in the world increases, so does meat consumption.

Key facts:

● agriculture accounts for 20% of greenhouse gases emission

● 1 cow can produce 50 litres of methane per day

Deforestation:

How is it responsible:

→ Deforestation occurs for many reasons such as logging wood, building roads or clearing land for
agriculture.

→ Since trees absorb carbon dioxide in photosynthesis, it disrupts the carbon cycle and means less
carbon dioxide can be absorbed by trees.

→ To clear land the trees are burnt which releases even more carbon dioxide

Key facts:

● It releases 4.8B tons of carbon dioxide a year

● Responsible for 10% of human emissions

Burning fossil fuels:

How is it responsible:

→ Burning fossil fuels such as carbon dioxide releases greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.

→ These gases trap heat and contribute to global warming.

→ The problem is enhanced by a growing consumption of energy

Key facts:

● Responsible for 50% of global greenhouses gases emission

 ● In 2019, 136 TWh of energy consumption by fossil fuels were used

Soil erosion:
→ The deterioration of soil and water quality in the top layer of the soil, most of the nutrients are present
there.

Impacts:

● Loss of farmland
● Loss of vegetation
● soil is washed away/soil is bare
● nutrient deficiency
● causes flooding

Causes:

● deforestation- soil is loosened and can't retain moisture

● over cultivation
● removes nutrient from soil/destroys structure of the soil as roots can't hold the soil in place
● heavy rainfall washes away the soil
● wind blows away the soil

Desertification:
→ The process by which land becomes drier and degraded.

Causes:

● Overgrazing: removes the grass and vegetation that protects the soil from eroding
● Over cultivation: exhaust the nutrients from the soil
● Deforestation: it disrupts water cycles as transpiration and evaporation can’t occur causing less
precipitation
● Global warming: increasing temperatures

Impacts:

● Deteriorates the quality of water as the salt levels in the soil rise
● Silting of rivers
● Loss of the areas means that less profit is made
● Hunger and poverty
● Mass migration as people feel threatened and decide to move elsewhere

Solutions:

● Fertilise the land with organic matter as a cheap alternative or with fertiliser
● Combat the effects of the wind by stabilising dunes with plants such as marram grass.
● Afforestation to support the soil and clean the air
● Sustainable agricultural practises

Sustainable development:
→ Sustainable development: Development which uses available resources in the present without
compromising the needs of future generations (relies on a combination economic, environmental and
social factors to be sustainable)

→ Resource conservation: The ethical use and protection of natural resources by maintaining the natural
world.

Sustainability in different areas:

Farming:

→ Farming causes deforestation since it requires a lot of land space. In order to get rid of vegetation,
they are burned down which releases greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

Solutions:

● Use of aeroponics or aquaponics

● Encourage subsistence farming and urban vegetable gardens/urban horticulture
● Encourage organic farming (i.e: use animal manure as fertilizer, avoid chemical pesticides)

Industry:

→ Overconsumption of goods (e.g: clothing) which creates waste, making it difficult to get rid of. The
production of goods also has a carbon footprint from production or shipping to countries. Can also cause
pollution in bodies of water due to toxic chemicals being used.

Solutions:

● Cofiring: consists of burning fossil fuels along side biomass

● Using combined cycle systems: consists of re-use waste heat from fossil fuel powered stations
● Reducing use of harmful chemicals and find alternatives to them

Tourism:

→ Can cause littering, which disrupts ecosystems and destroys them

Solutions:

● Employ local people - gives them salary but also promotes culture
● Promote conservation of nature (e.g: planting tree in a natural reserve)
● Use renewable resources in order to provide energy (e.g: solar panels to heat the water)
● Spend the money made by tourism in accordance with developing the area (e.g: in schools,
hospitals)

Energy:

→ Burns fossil fuels which causes the release of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, contributing to
global warming.
Solutions:

● Installing better insulation in homes to avoid wasting energy in air conditioning and heating
● Using electrical/hybrid cars and use public transport
● Increase in geothermal power use, wind turbines and solar panels

Water:

→ Waste of water causes lack of water which leads to water shortages and droughts.

Solutions:

● Desalination and recharging underground water storage (diverting water into porous rocks in
periods of rainfall)
● Grey water recycling (Re-using wastewater for tasks that do not require perfectly clean water)
● Using household appliances which uses less energy and water

Case study- Alaska oil pipeline:

→ Being one of the states of America, Alaska is located in the north-west of Canada.

Key facts:

→ Length of 1300km from Prudhoe Bay in the north of Alaska until Valdez in the south of Alaska.

→ Construction lasted 3 years: from 1974-1977

→ Cost of construction was 8B$

→ Field of petroleum industry is worth 85% of Alaska’s revenues

Why was it built:

● There is a big reserve of oil in the North of Alaska

● Due to the cold temperatures and the harsh winters the oil was hard to transport by ship.
● The only way of transporting the oil was to construct a pipe that would bring the oil to ports in the
south which had better weather conditions

Problems faced and their solutions:

Environmental:

→ The pipeline is prone to earthquakes:

 ● The structures that raise the pipeline can move if an earthquake happens. The pipe also has
detectors to stop oil flow if an earthquake occurs

→ As the oil travels, it has to be heated which meant it couldn't be buried as it would melt the permafrost:

● The pipeline is raised off of the ground and the pipe is insulated to avoid permafrost melt.

→ The pipeline crosses migration path of animals such as Caribous:

● The pipe is raised high enough for animals to pass under

Social and economical:

→ The pipeline crossed the territories of native tribes which were opposed to the construction. In
addition many people delayed the construction as they believe the tundra should remain untouched.

→ As many people migrated to Valdez due to the job opportunities, the rate of crimes blew off. This is
due to police forces preferring to be employed as a pipeline security guard as it offered better pays.