BCEE 2202 THEORY OF STRUCTURES (STATICS AND DYNAMICS) (3 CU)

TOPIC 2: STRESS/STRAIN AND STRUCTURES ANALYSIS OVERVIEW

Topic content

• Introduction
• Support conditions
• Stress and strain
• Equations of equilibrium
• Analysis of determinate structures (overview)
• Maximum shear stresses

Topic learning objectives

The students are expected to;

• Be able to understand the aspects of Stress-strain relationship,
• Model an appropriate structure with correct support conditions generated
reaction forces
• Be able to perform simple structures analysis and write the equations of
static equilibrium

2.1 Introduction

During analysis, there are two forms of structures that are usually considered for
analysis i.e.

(i) Statically determinate structures and

(ii) Statically indeterminate structures.

Structural stress analysis is performed in order to ensure that a structure will fulfill its
intended function in a given loads environment. Therefore, it is important to anticipate
all the possible failure modes and design against them.

As a general rule, a structure can be identified as being either statically determinate

or statically indeterminate by drawing free-body diagrams of all its members, or
selective parts of its members, and then comparing the total number of unknown
reactive force and moment components with the total number of available equilibrium
equations.

Statically determinate structures can be analyzed/solved using only the static

equilibrium equations whereas, using the statically indeterminate structures require
compatibility conditions or principle of superposition in addition to the static
equilibrium conditions.

2.2 Support conditions

To analyze a beam accurately the support conditions must be modeled appropriately,

and the concepts of “pinned” and “fixed” support conditions has been used in this
discussion. “Pinned” supports act like hinges and provide no resistance to rotation,
whereas “fixed” supports are rigid and provide full resistance to rotation.

Structural members are joined together in various ways depending on the intent of the
designer.
The three types of joints most often specified are:
(i) Pin connection,
(ii) The roller support, and
(iii) The fixed joint.
A pin-connected joint and a roller support allow some freedom for slight rotation,
whereas a fixed joint allows no relative rotation between the connected members and
is consequently more expensive to fabricate.

Examples of these joints, fashioned in metal and concrete, are shown in Figs. 2–1 and
2–2, respectively. For most timber structures, the members are assumed to be pin
connected, since bolting or nailing them will not sufficiently restrain them from rotating
with respect to each other.

Idealized models used in structural analysis that represent pinned and fixed supports
and pin-connected and fixed-connected joints are shown in Figs. 2–3a and 2–3b.
Figs. 2–1

Fig 2.2

Figs. 2–3
Simply Supported Beams
These are beams with pinned supports at both ends.
Considering the pinned support conditions in the context of the loaded frame (see
Figure 2-4), it can be seen that the loaded beam cannot transfer any moment into the
supporting columns. When load is applied to the beam the bottom face at mid-span will
experience tension while the top face will be in compression. This is termed a “sagging”
moment. The shear force applied to the beam is resisted by internal shear forces within
it, which are transferred through the pinned connection into the column as axial forces.
Pinned connections are simpler to construct and less expensive than fixed connections
because they are not required to resist any transferred moment and allow smaller, more
slender columns to be utilized.

Figure 2-4: Simply supported Beam

Fully Fixed Beams

These are beam with fixed supports at both ends.
Considering the fixed support conditions in the context of the loaded frame indicated
in the Figure 2-5, it can be seen that no rotation between the column and beam can
occur because as the beam deflects under load the column will also be forced to
deflect. This alters the deflected shape of the fixed frame in comparison to the pinned
frame. A sagging moment is also developed at the mid-span of the fixed frame, as well
as the fixed frame moments also develop at the supports whereby the forces are
reversed, with tension developing in the upper section of the beam and compression in
the lower section. This is termed a “hogging” moment. The point along a fixed beam
at which sagging moment turns to hogging moment (i.e. the point at which the moment
is zero) is known as a point of contraflexure. Internal shearing forces are transferred
through the fixed connection and into the columns as axial loads in a similar manner to
pinned connections.
Fixed connections reduce the mid-span bending moment and deflection of a beam
significantly in comparison to pinned connections, enabling the use of smaller beams.
Another significant advantage of frames with fixed connections is their ability to resist
lateral loads without collapsing, as pinned frames would.

Figure 2-5: Fully Fixed Beam

Generally, the concept of fixed and pinned supports is theoretical in practice as very
few connections behave as either purely pinned or rigidly fixed. These concepts are
useful at the preliminary design stages to quickly assess beam and column sizes and a
building’s resistance to lateral forces.
Beyond the preliminary design stages connections are either designed as pinned, and
the connection details are developed to accommodate a degree of rotation, or the
moment transfer between the beam and column is calculated subject to the relative
stiffness of the members, and the connection is designed to be capable of transferring
this moment.
2.3 Stress and Strain

2.3.1 Stress

Types of stresses

1. Direct stresses

(a) Tension (b) Compression (c) Shear

2. Indirect Stresses

(a) Bending (b) Torsion

3. Combined stress

Possible combination of 1 and 2

2.3.2 Strain

When a sample of material is placed under load it will undergo some deformation. This
deformation will be either via elongation, compression, or shearing depending on how
the load is applied. Strain is a measurement of the ratio of the extent of deformation
under load against the original dimension of a sample of material. There are several
different types of strain including linear, volumetric, and shear (see Figure 2-6). Linear
strain is the ratio of the elongation under axial load against the original length. This is
written as:
Strain, ε = δ / l
Where; δ = deformation, and l = original length
 Fig2-6 : Types of strain
L = original dimension; δ = deformation; W = force
Reference: recall your construction/structural materials/strength of materials
knowledge

2.3.3 Constitutive Relations (Stress/Strain Relations)

For deformable solid bodies, understanding their deformation behavior under the given
stress/loading condition (based on the equilibrium) is of primary importance.
Equilibrium equations helps in obtaining the forces that are acting, both internally and
externally at various parts of a body. The deformation behavior in such a system is
studied through various parameters, such as strain, displacement, rotation, etc. These
deformation parameters are obtained based on the stress-strain relations of the
material which the deformable solid is made of. These are known as Constitutive
Relations and are material-specific. The stress-strain diagram for ductile steel (Fig 2-7)
based on a tension test is an example of constitutive relations. It gives a relation
between the engineering (tensile) stress (  ) and engineering (tensile) strain (  ) for
ductile steel at different stress (or strain) values.
The straight line area indicates the linearly elastic region. In this area the material
adheres to Hooke’s Law and returns to its original size as load is released. The ratio of
stress divided by strain in this region is a constant value known as the elastic modulus.
For tensile forces that induce tensile stresses and strains, this is more commonly known
as Young’s modulus. Other elastic moduli include the shear modulus, volumetric
modulus, and Poisson’s ratio, all of which are explained in constitutive relations.

Fig 2-7: Stress-strain diagram for ductile steel

Similar stress-strain diagram can be obtained (through experiments) for different

materials (aluminium, wood, tool steel, concrete, etc.) and for different types of
deformation (uniaxial tensile and compressive, shear, transverse, dilatational, etc.).
For ease of use, these relations are idealized into simple mathematical rules; and for
Structural Analysis, we will limit ourselves to linear elastic isotropic homogeneous
materials only.
A linear elastic material is one with a linear stress-strain relation and when the material
is unloaded it traces back the same stress-strain (loading) path. In other words, stress
is a single-valued linear function of strain. E.g. the behavior of ductile steel from point
“O” to “A” (Figure 2-7) is linear elastic.
An isotropic material has non-directional constitutive relations (same for any direction
in space, x, y or z) and it will be homogeneous if it displays the same properties (e.g.
a constitutive relation) at any point of the system (same properties at [ x1 , y1 , z1 ] and
[ x2 , y 2 , z 2 ]).
Some basic constitutive relations for a linear elastic isotropic homogeneous material
are briefly discussed below:
Modulus of Elasticity
Hooke's Law provides us the relation for uniaxial stress
 = E (2.1)
The constant of proportionality is called the elastic modulus, modulus of elasticity or
Young's modulus. Since  is dimensionless the unit of E is same as that of uniaxial stress
(e.g. N / mm 2 ).
Poisson's Ratio
Uniaxial forces strains are not only in its direction, but also in the transverse/lateral
directions. For tensile strain in the axial direction, there will always be compressive
strains in the lateral directions, and vice versa; and Poisson's Ratio (  ) relates the
lateral strains to the axial strain.
Lateral Strain
 =− (2.2)
Axial Strain

Note that this ratio is always a dimensionless positive number.

Coefficient of Linear Thermal Expansion
Linear thermal strain (  T ) due to change in temperature ( T ) is obtained by using
this coefficient (  ), which has units of per degrees Centigrade (or Fahrenheit)
  T = T (2.3)
Shear Modulus
For shear stress (  ) and shear strain (  ), we have a constitutive relation similar to the
Hooke's Law for linear stress and strain.
 = G (2.4)
The constant of proportionality (G) is known as the shear modulus or modulus of
rigidity. It has same units as modulus of elasticity (E). It can be proved that:
E
G= (2.5)
2(1 + )
Dilatation and Bulk Modulus
Dilatation (e) is defined as the change of volume per unit volume
e = x +y +z (2.6)

If a three-dimensional body is subjected to uniform hydrostatic pressure p, then the

ratio of this (compressive) pressure to the dilatation is known as the bulk modulus or
modulus of compression. (k)
p E
k =− = (2.7)
e 3(1 − 2 )

2.4 Equations of Equilibrium

To achieve static equilibrium, Newton’s third law of motion must be adhered to; where
the applied loads on any structure must be resisted by equal and opposite forces.

The concept of static equilibrium is fundamental to the analysis of structural systems,

and the analysis technique called the “Method of Sections”, can be applied to indicate
how the concepts of static equilibrium can be used to calculate the forces in the
internal members of a loaded truss.

In general this requires that the force and moment equations of equilibrium be satisfied
along three independent axes, namely,
 (2.8)

Whenever these equations are applied, it is first necessary to draw a free-body diagram
of the structure or its members. If a member is selected, it must be isolated from its
supports and surroundings and its outlined shape drawn. All the forces and couple
moments must be shown that act on the member.

If the internal loadings at a specified point in a member are to be determined, the

method of sections must be used. This requires that a “cut” or section be made
perpendicular to the axis of the member at the point where the internal loading is to
be determined. A free-body diagram of either segment of the “cut” member is isolated
and the internal loads are then determined from the equations of equilibrium applied
to the segment. In general, the internal loadings acting at the section will consist of a
normal force N, shear force V, and bending moment M, as shown in Fig. 2–18.

Example 1: This concept can be demonstrated with a simple seesaw, where both of the
following conditions need to be met:

i) The resultant/sum of the applied vertical loads are resisted by equal and opposite
reaction forces. Hence, 𝑊1 + 𝑊2 = 𝑅
ii) The resultant/sum of the moments around any arbitrary point is zero. ∑ 𝑀 = 0

Hence considering the counterclockwise bending moment developed around the pivot
point; 𝑀𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘 = 𝑊1 ∗ 𝐿1

And the clockwise bending moment around the same point: 𝑀𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘 = 𝑊2 ∗ 𝐿1

Implying, 𝑀𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘 = 𝑀𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘 ; 𝑊1 ∗ 𝐿1 = 𝑊2 ∗ 𝐿1 at static equilibrium.

Analysis of determinate structures overview

Common Beam Formulae:

a) Simply supported beam (SSB) formulae for common load cases

Note: W = point load (Newton); ω = uniformly distributed load (Newton/m); R =

Reaction forces; L = Length (meters, m); I = Second moment of area E = Young’s modulus

(i) SSB with central point load (ii) SSB with uniformly distributed
load
b) Fully fixed beam (FFB) formulae for common load cases
(i) FFB with central point load (ii) FFB with uniformly distributed load
2.7 Analysis of statically determinate structures

2.7.1 Solving for Reactions in Beams

Example 1: Determine the reactions on the beam shown

Solution

FBD
Example 2: Determine the reactions on the beam shown. Assume A is a pin and the
support at
B is a roller (smooth surface).

Solution
Example 3: The compound beam in figure below is fixed at A. Determine the reactions
at A, B, and C. Assume that the connection at pin and C is a roller.

Solution
2.7.2 Solving Reactions for Frames

Example1: Find the reactions for the shown below

Solution

FBR
Example 2: From the figure below, determine the horizontal and vertical components
of reaction at the pin connections A, B, and C of the supporting gable frame.

Solution
2.8 Analyzing Truss Systems

Different methods can be applied to solve for forces in a truss system i.e.

the method of joints, method of sections.

2.8.1 The Method of Joints

If a truss is in equilibrium, then each of its joints must also be in equilibrium. Hence,
the method of joints consists of satisfying the equilibrium conditions and for the forces
exerted on the pin at each joint of the truss.
When using the method of joints, it is necessary to draw each joint’s free-body diagram
before applying the equilibrium equations.
Recall that the line of action of each member force acting on the joint is specified from
the geometry of the truss, since the force in a member passes along the axis of the
member.
In all cases, the joint analysis should start at a joint having at least one known force
and at most two unknown forces, as in Fig. 2-8b. In this way, application of and yields
two algebraic equations that can be solved for the two unknowns

Fig 2-8
When applying these equations, the correct sense of an unknown member force can be
determined using one of two possible methods.
1. Always assume the unknown member forces acting on the joint’s free-body
diagram to be in tension, i.e., “pulling” on the pin. If this is done, then numerical
solution of the equilibrium equations will yield positive scalars for members in tension
and negative scalars for members in compression. Once an unknown member force is
found, use its correct magnitude and sense (T or C) on subsequent joint free-body
diagrams.
2. The correct sense of direction of an unknown member force can, in many cases,
be determined “by inspection” For example, in
Fig. 3–19b must push on the pin (compression) since its horizontal component, sin 45°,
must balance the 500-N force
Likewise, is a tensile force since it balances the vertical component, cos 45° In more
complicated cases, the sense of an unknown member force can be assumed; then, after
applying the equilibrium equations, the assumed sense can be verified from the
numerical results. A positive answer indicates that the sense is correct, whereas a
negative answer indicates that the sense shown on the free-body diagram must be
reversed. This is the method we will use in the example problems which follow.
Procedure of analysis using the joint method
• Draw the free-body diagram of a joint having at least one known force and at
most two unknown forces. (If this joint is at one of the supports, it may be
necessary to calculate the external reactions at the supports by drawing a free-
body diagram of the entire truss.)
• Use one of the two methods previously described for establishing the sense of an
unknown force.
• The x and y axes should be oriented such that the forces on the free-body
diagram can be easily resolved into their x and y components. Apply the two
force equilibrium equations and solve for the two unknown member forces, and
verify their correct directional sense.
• Continue to analyze each of the other joints, where again it is necessary to
choose a joint having at most two unknowns and at least one known force.
 • Once the force in a member is found from the analysis of a joint at one of its
ends, the result can be used to analyze the forces acting on the joint at its other
end. Remember, a member in compression “pushes” on the joint and a member
in tension “pulls” on the joint.

Example 2.1
Determine the force in each member of the roof truss shown in Fig 3-20. The dimensions
and loadings are shown. State whether the members are in tension or compression.

Fig 3-20.
Zero-force members

Truss analysis using the method of joints is greatly simplified if one is able to first
determine those members that support no loading. These zero-force members may be
necessary for the stability of the truss during construction and to provide support if the
applied loading is changed.
The zero-force members of a truss can generally be determined by inspection of the
joints, and they occur in two cases.
Case 1: if three members form a truss joint for which two of the members are collinear,
the third member is a zero-force member, provided no external force or support
reaction is applied to the joint.
For example; consider the truss in Fig. 2-9a. The two members at joint C are connected
together at a right angle and there is no external load on the joint. The free-body
diagram of joint C, Fig. 2-9b, indicates that the force in each member must be zero in
order to maintain equilibrium. Furthermore, as in the case of joint A, Fig. 2-9c, this
must be true regardless of the angle, say between the members.

Fig 2-9
Case 2: Particular attention should be directed to these conditions of joint geometry
and loading, since the analysis of a truss can be considerably simplified by first spotting
the zero-force members.
For example; Zero-force members also occur at joints having a geometry as joint D in
Fig. 2-10 a. Here no external load acts on the joint, so that a force summation in the y
direction, Fig. 2-10b, which is perpendicular to the two collinear members, requires
that using this result, FC is also a zero-force member, as indicated by the force analysis
of joint F, Fig. 2-10c.

Fig 2-10
In summary, then, if only two non-collinear members form a truss joint and no external
load or support reaction is applied to the joint, the members must be zero-force
members,
Example 2.2
Find the force in each truss element shown in Fig 2-11. Consider the support at A to be
a roller support and that at B to be a pin support.

Fig 2-11
Solution

First we solve for the reaction forces due to the support conditions, then determine the
member forces by analyzing each joint separately.
2.8.2 The Method of Sections
If the forces in only a few members of a truss are to be found, the method of sections
generally provides the most direct means of obtaining these forces. The method of
sections consists of passing an imaginary section through the truss, thus cutting it into
two parts. Provided the entire truss is in equilibrium, each of the two parts must also
be in equilibrium; and as a result, the three equations of equilibrium may be applied
to either one of these two parts to determine the member forces at the “cut section.”
When the method of sections is used to determine the force in a particular member, a
decision must be made as to how to “cut” or section the truss. Since only three
independent equilibrium equations (∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0; ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0; ∑ 𝑀 = 0 ) can be applied to the
isolated portion of the truss, try to select a section that, in general, passes through not
more than three members in which the forces are unknown.

Fig 2-12: Sectioning through a member

As in the method of joints, there are two ways in which one can determine the correct
sense of an unknown member force.
1. Always assume that the unknown member forces at the cut section are in tension,
i.e., “pulling” on the member. By doing this, the numerical solution of the equilibrium
equations will yield positive scalars for members in tension and negative scalars for
members in compression.
2. The correct sense of an unknown member force can in many cases be determined
“by inspection.”
Procedure of sections Method
• Decide how you need to “cut” the truss. This is based on: a) Where you need to
determine forces, and, b) where the total number of unknowns does not exceed
three (in general).
• Decide which side of the cut truss will be easier to work with (minimize the
number of reactions you have to find).
• If required, determine any necessary support reactions by drawing the FBD of
the entire truss.
• Draw the FBD of the selected part of the cut truss. We need to indicate the
unknown forces at the cut members. Initially we may assume all the members
are in tension, as we did when using the method of joints. Upon solving, if the
answer is positive, the member is in tension as per our assumption. If the answer
is negative, the member must be in compression. (Please note that you can also
assume forces to be either tension or compression by inspection.
• Apply the scalar equations of equilibrium to the selected cut section of the truss
to solve for the unknown member forces. Please note, in most cases it is possible
to write one equation to solve for one unknown directly. So look for it and take
advantage of such a shortcut!

Example 3.3
Determine the force in members GF and GD of the truss shown in
Fig. 3-27 a. State whether the members are in tension or compression. The reactions
at the supports have been calculated.
Solution

Example 3.4
Find the force in members KJ, KD, and CD, seen in Fig 3-28.

Fig 3-28

Solution