ZNOTES.

ORG

UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS

CAIE IGCSE
COMPUTER SCIENCE
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
Prepared for Shubh for personal use only.
CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

As can be seen it starts from 1 and then goes to 128 from

1. Data Representation left to right
Now values with 1 are to be added together, giving the
final answer, as for the example, it is 128 + 64 + 32 + 8 +
1.1. Number Systems 4 + 2 = 238
Binary System Converting Denary to Binary
Base 2 number system Take the value and successively divide it by 2, creating a
It has two possible values only (0 and 1) table like follows:
0 represents OFF, and 1 represents ON
A point to be noted is that the most left bit is called the 2 142
MSB (Most Significant Bit) 2 71 Remainder: 0
2 35 Remainder: 1
Denary System 2 17 Remainder: 1
2 8 Remainder: 1
Base 10 number system
2 4 Remainder: 0
Has values from 0 to 9
2 2 Remainder: 0
Hexadecimal (aka Hex) 2 1 Remainder: 0
0 Remainder: 1
Base 16 number system
Have values from 0 to 9 followed by A to F Note that when the value itself is not divisible by 2, it is
A represents 10, B represents 11 and so on until 15, divided by the previous value of the current number and
which is F 1 is added to the remainder column for that specific
number
Binary Value Hexadecimal Value Denary Value When you reach 0, the remainder has to be read from
0000 0 0 bottom to top giving us the binary value ( as in this case,
0001 1 1 it is 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 )
0010 2 2
0011 3 3 Converting Hexadecimal to Binary
0100 4 4
Separate each value from each other and convert them
0101 5 5
to denary
0110 6 6
Each separate denary value to be converted to binary
0111 7 7 All the binary values to be merged together
1000 8 8 e.g.
1001 9 9
1010 A 10 Hexadecimal : 2 1 F D
1011 B 11 Denary : 2 1 15 13
1100 C 12 Binary : 0010 0001 1111 1101
1101 D 13
1110 E 14 Final Answer: 0010000111111101
1111 F 15
Converting Binary to Hexadecimal
1.2. Number Conversions Divide the binary value into groups of 4 starting from the
right. If at the end, the last division is less than 4, add 0s
Converting Binary to Denary until it reaches 4
For each group, find the denary value as shown above,
Place the binary value in columns of 2 raised to the and then convert each denary value to its corresponding
power of the number of values from the right starting hexadecimal value (if less than 10, then itself, else, 10 is
from 0. e.g. For binary value 11101110, place it in a table A, 11 is B, 12 is C, 13 is D, 14 is E and 15 is F).
like this: After conversion, just put all the hexadecimal values in
order to get the final answer
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0

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Note: We move from RHS to LHS, and when adding values,
Given Value : 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 we use the rules given above. If the bit crosses the limit
When grouped: 10 0001 1111 1101 (overflows), we put the value in brackets, denoting it is
overflow.
After 2 values added to left: 0010 0001 1111 1101
iii. The solution would now be (1) 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
After Conversion to Denary: 2 1 15 13
Logical Shifts
Denary to Hexadecimal: 21FD
The logical shift means moving a binary value to the left
Converting Hexadecimal to Denary or the right
When doing a logical shift, keep in mind that the bit
Convert the value to binary as shown above, and then being emptied is going to become 0
convert the final answer to denary
Explanation with Example
Converting Denary to Hexadecimal
Shifting 10101010 - 1 place left:
Convert the value to binary, and then convert it to 1. The furthest bit in the direction to be logically
hexadecimal as explained above shifted is removed ( in this case, one at the LHS is
removed) - ==(if it were two places, 2 bits would
1.3. Binary Calculations have been removed)==
2. Every bit is moved in given places to the given
Binary values are not added the way denary values are direction ( every bit is moved one place to the left
added, as when adding 1 and 1, we cannot write two in this case, and the leftover bit in the right is
because it doesn’t exist in binary. marked 0, so 10101010 would become 01010100)

Points to Note: Two’s Complement (Binary Numbers)

0+0=0 Two’s complement is a method used to represent

1+0/0+1=1 negative values in binary. Here, the MSB ( Most
1 + 1 = 0 (1 carry) Significant Bit) is replaced from 128 to -128; thus, the
1 + 1 + 1 = 1 (1 carry) range of values in a two’s complement byte is -128 to 127

Overflow Converting Binary Values to Two’s Complement

When adding two values, if the solution exceeds the limit Firstly, write the binary value and locate the first one
of given values, e.g., the solution has 9 bits, but the from the right; e.g., 1101100 would have the first one at
question had 8 bits per value, the 9th bit (most left bit) is the third position from the right.
called overflow. Now, switch every value to the left of the first one
This indicates that the memory doesn’t have enough located above (not switching the one), e.g., the value in
space to store the answer to the addition done in the our example becomes 0010100, which is the two’s
previous part. complement of itself.

Steps to add Two Values (With Example) Converting negative values to two complement

The values we will add are 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 and 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 Find the binary equivalent of the value ignoring the - sign
0 Convert the binary value to two’s complement
1. Convert both the bytes into 8 bits (add zero to the Make the MSB 1, if not already
left-hand side to match them).
e.g., 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 would become 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 Converting Two’s Complement Value to Denary:
2. Add the values as follows with the points given
We do it the same way as a normal value is converted
above
from binary to denary; we only replace 128 with -12,8
Carry 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 e.g., for 1011101,0 we do the:
Byte 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0
-128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Byte 2 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0
OVERFLOW
Solution 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 -128 + 32 + 16 + 8 + 2 = -70

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ASCII uses one byte to store the value

1.4. Use of the Hexadecimal System When the ASCII value of a character is converted to
binary, it can be seen that the sixth-bit changes from 1 to
Examples: 0 when going from lowercase to uppercase of a
Defining colours in Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) character, and the rest remains the same. e.g.
Media Access Control (MAC) addresses (a number that
uniquely identifies a device on a network)
Assembly languages and machine code
Memory Dumps
Debugging (method to find errors in a program) Unicode
Display error codes (numbers refer to the memory
location of the error) ASCII does not contain all of the international languages
IP (Internet Protocol) addresses thus, Unicode is used to solve this problem
The first 128 values are the same as ASCII.
Memory Dumps
Unicode supports up to four bytes per character, storing
Hexadecimal is used when developing new software or multiple languages and more data.
when trying to trace errors. To represent text in binary, a computer uses a
Memory dump is when the memory contents are output character set, a collection of characters and the
to a printer or monitor. corresponding binary codes that represent them.

Assembly code and machine code (low-level languages) Sound

Computer memory is machine code/ assembly code Sound is analogue, and for it to be converted to digital
Using hexadecimal makes writing code easier, faster, and form, it is sampled
less error-prone than binary. The sound waves are sampled at regular time intervals
Using machine code (binary) takes a long time to key in where the amplitude is measured. However, it cannot be
values and is prone to errors. measured precisely, so approximate values are stored

1.5. Text, Sound and Images How is Sound Recorded

ASCII The amplitude of the sound wave is first determined at

set time intervals
The standard ASCII code character set consists of 7-bit The value is converted to digital form
code that represents the letters, numbers and characters Each sample of the sound wave is then encoded as a
found on a standard keyboard, together with 32 control series of binary digits
codes A series of readings gives an approximate representation
Uppercase and lowercase characters have different ASCII of the sound wave
values
Every subsequent value in ASCII is the previous value + 1. Sampling Resolution:
e.g. “a” is 97 in ASCII, “b” will be 98 (which is 97 + 1)
Important ASCII values (in denary) to remember are as The number of bits per sample is known as the sampling
follows: resolution (aka bit depth)
Increasing the sampling resolution increases the
0 is at 48 accuracy of the sampled sound as more detail is stored
about the amplitude of the sound.
A is at 65
Increasing the sampling resolution also increases the
a is at 97 memory usage of the file as more bits are being used to
store the data.

Sampling Rate

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Name of memory No. of
The sampling rate is the number of sound samples taken Equivalent Denary Value
size Bytes
per second, which is measured in Hertz (Hz) 1 kibibyte (1KiB) 210 1 024 bytes
A higher sampling rate would allow more accurate sound
as fewer estimations will be done between samples. 1 mibibyte (1MiB) 220 1 048 576 bytes
1 gibibyte (1GiB) 230 1 073 741 824 bytes
Images 1 tibibyte (1TiB) 240 1 099 511 627 776 bytes
1 125 899 906 842 624
Bitmap Images 1 pibibyte (1PiB) 250 bytes

Bitmap images are made up of pixels Conventional System

A bitmap image is stored in a computer as a series of
binary numbers Name of memory No. of
Equivalent Denary Value
size Bytes
Colour Depth 1 kilobyte (1KB) 103 1 000 bytes
The number of bits representing each colour is called the 1 megabyte (1MB) 106 1 000 000 bytes
colour depth. 1 gigabyte (1GB) 109 1 000 000 000 bytes
An 8-bit colour depth means that each pixel can be one 1 terabyte (1TB) 1012 1 000 000 000 000 bytes
of 256 colours (because 2 to the power of 8 = 256) 1 000 000 000 000 000
A 1-bit colour depth means each pixel can store one 1 petabyte (1PB) 1015 bytes
colour (because 2 to the power of 1 is 2) - ( This is done
as the bit can either be 0 or 1, with 0 being white and 1 Calculation of File Size
being black)
Increasing colour depth increases the size of the file The file size of an image is calculated as image resolution
when storing an image. (in pixels) × colour depth (in bits)
The size of a mono sound file is calculated as sample rate
Image Resolution (in Hz) × sample resolution (in bits) × length of sample (in
seconds). (For a stereo sound file, you would then
Image resolution refers to the number of pixels that multiply the result by two.)
make up an image; for example, an image could contain
4096 × 3072 pixels.
Photographs with a lower resolution have less detail
1.7. File Types
than those with a higher resolution.
Musical Instrument Digital Format (MIDI)
When a bitmap image is ‘ blurry ‘ or ‘ fizzy ’ due to having
a low amount of pixels in it or when zoomed, it is known Storage of music files
as being pixelated. A communications protocol that allows electronic
High-resolution images use high amounts of memory as musical instruments to interact with each other
compared to low-resolution ones. Stored as a series of demands but no actual music notes
Uses 8-bit serial transmission (asynchronous)
1.6. Measurement of the Size of Each MIDI command has a sequence of bytes:
The first byte is the status byte – which informs the
Computer Memories MIDI device what function to perform
Encoded in the status byte is the MIDI channel
A binary digit is referred to as a BIT (operates on 16 different channels)
8 bits is a byte Examples of MIDI commands:
4 bits is a nibble Note on/off: indicates that a key has been pressed
Byte is used to measure memory size Key pressure: indicates how hard it has been pressed
(loudness of music)
IECB System (Most Common) It needs a lot of memory storage

MP3

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It uses technology known as Audio Compression to It reduces the size of a string of adjacent, identical data
convert music and other sounds into an MP3 file format (e.g. repeated colours in an image)
This compression reduces the normal file size by 90% A repeating string is encoded into two values: the first
Done using file compression algorithms, which use value represents the number of identical data items (e.g.
Perceptual Music Shaping characters), and the second value represents the code of
Removes sounds that the human ear cannot hear the data item (such as ASCII code if it is a keyboard
properly character), e.g. ‘aaaaabbbbccddddd’ becomes “05 97 04
Certain sounds are removed without affecting the 98 02 99 05 100.”
quality, too much RLE is only effective where there is a long run of
CD files are converted using File Compression Software repeated units/bits
Use lossy format as the original file is lost following the One difficulty is that RLE compression isn't perfect for
compression algorithm strings like "cdcdcdcdcd". We use a flag to solve this; e.g.,
255 can be made as the flag. Now 255 will be put before
MP4 every repeating value, e.g. our previous example
This format allows the storage of multimedia files rather becomes 255 05 97 255 04 98 255 02 99 255 05 100
than just sound where 255 now indicates that the next character/set of
characters is approaching
Music, videos, photos and animations can be stored
Videos could be streamed without losing any real
discernible quality
Lossy File Compression

Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG) The file compression algorithm eliminates unnecessary
data bits like in MP3 and JPEG formats.
JPEG is a file format used to reduce photographic file It is impossible to get the original file back once it is
sizes compressed
Reducing picture resolution is changing the number of Reduces file quality
pixels per centimetre In this, the image's resolution and colour depth are
When a photographic file undergoes compression, file reduced.
size is reduced
JPEG will reduce the raw bitmap image by a factor
between 5 and 15 2. Data Transmission
1.8. Lossless and Lossy File 2.1. Types and Methods of Data
Compression Transmission
Lossless File Compression Data Packets
All the data bits from the original file are reconstructed
again when the file is uncompressed.
Important for files where the loss of data would be
disastrous (spreadsheet)
An algorithm is used to compress data
No data is lost
Repeated patterns/text are grouped together in indexes

Run-Length Encoding

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Packet Structure -
Header 2.2. Universal Serial Bus (USB)
Contains the IP address of the sender and the
receiver USB is an asynchronous serial data transmission method
USB consists of:
The sequence number of the packet
Four-wire shielded cable
Size of the packet
Payload Two wires are used for power and earth
Contains the actual data Two wires are used in data transmission
Trailer Advantages Disadvantages
Includes a method of identifying the end of the Transmission rate is less than
packet Automatically detected
120 MB/sec
Error-Checking methods Only fit one way, prevents Maximum cable length is about
Packet Switching - Method of data transmission where incorrect connections 5 metres
the data is broken into multiple packets. Packets are Different data transmission
then sent independently from start to end and rates
reassembled at the receiver’s computer. Backwards compatible
Industry-standard
Advantages Disadvantages
There is no need to create a
single line of communication
Packets may be lost 2.3. Methods of Error Detection
Possible to overcome failed or
More prone to errors in real-
busy nodes time streaming Parity Checks
Delay at the receiver while the
High data transmission speed
packets are being re-ordered It uses the number of 1-bits in a byte
Easy to expand package usage Type Types -
Even - Even number of 1-bits
Data Transmission Odd - Odd numbers of 1-bits
Example (Even Parity) -
Simplex data transmission is in one direction only (e.g.
computer to printer) 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0
Half-duplex data transmission is in both directions but
not at the same time (e.g., walkie-talkie) The LMB (Left-Most Bit) is the parity bit. As the number
Full-duplex data transmission is in both directions of 1s is even, the parity bit would be set to even.
simultaneously (e.g. broadband connection on the phone Limitations with Parity Checks
line) Two bits may change during transmission; therefore
Serial data transmission is when data is sent one bit at a error is not found
time over a single wire Even though the parity checks would reveal the errors,
Parallel data transmission is when data of several bits (1 the bit(s) changed wouldn’t be identified
byte) are sent down several wires at the same time.
Parity Blocks
Comparison of Serial and Parallel Data
Transmission
Serial Parallel
Better for longer distances Better for short distances
(Telephone Lines) (Internal circuits)
Expensive (More hardware
Cheaper Option
required)
Used when the size of data
Used when speed is necessary
transmitted is small
Slower Option Faster than Serial

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To overcome the limitations of parity bits, Parity blocks Uses acknowledgements and timeouts to make sure the
would be used. user received the data
The receiver would check the data for any errors; if none
are found, a positive acknowledgement is sent to the
sender. However, if errors are found, a negative
acknowledgement will be sent, and the data will be sent
again.
The sender uses timeouts to wait for a pre-determined
amount for the acknowledgement.
If no acknowledgements are received after the timeout,
the data will be sent again to the receiver.

Any changes in bits would be identified through the rows 2.4. Encryption
and columns
Encryption is a process of turning the data into an
Checksum unreadable form so it doesn’t make sense to hackers and
other attackers.
Whenever a block of data needs to be sent, the sender
would calculate the checksum value using a specific Plaintext and Ciphertext
algorithm.
Once the data has been sent, The receiver would Plaintext is the original data that is being sent
Ciphertext is the text produced after encryption
calculate the checksum again with the same set of data
and the same algorithm used before.
The receiver would then compare the value received and
Symmetric and Asymmetric Encryption
the newly calculated value. If they aren’t matched, A Symmetric Encryption:
request is made to re-send the data. It uses an encryption key for the encryption process;
the same key is used for encrypting and decrypting
Echo Check the data.
Once the data has been sent, The receiver will send the Asymmetric Encryption:
data back to the sender for verification. Uses a public key and a private key. The public key is
The sender would compare the received and original available to everyone, whereas the private key is only
available to the user.
data for errors.
The receiver would have the private key, and they
The only downside is that we wouldn’t know if the error
occurred when sending the data or sending the data would send the public key to the sender. The sender
back for verification. can encrypt the message with the public key, and the
data can be decrypted using the private key.
Check Digits
Check digits are calculated from all the other digits in the
3. Hardware
data (ex-codes). The check digit would be the last digit of
the code. 3.1. Computer Architecture & Von
These are used to identify mistyping errors such as -
6372 typed as 6379
Neumann Architecture
8432 typed as 842
The central processing unit (CPU) (also known as a
microprocessor or processor) is central to all modern
Automatic Repeat Requests (ARQs)
computer systems

The CPU consists of the following architecture:

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Processor: The processor contains the Arithmetic and 1. PC contains the address of the next instruction to be
Logic Unit (ALU) fetched
Control Unit: The control unit controls the operation of 2. This address is copied to the MAR via the address bus
the memory, processor and input/output devices 3. The instruction of the address is copied into the MDR
Arithmetic Logic Unit: Carries out the logic system like temporarily
calculations 4. The instruction in the MDR is then placed in the CIR
System Clock: The system clock is used to produce 5. The value in the PC is incremented by 1, pointing to
timing signals on the control bus the next instruction to be fetched
6. The instruction is finally decoded and then executed
Buses: Carry data through components. The following are its
types. Stored Program Concept
Address bus – unidirectional Instructions are stored in the main memory
Data Bus – bi-directional Instructions are fetched, decoded, and executed by
Control Bus – bi-directional the processor
Immediate Access Store: Stores the instructions that are to Programs can be moved to and from the main memory
be processed, which are fetched by the CPU
Memory Concept
The following registers also exist in the architecture:
A computer’s memory is divided into partitions: Each
REGISTER ABBREVIATION FUNCTION partition consists of an address and its contents, e.g.
Stores the instruction the
Current instruction MEMORY LOCATION CONTENT
CIR CPU is currently decoding
register
or executing 10101010 01010110
Stores the Address of the
Memory address
MAR instruction, copy it, and Instruction Set:
register
sends it to MDR An instruction set is a list of all the commands that a CPU
Stores the Data from the can process, and the commands are machine code
MDR Memory data register address received from the
MAR and sends data to CIR
Stores the address of the 3.2. Cores, Cache and Internal Clock
PC Program counter next instruction to be
fetched from memory System’s Clock
During calculations, data is
ACC Accumulator
temporarily held in it The clock defines the clock cycle that synchronises all
computer operations. By increasing the clock speed, the
computer's processing speed also increases. This doesn’t
mean that the computer's performance is increased,
however.

Overclocking
Using a clock speed higher than the computer was designed
for.
It leads to multiple issues.

Operations become unsynchronised - (the computer

would frequently crash and become unstable)
The Fetch-Execute Cycle can lead to serious overheating of the CPU

Length of Data Buses

The wider the data buses, the better the performance of
the computer

Cache
Cache memory is located within the CPU itself
-- allows faster access to the CPU
-- stores frequently used instructions and data that need to
be accessed faster, which improves CPU performance

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The larger the cache memory size, the better the CPU
performance Make use of (OCR) to produce digital images which
represent the passport pages
Cores Text can be stored in ASCII format
The 2D photograph in the passport is also scanned and
The more cores in the CPU, the better and faster the stored as jpeg image
performance The passenger’s face is also photographed using a digital
camera and compared to using face recognition software
But if any number of cores are used, it could slow down Key parts of the face are compared (distance between
the system performance as the communication between eyes, width of nose)
each core increases, and so do the data cables between
each. Which in turn reduces the potential system Barcode readers/scanners
performance.
You might have heard about quad and dual cores, not A barcode is a series of dark and light parallel lines of
septa or octa cores. varying thicknesses
The numbers 0 -9 are each represented by a unique
series of lines
3.3. Input Devices The left and right-hand sides of the barcode are separate
using guard bars
Two-dimensional Scanners: Allows barcode to be scanned in any direction
Used to input hard-copy documents The barcode is read by a red laser or red LED
The image is converted into an electronic form, which Light is reflected off the barcode; dark areas reflect
can be stored in the computer little light, which allows the bars to be read
The document is placed on a glass panel Reflected light is read by sensors (photoelectric cells)
A bright light illuminates the document The pattern is generated, which is converted to digital
A scan head moves across the document until the Quick Response (QR) Codes
whole page is scanned. An image of the document is
produced and sent to a lens using a series of mirrors Another type of barcode is the QR codes
The lens focuses on the document image Made up of a matrix of filled-in dark squares on a light
The focused image now falls onto a charge-coupled background
device (CCD), which consists of several integrated Can hold more storage (7000 digits)
circuits Advantages of QR codes:
The software produces a digital image in the No need for the user to write down the website
electronic form address
Optical Character Recognition (OCR) is a software which QR codes can store website addresses
converts scanned documents into a text file format
If the original document was a photo/image, then the Digital Cameras
scanned image forms an image file such as JPEG
It is controlled by a microprocessor that adjusts the
Three-dimensional Scanners shutter speed, focuses the image, etc.
Photo is captured when light passes through the lens
3D scanners can scan solid objects and produce a three- onto a light sensitive cell
dimensional image The cell is made up of pixels
Scanners take images at several points, x, y and z (lasers, The number of pixels determines the size of the file
magnetic, white light)
The scanned images can be used in Computer-Aided Keyboards
Design (CAD) or in a 3D printer to produce a working
Connected to a computer with a USB connection or by
model wireless connection
Application of 2D Scanners at an Airport: Each character has an ASCII value and is converted into a
digital signal
Slow method
Prone to errors
Pointing devices

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Mouse/trackball Devices that read or measure physical properties

Traditional mechanical ball, connected by USB port Data needs to be converted to digital
Modern type: red LEDs to detect movement Analogue-to-digital converter (ADC) converts physical
values into digital
Microphones Sensors and their purposes:
Used to input sound to a computer Acoustic - These sensors act like a microphone that
converts sound to electric pulses.
When a microphone picks up sound, a diaphragm
vibrates, producing an electric signal Accelerometer - These sensors measure an object's
The signal goes to a sound card and is converted into acceleration or deceleration and motion.
digital values and stored in a computer Flow - This sensor measures the flow of liquid or gas.
Voice recognition: voice is detected and converted into Gas - These sensors measure the amount/level of any
gas in the environment.
digital
Humidity - This sensor measures the water vapour in
Touchscreens the air or any sample.
Infra-red (active) - This IR sensor uses an invisible
Capacitive (medium cost tech) infrared beam. When the beam is broken/disturbed,
Made up of many layers of glass it changes the amount of infrared light reaching the
Creating electric fields between glass plates in layers detector.
When the top layer of glass is touched, electric Infra-red (passive) - These sensors detect the heat
current changes emitted by any object.
Co-ordinates where the screen was touched are Level - This sensor detects the solids, liquids, or gas
determined by an on-board microprocessor level.
Infra-red heat (expensive) Light - These devices use light-sensitive cells that
Use glass as the screen material generate electric current based on light brightness.
Needs a warm object to carry an input operation Magnetic field - This sensor detects the change in
Infra-red optical (expensive) magnetic field.
Uses glass as screen material Moisture - This type of sensor detects the water
Uses an array of sensors (grid form) content wherever this sensor has been installed.
Point of contact is based on which grid co-ordinate is pH - This measures the acidity or alkalinity.
touched Pressure - This sensor measures the pressure applied
Resistive (inexpensive) Proximity - This sensor detects the nearby objects
The upper layer of polyester, the bottom layer of around the sensor
glass Temperature - These sensors measure the
When the top polyester is touched, the top layer and temperature of the environment.
bottom layer complete a circuit (Note: You do not need to know the working principle of
Signals are then sent out, which are interpreted by a the sensor. But have an idea of their purposes.)
microprocessor to determine where the screen was
touched Control of Street Lighting­­

Sensors The light sensor sends data to the ADC

The data is digitised and sent to the microprocessor
Microprocessor samples data every minute
If data from sensor < value stored in memory:
Signal sent from microprocessor to street lamp
Lamp switched on

3.4. Output Devices

Inkjet Printers

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Used to print one-off pictures and documents The actuators convert electrical signals to mechanical
Data from the document sent to the printer driver processes.
The printer driver ensures data is in the correct format Used in many control applications involving sensors and
Check made by printer driver that the chosen printer is devices (ADC and DAC)
available
Data is sent to the printer and stored in a temporary Loudspeakers/Headphones
memory (printer buffer)
Sound is produced by passing the digital data through a
A sheet of paper is fed; the sensor detects if the paper is DAC, then through an amplifier, and then emerges from
available in the paper tray the loudspeaker
The print head moves across paper printing text/image, Produced by voltage differences vibrating a cone in the
four ink colours sprayed in the exact amount speaker at different frequencies
Paper is advanced, so the next line is printed
Repeated until the buffer is empty LCD and LED Monitors
Once it is done, the printer sends an interrupt to the
processor (request for more data to be sent) The front layer of the monitor is made up of Liquid
Crystal Display (LCD); these tiny diodes are grouped in
Laser Printers threes as pixels (LCD doesn’t emit any light)
LCD monitors are backlit using Light Emitting Diode (LED)
Used to print flyers, high quality
because:
Use dry powder ink (toner) and static electricity to LEDs reach their maximum brightness immediately
produce text and images LEDs sharpen image (higher resolution), and CCFL
Prints the whole page in one go has a yellow tint
1. (steps 1-4 same as inkjet) LEDs improve the colour image
2. The printing drum is given a positive charge; as the Monitors using LED are much thinner than CCFL
drum rotates, a laser beam is scanned across it; LEDs consume very little power
removing the positive charge leaves negatively Before LEDs, LCD monitors were backlit using CCFL
charged areas which match the text/image CCFL uses two fluorescent tubes behind the LCD screen,
3. The drum is then coated with positively charged which supplies the light source
toner; it only sticks to negatively charged parts of the
Light Projectors:
drum
4. A negatively charged sheet is rolled over the drum Two common types of light projectors:
5. The toner on the drum now sticks to the paper to Digital Light Projector (DLP)
produce a copy of the page LCD Projector
6. Paper finally goes through a fuser (set of heated Projectors are used to project computer output onto
rollers); heat melts the ink so it is permanent larger screens/interactive whiteboards
7. The discharge lamp removes all electric charge from
the drum, ready to print on the next page Digital Light Projectors (DLP)

3D Printers Uses millions of micromirrors

the number of micromirrors and the way they are
Used for models of cars arranged on the DLP chip determines the resolution of
Produce solid objects that work the image
Built up layer by layer, using powdered resin, ceramic When the micromirrors tilt towards the light source they
powder are on
A design is made using Computer-aided Design (CAD) When the micromirrors tilt away from the light source,
they are off
2D and 3D Cutters This creates a light or dark pixel on the projection screen
3D cutters can recognise objects in x, y, z direction A bright white light source passes through a colour filter
3D laser cutters can cut glass, crystal, metal, wood on its way to the DLP chip
White light splits into primary colours
Actuators
LCD Projectors

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Older technology than DLP RAM is used by a system when it needs to store and
A powerful beam of white light is generated from a bulb access data that is actively being used or processed by
This beam of light is then sent to a group of chromatic- the user immediately.
coated mirrors; these reflect the light at different Features of RAM
wavelengths Volatile/temporary memory (contents lost if RAM is
When the white light hits the mirrors, the reflected light turned off)
has wavelengths corresponding to red, green, and blue Used to store; data, files
These three different lights pass through three LCD It can be written to or read from, and the contents of
screens; these screens show the image to be projected the memory can be changed
as millions of pixels in grayscale The larger the size of the RAM, the faster the computer
When the coloured light passes through the LCD screens, will operate
a red, green and blue version of the grey image emerges RAM never runs out of memory and continues to run
Finally, the image passes through the projector lens onto slow
the screen As RAM becomes full, the processor has to access the
continually hard drive to overwrite old data on RAM with
new data
RAM is of two types:

DRAM (Dynamic RAM) and SRAM (Static RAM)

Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer

Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer

3.5. Memory, Storage Devices & Media Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
Virtual memory
Primary vs. Secondary Storage When RAM runs out of memory, there is a problem with
The CPU directly accesses primary storage memory management; thus, the system has a high
The CPU does not directly access secondary storage chance of crashing. This is why virtual memory comes
RAM, ROM, and cache memory are some examples into the picture.
HDD, SSD, DVD, memory stick, and Blu-ray disc are some The virtual memory can be either HDD or SSD (these
examples storages are discussed below)

Primary Memory:
Random Access Memory (RAM)

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You may be expected to draw a diagram like the above. Laser (red) light is used to read and write data on the
The main advantages of virtual memory are surface of the disk.
They can be larger than the physical memory A thin layer of metal alloy is used to store data.
provided in the RAM. Both systems use a single spiral track that runs from the
Avoids the need to install/upgrade RAM, as it could centre of the disk to the edge
be expensive DVD uses Dual-Layering, which increases the storage
The system wastes no storage on unwanted/unused capacity (two individual recording layers)
data.
Blu-ray Disks
Read Only Memory (ROM)
Uses a blue laser to carry out read-and-write operations
Features of ROM The wavelength of laser light is less than CD and DVD
Non-volatile/permanent memories (contents remain (stores up to five times more data than DVD)
even when ROM is turned off) Automatically come with secure encryption (prevent
Used to store start-up instructions (basic piracy and copyright infringement)
input/output systems) Used as backup systems
Data/contents of a ROM chip can only be read and
cannot be changed USB Flash Memories

Secondary Storage: Very small, lightweight, and suitable for transferring files
Hard Disk Drives (HDD) Small back-up devices for photo, music
Solid state, so needs to be treated with care
Data is stored in a digital format on the magnetic surface
of the disks (platter) Cloud Storage:
A number of read/write heads can access all of the Cloud storage is a method of data storage where data is
surfaces of the disk
stored on remote servers
Each platter will have two surfaces which can be used to The same data is stored on more than one server in case
store the data of maintenance or repair, allowing clients to access data
Data is stored on the surfaces in sectors and tracks at any time. This is known as data redundancy.
HDD has very slow data access compared to RAM
The following are its types:
Solid-State Drive (SSD)
Public cloud – this is a storage environment where the
There are no moving parts, and all data is received at the customer/client and cloud storage provider are different
same time (not like HDD) companies
Store data by controlling the movement of electrons Private cloud – this is storage provided by a dedicated
within NAND chips, as 1s and 0s environment behind a company firewall; customer/client
Non-volatile rewritable memory
and cloud storage provider are integrated and operate
Benefits of using SSD rather than HDD: as a single entity
More reliable (no moving parts) Hybrid cloud – this is a combination of the two above
Considerably lighter (suitable for laptops) environments; some data resides in the private cloud,
Lower power consumption
and less sensitive/less commercial data can be accessed
Run much cooler than HDDs from a public cloud storage provider
Very thin
Data access is faster than HDD
Drawback – questionable longevity (20GB per day)
Off-Line Storage:
CD/DVD Disks

3.6. Embedded System

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A combination of hardware and software is designed to Network Interface Card (NIC)

carry out a specific set of tasks.
Embedded systems may contain - A network interface card (NIC) is needed to allow a device to
Microcontrollers - CPU, RAM, ROM and other connect to a network (such as the Internet).
peripherals on one single chip
Microprocessor - Integrated circuit with CPU only Media Access Control (MAC)
System on Chips (SoC) - microprocessor with I/O
ports, storage and memory A MAC address comprises 48 bits which are shown as six
Process of Embedded Devices - groups of hexadecimal digits. The first six display the
Input from the user is sent to the microprocessor manufacturer’s code, and the second half shows the device
(ADC needed if the data is analogue) serial number.
Data from the user interface is also sent to the
microprocessor These do not change and are primarily constant for every
The microprocessor then sends signals to actuators device
which are the output there are two types of MAC addresses: the Universally
Non-programmable devices need to be replaced if they Administered MAC Address (UAA) and the Locally
need a software update. Administered MAC Address (LAA)
Programmable devices have two methods of updating The only difference between the two types is that UAA is
Connecting the device to a computer and made Universally and cannot be changed, but it is the
downloading the update opposite for LAA.
Updating automatically via a satellite, cellular or Wi-Fi
link IP Addresses
Advantages and Disadvantages of using embedded
systems
Advantages Disadvantages
Small in size, therefore can
Can be difficult to upgrade
easily fit into devices
The interface can be confusing
Low cost to make
sometimes
Troubleshooting is a specialist’s
Requires very little power
job
Often thrown away as difficult
Very fast reaction to changing
to upgrade and faults are
input
harder to find
Increased garbage as they are
Dedicated to one task only
thrown away
Any computerised system is
Can be controlled remotely
prone to attacks

Applications of Embedded devices

GPS systems
Security Systems
Vending Machines
Washing Machines
Oven
Microwave

3.7. Network Hardware

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IP address allocation: Router functionality:

The network allocates IP addresses. A router is a networking device that directs data
Two types of IP addresses: static and dynamic. packets between different networks.
Static IP addresses: It determines the most efficient path for data
Assigned manually to a device. transmission.
Does not change over time. Sending data to a specific destination on a network:
Dynamic IP addresses: A router examines the destination IP address of
Assigned automatically by a DHCP (Dynamic Host incoming data packets.
Configuration Protocol) server. It uses routing tables to determine the next hop or
Changes periodically or when the device connects to the next router on the path to the destination.
a different network. The router forwards the data packet to the
IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4): appropriate next hop.
Widely used protocol. Router's role in IP address assignment:
Consists of four groups of decimal numbers A router can act as a DHCP server (Dynamic Host
separated by dots (e.g., 192.168.0.1). Configuration Protocol) and assign IP addresses to
Provides approximately 4.3 billion unique addresses. devices on a local network.
IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6): It dynamically allocates IP addresses from a
Developed to address the limitations of IPv4. predefined range to connected devices.
Uses eight groups of hexadecimal numbers DHCP allows for automatic IP address configuration
separated by colons (e.g., and simplifies network management.
2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334). Connecting a local network to the Internet:
Provides an extremely large number of unique A router serves as the gateway between a local
addresses (approximately 340 undecillion). network and the internet.
Differences between IPv4 and IPv6: It connects the local network to an internet service
Address format: IPv4 uses a 32-bit address, while IPv6 provider (ISP) network.
uses a 128-bit address. The router receives data packets from devices on the
Address space: IPv4 provides approximately 4.3 local network and forwards them to the internet.
billion addresses, whereas IPv6 offers around 340 It also receives incoming data packets from the
undecillion addresses. internet and routes them to the appropriate devices
Address allocation: IPv4 addresses are allocated on the local network.
manually using DHCP, while IPv6 addresses are
primarily assigned using stateless autoconfiguration. 3.8. Types of Software and Interrupts
Routers Types of Software
1. System Software e.g. Operating System, Utility
programs and device drivers
2. Application Software e.g. spreadsheet, word
processor, etc.

System Software:
these are a set of programs which control and manage
the operations of hardware
gives a platform for other software to run
it is required to allow hardware and software to run
without problems
provides a human-computer interface (HCI) to the user
controls the allocation and usage of hardware resources

Application Software:

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allows a user to perform specific tasks using the Word Processor: Software used for manipulating text
computer’s resources documents, including creating, editing, and formatting
maybe a single program (for example, NotePad) or a text with tools for copying, deleting, spell-checking, and
suite of programs (for example, Microsoft Office) importing images.
user can execute the software when they require, and it Spreadsheet: Organizes and manipulates numerical data
is mostly not automatic using a grid of lettered columns and numbered rows,
with each cell identified using a unique combination of
Examples columns and rows. It can calculate using formulas,
produce graphs, and do modelling and "what if"
System Software: calculations.
Database: Software used to organize, analyze, and
Compiler: Translates high-level language into machine manipulate data consisting of one or more tables that
code, allowing for direct use by a computer to perform hold records and fields. It provides the ability to query
tasks without re-compilation. and report on data and add, delete, and modify records
Linker: Combines object files produced by a compiler in a table.
into a single program, allowing the use of separately Control and Measuring Software: A program designed to
written code modules in the final program. interface with sensors and allow a computer or
Device driver: Software that enables hardware devices to microprocessor to measure physical quantities and
communicate with a computer's operating system, control applications by comparing sensor data with
without which a device like a printer would be unable to stored data and altering process parameters accordingly.
work. Apps: Software designed to run on mobile phones or
Operating system: Software that manages basic tablets, downloaded from an "App Store" and ranging
computer functions such as input/output operations, from games to sophisticated software such as phone
program loading and running, and security management, banking. Common examples include video and music
making computers more user-friendly. streaming, GPS, and camera facilities.
Utility programs: Software that manages, maintains, and Photo and Video Editing Software: Software that allows
controls computer resources by carrying out specific users to manipulate digital photographs or videos,
tasks, such as virus checking, disk repair and analysis, file including changing colour, brightness, and contrast,
management, and security. applying filters and other enhancements, and creating
transitions between clips.
Application Software: Graphics Manipulation Software: Software that allows
the manipulation of bitmap and vector images, with
bitmap graphics editors changing pixels to produce a
different image, while vector graphics editors manipulate
lines, curves, and text to alter the stored image as
required.

Interrupts
An interrupt is a signal sent to the microprocessor, either
from a device or software, prompting the microprocessor to
pause its ongoing tasks and handle the interrupt
temporarily. Various factors can trigger interrupts, including:

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Timing signals: Scheduled signals prompt the Virus checkers or anti-virus software are important for
microprocessor to pause and handle tasks at specific protecting computers from malware.
intervals. They should be kept up to date and run in the
Input/Output processes: Events such as a disk drive or background to maintain their effectiveness.
printer requiring additional data cause an interruption in Anti-virus software checks files before they are run or
the microprocessor's activities. loaded and compares possible viruses against a
Hardware faults: Issues like a paper jam in a printer, database of known viruses.
signalling the microprocessor to halt its operations and Heuristic checking is used to identify possible viruses
address the hardware problem. that are not yet on the database.
User interaction: Instances like a user pressing specific Infected files are put into quarantine for automatic
keys on a keyboard (e.g., ), leading to an interrupt in the deletion or for the user to decide.
system's operation. Anti-virus software must be updated as new viruses are
Software errors: Problems such as missing .exe files constantly discovered.
needed to initiate a program, conflicts like two processes Full system scans should be carried out regularly to
accessing the exact memory location, or attempts to detect dormant viruses.
divide by zero. These errors trigger interrupts, prompting
the microprocessor to handle the issues. Disk Defragmentation Software
Defragmentation software rearranges the data blocks on
a hard disk drive (HDD) to store files in contiguous
sectors, reducing head movements and improving data
access time.
As an HDD becomes full, blocks used for files become
scattered all over the disk surface, making it slower to
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer retrieve data as the HDD read-write head needs several
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education) movements to find the data.
When a file is deleted or extended, new data does not fill
the vacant sectors immediately, causing the files to
3.9. Utility Software become more scattered throughout the disk surfaces.
A disk defragmenter rearranges the data blocks to store
Computer users have access to utility programs as part
files in contiguous sectors wherever possible, allowing
of system software
for faster data access and retrieval.
Utility programs can be initiated by the user or run in the
The defragmentation process can free up previously
background without user input
occupied sectors and empty some tracks.
Common utility programs include virus checkers,
defragmentation software, disk analysis and repair tools, Backup Software
file compression and management software, backup
software, security tools, and screensavers. Backup software is a utility software that helps create
and manage backup copies of data files and programs.
Virus Checkers & Anti-Virus Software Manual backups using memory sticks or portable hard
drives are good practices, but operating system backup
utilities are also recommended.
Backup utilities allow scheduling backups and only
backup files if changes have been made to them.
There could be three file versions for total security: the
current version stored on the internal HDD/SSD, a locally
backed-up copy on a portable SSD, and a remote backup
on cloud storage.

Security Software

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Security software is a utility software that manages Operating Systems are designed to establish
access control, user accounts, and links to other utilities communication between the user and the computer
such as virus and spyware checkers. Functions of a typical operating system -
It also protects network interfaces using firewalls to -managing files
prevent unauthorized access. – handling interrupts
Security software uses encryption and decryption to – providing an interface
ensure intercepted data is unreadable without a – managing peripherals and drivers
decryption key. – managing memory
It oversees software updates to verify legitimate sources – managing multitasking
and prevent malicious software from being installed. – providing a platform for running applications
Access control and user accounts use IDs and passwords – providing system security
to secure user data and prevent unauthorized access. – managing user accounts
WIMP - Windows, Icons, Menu, and Pointing Devices
Screensavers
Advantages and Disadvantages of CLI and GUI
Screensavers display moving and still images on the
monitor screen after computer inactivity.
They were originally developed to protect CRT monitors
from 'phosphor burn'.
Screensavers are now mostly used for customizing a
device and as a part of computer security systems.
They automatically log out of the user after a certain
period of inactivity.
Some screensavers activate useful background tasks like
virus scans and distributed computing applications.

Device Drivers
Device drivers translate data into a format that can be Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer Science -
understood by the hardware device they are associated Second Edition (Hodder Education)
with.
Without the appropriate device driver, a hardware device Memory Management - Manages the RAM and the
cannot work with a computer and may not be recognised HDD/SSD during the execution of programs
by the operating system. Security Management - Providing security features such
USB device drivers contain descriptors, which include a as Anti-Virus, System updates and so on
vendor ID (VID), product ID (PID) and unique serial Hardware Peripheral Management - Managing the device
number that allow the operating system to identify the drives, Inputs, Outputs, Queues and buffers
device. File Management - Opening, Creating, Deleting,
Serial numbers must be unique to avoid confusion if two Renaming, and many more functions
devices with the same serial number are plugged into a Multitasking - OS would share the hardware resources
computer simultaneously. with each of the processes
Management of User Accounts - OS would allow multiple
users to customise their accounts individually.
3.10. Operating Systems
Running of Applications

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The computer starts its OS (booting up the computer)

through the bootstrap loader.
The BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) tells the computer
the location of the OS in the storage.
BIOS is often referred to as the firmware

Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer

Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
Assembly Language

Few programmers use assembly language to -

Make use of special hardware
Interrupts Write code that doesn’t take up much space
Write code that runs very quickly
Signal that causes the operating system to stop what it’s Assembly language must be translated into machine
doing and service a task code using an assembler to run.
Ensures important tasks are dealt with on a priority basis
It can be a software or a hardware interrupt
Peripherals like a keyboard & mouse can generate it 3.12. Translators
Different interrupts have different levels of priority
After interruption is dealt with, the previous process Compiler
continues Translates a program written in a high-level language
into machine code
3.11. Programming Languages, Used without compiler
Executable file of machine code produced
Translators and IDEs One high-level language translated into several machine
Computers can only understand machine code; code instructions
Used for general use
therefore, translators are needed
Interpreter
High-Level Languages
Executes a high-language program a statement at a time
It is easier to read and understand as the language is
closer to human language. No executable file of machine code produced
Easier to write in a shorter time One high-level language program statement may require
several machine code instructions to be executed.
Easier to debug at the development stage
Interpreted programs cannot be used without an
Easier to maintain once in use
interpreter
Low-Level Languages Used when the program is being developed

Refer to machine code Assembler

Binary instructions that the computer understands
Translates a low-level language program into machine
code
Executable file of machine code produced
One low-level language translated into one machine
code instructions
It can be used without an assembler
Used for general use

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Compiler Interpreter Assembler Internet World Wide Web (WWW)
Translates a high- Executes a high-level Translates a low- Uses transmission protocols
Collection of webpages and
level language language program level assembly such as TCP and IP (Internet
other information on websites
program into one statement at a language program Protocols)
machine code. time. into machine code. Allows the user to
Uses HTTP(S) protocols that are
An executable file of No executable file of An executable file of communicate with other users
written using Hypertext Mark-
machine code is machine code is machine code is via chat, email, calling and
up Language (HTML)
produced. produced. produced. more
One high-level Worldwide Collection of URLs (Uniform Resource
One high-level language program One low-level Interconnected Networks and Locator) are used for the
language statement statement may language statement Devices location of the web pages
can be translated require several is usually translated Web browsers can access web
into several machine machine code into one machine pages.
code instructions. instructions to be code instruction.
executed.
Uniform Resource Locator (URLs)
Interpreted Assembled
Compiled programs
programs cannot be programs are used
are run without the
run without the without the
URLs are used to locate and access web pages. The
compiler. typical format of URLs is -
interpreter. assembler.
An interpreter is An assembled protocol://website address/path/file name
A compiled program
often used when a program is usually
is usually distributed
program is being distributed for The protocol would usually be HTTP or HTTPS
for general use.
developed. general use.
The website address would contain -
domain host (www)
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer
domain name (website name)
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
domain type (.com, .org, .net, .gov) or sometimes
country codes (.uk, .in, .cy)
Integrated Development Environments (IDEs)
The path would usually become the file directory roots.
An IDE would usually have these features - for example, https://www.znotes.com/computer-science
Code Editor The /computer-science is the file name
Translator
Debugger HTTP and HTTPS
Error Reports
HTTP stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol, and HTTPS
Auto-Completion and Auto-Correction
stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol secure
Auto-Documenter
They are safety protocols maintained while transmitting
Pretty Printing
data.

4. The Internet and Its Uses Web Browsers

It is software used to connect to the internet
4.1. The Internet and the World Wide It translates the HTML code
ensures SSL & TLS security can be established
Web Offers additional features like search history & ad
blockers

Retrieval and Location of web pages

The browser sends the URL to the domain name server

(DNS)
DNS stores the index and matches it with the IP
IP is sent to the browser if it exists
The browser sends a request to the IP of the webserver
Browser interprets the HTML

Cookies

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Cookies are small files stored on the user’s computer

They are used to track data about the users and autofill
forms or give suggestions accordingly
Types of Cookies -

Session Cookie Persistent Cookie

Remembers the user’s login
Temporary cookies are stored
details so the user doesn’t have
in the RAM till the browser is
to log in every time they visit a
closed.
website
Stored on the hard disk on the
Doesn’t collect any information
computer until their expiry The first block is called the genesis block as it doesn’t point
on the user
date or the user deletes them to any previous block (Previous Hash Value - 0000)
A good example is the virtual
shopping basket on e-
commerce websites. 4.3. Cyber Security
Brute Force Attack:
4.2. Digital Currency
Hackers try to guess your password by trying all the
Form of payment to pay for goods and services different combinations of letters, numbers and symbols.
A few examples are Debit/Credit Cards, Apps (Paypal, Effect:
Apple Pay, Bank Transfers and many more) Hacker gets access to user’s personal data (credit
Cryptography was later introduced due to the problem in cards, passwords and more)
centralised banking systems. To remove risk:
Cryptocurrency uses cryptography to maintain track of Use stronger passwords with more characters and
transactions. symbols
Cryptocurrency is also more secure because it uses
Blockchain Network Data Interception:

Blockchain Network This involves stealing data by tapping into a wired or a

wireless transmission line
Blockchain Network involves several interconnected Wardriving - The act of locating and using wireless
computers where the transaction data is stored internet connections illegally
Hacking isn’t possible here as transaction details would Packet Sniffing - Uses Packet sniffers to examine
be sent to all the computers, and the data can’t be packets sent over a line; all the data collected is sent
changed without the consent of all the network back to the attacker
members Effect:
It can cause a computer to crash
How do blockchains work Can delete or corrupt files/data
Every time a transaction takes place, A block is created. The To remove risk:
block would contain - Install anti-virus software
Don’t use software from unknown sources
Data - Name of the sender and the receiver, amount of Be careful when opening emails from unknown
money and more
Hash Value - Unique value generated by an algorithm Distributed Denial of Service Attacks (DDoS)
Previous Hash Value - Hash Value of the previous block
in the chain An attempt at preventing users from accessing part of a
network
Usually temporary but may be damaging
An attacker may be able to prevent the user from:
Accessing their emails
Accessing websites
Accessing online services

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Hacking
The attacker installs a malicious code on the computer,
The act of gaining illegal access to a computer system which redirects the user to fake websites
Effect: Effect:
This leads to identity theft, gaining personal The user gives out login details and other personal
information details
Data can be deleted, changed or corrupted To remove risk:
To remove risk: Using anti-virus software
Firewalls Checking the spelling and the weblink carefully
Strong passwords/ user IDs Make sure that the green padlock is present in the
Use of anti-hacking software URL bar
Difference between hacking and cracking
Hacking breaks into computer systems to steal data Social Engineering
Cracking is when someone edits a program code, Attackers create a social situation which leads to victims
malicious giving out their details (For example - Spam calls
Malware informing them that their account has been hacked)

Stands for Malicious Software. A few examples are - Keeping data safe from threats
Virus - A program that can replicate itself with the
intention of deleting or corrupting files, causing a Access Levels - Having Different levels of access for
computer malfunction different people (for example - Only doctors can have
Ransomware - Attackers encrypt the user’s data until access to patient’s data)
a certain amount of money is paid Antivirus - Protects user’s computer from malware
Adware - Displays unwanted ads on the user’s screen attacks
Trojan Horse - Programs that are disguised as Authentication - User proving who they are. The most
legitimate software common methods are passwords, PINs, Mobiles (OTPs),
Spyware - Sends data about all the activities of the biometrics and more)
user to the attacker
Worms - Programs that can replicate themselves with Benefits and Drawbacks of Biometric Method
the intention of corrupting the entire network instead
of the computer alone

Phishing

Attackers send legitimate-looking emails to bait the user

into giving out their information.
To remove risk:
Don’t open links from unknown receivers
Use anti-phishing tools
Block pop-up ads
Have an up-to-date browser

Pharming

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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE
Biometric
Benefits Drawbacks
Methods
Most development
Intrusive as used to
5. Automated and Emerging
Fingerprint
methods are very easy
to use and require
identify criminals,
Can’t be used if the
Technologies
Scans very low storage space
finger gets dirty or
to store the biometric
data.
damaged (e.g. cuts)
5.1. Automated Systems
With very high It is very intrusive,
accuracy, it Impossible Takes longer to verify, Automated Systems are a combination of software and
Retina Scan
to replicate a person’s Expensive to install hardware designed to function without human
retina and set up intervention.
Can’t identify if there Process of Automated Systems
Face Non-intrusive method, are any changes in the Sensors take inputs, and they are sent to the
Recognition Relatively cheaper lighting, change in age
microprocessor. The data is usually analogue, so it
or person’s age.
has to go through Analogue-to-Digital Converter
Voices can be
recorded and used for (ADC)
verification, but low The microprocessor processes the data and makes
Non-Intrusive method, the necessary decisions based on its program
accuracy and illnesses
Voice verification is done
such as colds or The actions are then executed by the actuators
Recognition quickly and relatively
coughs can affect a (Motors, wheels and so on)
cheaper
person’s voice, making
identification Advantages and Disadvantages of Automated Systems
impossible. Advantages Disadvantages
Expensive to set up and
Two-Step Verification - Requires two methods of Faster and Safer
maintain
authentication to prove who the user is Any changes can be identified Any computerised systems are
Automatic Software Updates - Latest updates contain quickly prone to attacks
patches which improve device security Over-reliance on automated
Spelling and Tone - Fake emails tend to have wrong Less Expensive in the long run systems may cause humans to
spelling and grammar (amazonn instead of amazon), and lose skills
the tone would also seem urgent Higher Productivity and
Firewalls - Hardware or Software which monitors the Efficiency
traffic between a network and the user’s computer
Proxy Servers - Acts as an intermediate between the You should be able to describe the advantages and
user’s computer and the web server. They are used for - disadvantages of an automated system used for a given
Filtering Internet traffic scenario.
Keeping the user’s IP Address Confidential Including scenarios from:
Blocking access to certain websites
Attacks like DDoS and Hacking attack the proxy industry
server, keeping the web server safe. transport
Acts as a firewall as well. agriculture
weather
Privacy Settings - Used to limit who can access and see a
user’s profile gaming
SSL (Secure Socket Layer) - Set of rules used while lighting
communicating with other users on the internet. science

5.2. Robotics

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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

Robotics is the branch of computer science that AI is the branch of computer science that simulates
combines robot design, construction and operation. intelligent human behaviour.
Isaac Asimov’s Laws of Robotics - Types of AI -
A robot may not injure a human through action or Narrow AI - A machine has superior performance to a
inaction human when doing one specific task
A robot must obey orders given by humans unless it General AI - A machine is similar to a human when
comes into conflict with Law 1 doing one specific task
a robot must protect itself unless this conflicts with Strong AI - Machine has superior performance to a
law 1. human in many tasks
Characteristics of a robot - Characteristics of AI -
Ability to sense their surroundings Collection of Data and Rules
Have a degree of movement Ability to Reason
Programmable Ability to learn and adapt

NOTE - ROBOTS DO NOT POSSESS AI; THEY TEND TO DO Types of AI

REPETITIVE TASKS RATHER THAN REQUIRING HUMAN
CHARACTERISTICS Expert System - AI that is developed to mimic human
knowledge and experiences. They are usually used for
Types of Robots - answering questions using knowledge and inference.
Independent - Have no human intervention; they can They have many applications, including chatbots,
completely replace humans diagnosis in the medical industry, financial calculations
Dependent - Needs human intervention through an and so on
interface, can supplement but can’t completely
replace humans Advantages and Disadvantages of Expert Systems
Advantages Disadvantages
Advantages and Disadvantages of Robots
Setup and Maintenance costs
Advantages Disadvantages High level of Expertise
are very high
Robots can find it difficult to do Can only rely on the information
Robots can work 24/7 High Accuracy and Consistent
non-standard tasks in the system
Robots can work in hazardous Robots can lead to higher Tend to give cold responses
conditions unemployment High response times
sometimes
They are less expensive in the Risk of deskilling as robots
long run replace humans in some task
Machine Learning is a subset of AI in which machines
They have high productivity Expensive to install and are trained to learn from past experiences.
and are more consistent maintain in the short run
Robots have the risk of getting Difference Between AI and Machine Learning
hacked. AI Machine Learning
Machines are trained to make
Representation of human
5.3. Artificial Intelligence intelligence in machines
decisions without being
programmed to
The aim is to build machines The aim is to make machines
that think like humans learn through data acquisitions

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CAIE IGCSE
Computer Science

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