Practical No.

01

DATA DEFINITION LANGUAGE(DDL)

AIM:

To execute the various Data Definition Language commands in RDBMS.

OBJECTIVE:

After completing the exercise the students can able to Understand how to create a table with list of
fields, Modify a row using where clause, Drop a table, Delete the unwanted rows in a table.

DATA DEFINITION LANGUAGE

It is used to communicate with database. DDL is used to:
Create an object
Alter the structure of an object
To drop the object created.

ALGORITHM:

Step 1: Start the program

Step 2: Go to SQL.
Step 3: Enter the user name and password.
Step 4: Connect to the database.
Step 5: Type the commands for creating tables and perform various operations on the tables.
Step 6: The output is displayed.
Step 7: Stop the program

DDL COMMAND:
CREATE

ALTER
DROP
TRUNCATE
COMMENT
RENAME
 CREATE TABLE

Constraints are condition for the data item to be stored into a database. There are two types
of Constraints viz., Column Constraints and Table Constraints.
Tables
In relational database systems (DBS) data are represented using tables (relations). A query
issued against the DBS also results in a table. A table has the following structure:

Tuple or record 1

Tuple or record 2
.
.
.

Tuple or record n
Column 1 Column 2 Columnn

A table is uniquely identified by its name and consists of rows that contain the stored information,
each row containing exactly one tuple (or record). A table can have one or more columns. A column is
made up of a column name and a data type, and it describes an attribute of the tuples. The structure of a
table, also called relation schema, thus is defined by its attributes. The type of information to be stored in a
table is defined by the data types of the attributes at table creation time. Oracle offers the following basic
data types:
Sl.No Data Type Description
1 Char(n) Character String . n is the size of variable. Maximum size is 255 characters. The default size is 1
2 Varchar2(n) Character string . n is the size of the variable
3 Number Defines Numeric data type with space for 40 digit and space for sign and decimalpoint
4 Number (n) Numeric variable.n is the size of the variable
5 Number(n,d) Numeric variable.n is the size of variable and d is the size if the decimal point
6 Raw(size) Raw Binary data of length size bytes .Maximum size is 32767 bytes.
7 Integer It is same as number data type but values will be whole numbers. Columns defined with this format not accept
decimal values.
8 Integer(n) Specifies an integer data type of length n.
9 Long Defines a character data type upto 32760bytes. One one long column may be efined for table. This type of column
 may not be used in sub queries, Where clauses or indexes.
10 Long Raw Same as LONG except it contains binary data or byte strings and not interpreted by PL/SQL
11 LOB Type LOB variables can used interchangeably with LONG and LONG RAW variables. It consists of BFILE,BLOB,CLOB and
NLOB
12 BFILE It is used to store large binary objects in operating system files outside the database
13 BLOB The BLOB datat ype to store large binary objects in the database, in-line or out-of-line. Every BLOB variable stores
a locator, which points to a large binary object. The size of a BLOB cannot exceed four gigabytes
14 CLOB The CLOB datatype to store large blocks of character data in the database, in-line or out-of-line. Both fixed-width
and variable-width character sets are supported. Every CLOB variable stores a locator, which points to a large block
of character data. The size of a CLOB cannot exceed four gigabytes
15 NCLOB The NCLOB datatype to store large blocks of NCHAR data in the database, in-line or out-of-line. Both fixed-width
and variable-width character sets are supported. Every NCLOB variable stores a locator, which points to a large
block of NCHAR data. The size of an NCLOB cannot exceed four gigabytes.
16 The DATE datatype to store fixed-length datetimes, which include the time of day in seconds since midnight. The
DATE date portion defaults to the first day of the current month; the time portion defaults to midnight. The date function
SYSDATE returns the current date and time
SQL uses the terms table, row, and column for relation, tuple, and attribute, respectively. A table can have
up to 254 columns which may have different or same data types and sets of values (domains), respectively.
Possible domains are alphanumeric data (strings), numbers and date formats.

Sample Databases used for illustration of SQL Commands is given below with ER Diagram and corresponding
Relational Model with suitable data entered in the tables.

Relation between Employee and Department is Works is many –to-one .

DATABASE for EMPLOYEE and DEPARTMENTEntities

EMPTable given with sample Data

EMPNOENAME JOB MGRHIREDATE SALCOMM DEPTNO

7369 SMITH CLERK 790217-DEC-80 800 20
7499 ALLEN SALESMAN 769820-FEB-81 1600 300 30
7521 WARD SALESMAN 769822-FEB-81 1250 500 30
7566JONES MANAGER 783902-APR-81 2975 20
7654 MARTIN SALESMAN 769828-SEP-81 1250 1400 30

DEPT Table given with Sample Data

DEPTNO DNAME LOC

10 ACCOUNTING NEW YORK
20 RESEARCH DALLAS
30 SALES CHICAGO
40 OPERATIONS BOSTON
QUERY: 01
Q1: Write a query to create a table employee with empno, ename, designation, and salary.

Syntax: It is used to create a table

SQL: CREATE <OBJ.TYPE><OBJ.NAME> (COLUMN NAME.1 <DATATYPE> (SIZE),

COLUMN NAME.2 <DATATYPE> (SIZE) ………);

Command:

SQL>CREATE TABLE EMP (EMPNO NUMBER (4),ENAME VARCHAR2 (10), DESIGNATIN

VARCHAR2 (10),SALARY NUMBER (8, 2));

Table created.

Constraints with Table Creation:

Constraints are condition for the data item to be stored into a database. There are two types
of Constraints viz., Column Constraints and Table Constraints.

Syntax:
[CONSTRAINT constraint name]

{[NOT] NULL / UNIQUE / PRIMARY

KEY}(Column[,column]..) FOREIGN KEY (column [, colum]…)

REFERENCES table

[ON DELETE CASCADE]

[CHECK (condition)]

TABLE DESCRIPTION

It is used to view the table structure to confirm whether the table was created correctly.

QUERY: 02
Q2: Write a query to display the column name and data type of the table employee.

Syntax: This is used to view the structure of the table.

SQL: DESC <TABLE NAME>;

Command:

SQL> DESC EMP;

Name Null? Type

EMPNO NUMBER(4)
ENAME VARCHAR2(10)
DESIGNATIN VARCHAR2(10)
SALARY NUMBER(8,2)
QUERY: 03

Q3: Write a query for create a from an existing table with all the fields

Syntax: syntax for create a table from an existing table with all fields.

SQL> CREATE TABLE <TRAGET TABLE NAME> SELECT * FROM<SOURCE TABLE NAME>;

Command:

SQL> CREATE TABLE EMP1 AS SELECT * FROM EMP;

Table created.

Command:

SQL> DESC EMP1

Name Null? Type

EMPNO NUMBER(4)
ENAME VARCHAR2(10)
DESIGNATIN VARCHAR2(10)
SALARY NUMBER(8,2)

QUERY: 04

Q4: Write a query for create a from an existing table with selected fields

Syntax: Syntax for create a from an existing table with selected fields.

SQL> CREATE TABLE <TRAGET TABLE NAME> AS SELECT EMPNO, ENAMEFROM <SOURCE
TABLE NAME>;

Command:

SQL> CREATE TABLE EMP2 AS SELECT EMPNO, ENAME FROM EMP;

Table created.

Command:

SQL> DESC EMP2

Name Null? Type

EMPNO NUMBER (4)

ENAME VARCHAR2 (10)
QUERY: 05

Q5: Write a query for create a new table from an existing table without any record:

Syntax: The syntax for create a new table from an existing table without any record.

SQL> CREATE TABLE <TRAGET TABLE NAME> AS SELECT * FROM<SOURCE TABLE NAME>

WHERE <FALSE CONDITION>;

Command:

SQL> CREATE TABLE EMP3 AS SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE1>2;

Table created.

Command:

SQL> DESC EMP3;

Name Null? Type

EMPNO NUMBER(4)
ENAME VARCHAR2(10)
DESIGNATIN VARCHAR2(10)
SALARY NUMBER(8,2);
 ALTER & MODIFICATION ON TABLE

To modify structure of an already existing table to add one more columns and also modify
the existing columns.

Alter command is used to:

1. Add a new column.

2. Modify the existing column definition.
3. To include or drop integrity constraint.

QUERY: 06

Q6: Write a Query to Alter the column EMPNO NUMBER (4) TO EMPNO NUMBER (6).

Syntax: The syntax for alter & modify on a single column.

SQL > ALTER <TABLE NAME> MODIFY <COLUMN NAME><DATATYPE>(SIZE);

Command:

SQL>ALTER TABLE EMP MODIFY EMPNO NUMBER (6);

Table altered.

Command:

SQL> DESC EMP;

Name Null? Type

EMPNO NUMBER(6)
ENAME VARCHAR2(10)
DESIGNATIN VARCHAR2(10)
SALARY NUMBER(8,2)
QUERY: 07

Q7. Write a Query to Alter the table employee with multiple columns (EMPNO,ENAME.)

Syntax: To alter table with multiple column.

SQL > ALTER <TABLE NAME> MODIFY <COLUMN NAME1><DATATYPE>(SIZE),

MODIFY <COLUMN NAME2><DATATYPE>(SIZE) ................ ;
Command:
SQL>ALTER TABLE EMP MODIFY (EMPNO NUMBER (7),
ENAMEVARCHAR2(12)); Table altered.
Command:

SQL> DESC EMP;

Name Null? Type

EMPNO NUMBER(7)
ENAME VARCHAR2(12)
DESIGNATIN VARCHAR2(10)
SALARY NUMBER(8,2);

QUERY: 08
Q8. Write a query to add a new column in to employee

Syntax: To add a new column.

SQL> ALTER TABLE <TABLE NAME> ADD (<COLUMN NAME><DATATYPE><SIZE>);

Command:
SQL> ALTER TABLE EMP ADD QUALIFICATION VARCHAR2(6);
Table altered.

SQL> DESC EMP;

Name Null? Type

EMPNO NUMBER(7)
ENAME VARCHAR2(12)
DESIGNATIN VARCHAR2(10)
SALARY NUMBER(8,2)
QUALIFICATION VARCHAR2(6)

QUERY: 09

Q9: Write a query to add multiple columns in to

employee Syntax: Syntax for add a new column.
SQL> ALTER TABLE <TABLE NAME> ADD (<COLUMN NAME1><DATATYPE><SIZE>,
(<COLUMN NAME2><DATA TYPE><SIZE>…);
Command:

SQL>ALTER TABLE EMP ADD (DOB DATE, DOJ DATE);

Table altered.

SQL> DESC EMP;

Name Null? Type

EMPNO NUMBER(7)
ENAME VARCHAR2(12)
DESIGNATIN VARCHAR2(10)
SALARY NUMBER(8,2)
QUALIFICATION VARCHAR2(6)
DOB DATE
DOJ DATE
 REMOVE / DROP

It will delete the table structure provided the table should be empty.
QUERY: 10
Q10. Write a query to drop a column from an existing table employee

Syntax: syntax for add a new column.

SQL> ALTER TABLE <TABLE NAME> DROP COLUMN <COLUMN NAME>;

Command:
SQL> ALTER TABLE EMP DROP COLUMN DOJ;
Table altered.

SQL> DESC EMP;

Name Null? Type

EMPNO NUMBER(7)
ENAME VARCHAR2(12)
DESIGNATIN VARCHAR2(10)
SALARY NUMBER(8,2)
QUALIFICATION VARCHAR2(6)
DOB DATE

QUERY: 11
Q10. Write a query to drop multiple columns from employee

Syntax:The Syntax for add a new column.

SQL> ALTER TABLE <TABLE NAME> DROP <COLUMNNAME1>,<COLUMN NAME2>, ..............;

Command:
SQL> ALTER TABLE EMP DROP (DOB, QUALIFICATION);
Table altered.

SQL> DESC EMP;

Name Null? Type

EMPNO NUMBER(7)
ENAME VARCHAR2(12)
DESIGNATIN VARCHAR2(10)
SALARY NUMBER(8,2)
 RENAME
QUERY: 12
Q10. Write a query to rename table emp to employee
Syntax:The Syntax for add a new column.
SQL> ALTER TABLE RENAME <OLD NAME> TO <NEW NAME>
Command:
SQL> ALTER TABLE RENAME EMP TO EMPLOYEE;
SQL> DESC EMPLOYEE;
Name Null? Type

EMPNO NUMBER(7)
ENAME VARCHAR2(12)
DESIGNATIN VARCHAR2(10)
SALARY NUMBER(8,2)

TRUNCATE TABLE
If there is no further use of records stored in a table and the structure has to be retained then the records
alone can be deleted.
Syntax:
TRUNCATE TABLE <TABLE NAME>;
Example:
Truncate table EMP;

DROP:
To remove a table along with its structure and data.
Syntax:The Syntax for add a new column.
SQL> Drop table<table name>;
Command:
SQL> drop table employee;

RESULT:
Thus the SQL commands for DDL commands in RDBMS has been verified and executed successfully.
Practical No. 02
DATA MANIPULATION LANGUAGE (DML) COMMANDS IN RDBMS

AIM:

To execute and verify the DML commands are the most frequently used SQL commands and is
used to query and manipulate the existing database objects.
DML (DATA MANIPULATION LANGUAGE)

SELECT
INSERT
DELETE
UPDATE

ALGORITHM:

STEP 1: Start the DBMS.

STEP 2: Create the table with its essential attributes.
STEP 3: Insert the record into table
STEP 4: Update the existing records into the table
STEP 5: Delete the records in to the table
STEP 6: use save point if any changes occur in any portion of the record to undo its original state.

STEP 7: use rollback for completely undo the records

STEP 8: use commit for permanently save the records
 INSERT

The SQL INSERT INTO Statement is used to add new rows of data to a table in the database.

Insert a record from an existing table:

QUERY: 01

Q1. Write a query to insert the records in to employee.

Syntax: syntax for insert records in to a table

SQL :> INSERT INTO <TABLE NAME> VALUES< VAL1, ‘VAL2’,…..);

Command:

SQL>INSERT INTO EMP VALUES (101,'NAGARAJAN','LECTURER',15000);

1 row created.

Insert A Record Using Substitution Method:

QUERY: 03

Q3. Write a query to insert the records in to employee using substitution method.

Syntax: syntax for insert records into the table.

SQL :> INSERT INTO <TABLE NAME> VALUES< ‘&column name’, ‘&column nam
); e 2’, …..

Command:

SQL> INSERT INTO EMP

VALUES(&EMPNO,'&ENAME','&DESIGNATIN','&SALARY'); Enter value for empno: 102
Enter value for ename: SARAVANAN
Enter value for designatin: LECTURER
Enter value for salary: 15000
1 row created.
old 1: INSERT INTO EMP VALUES(&EMPNO,'&ENAME','&DESIGNATIN','&SALARY')
new 1: INSERT INTO EMP VALUES(102,'SARAVANAN','LECTURER','15000')
SQL> /
Enter value for empno: 103
Enter value for ename: PANNERSELVAM
Enter value for designatin: ASST. PROF
Enter value for salary: 20000
1 row created.
old 1: INSERT INTO EMP VALUES(&EMPNO,'&ENAME','&DESIGNATIN','&SALARY')
new 1: INSERT INTO EMP VALUES(103,'PANNERSELVAM','ASST.PROF','20000')
SQL> /
Enter value for empno: 104
Enter value for ename: CHINNI

Enter value for designatin: HOD,

PROF Enter value for salary: 45000
1 row created.
old 1: INSERT INTO EMP VALUES(&EMPNO,'&ENAME','&DESIGNATIN','&SALARY')
new 1: INSERT INTO EMP VALUES(104,'CHINNI','HOD, PROF','45000')
SQL> SELECT * FROM EMP;
EMPNO ENAME DESIGNATIN SALARY

101 NAGARAJAN LECTURER 15000

102 SARAVANAN LECTURER 15000
103 PANNERSELVAM ASST. PROF 20000
104 CHINNI HOD, PROF 45000

SELECT

SELECT Statement is used to fetch the data from a database table which returns data in the form
of result table. These result tables are called result-sets.

Display the EMP table:

QUERY: 02

Q3. Write a query to display the records from employee.

Syntax: Syntax for select Records from the table.

SQL> SELECT * FROM <TABLE NAME>;

Command:

SQL> SELECT * FROM EMP;

EMPNO ENAME DESIGNATIN SALARY

101 NAGARAJAN LECTURER 15000

 UPDATE

The SQL UPDATE Query is used to modify the existing records in a table. You can use WHERE
clause with UPDATE query to update selected rows, otherwise all the rows would be affected.

QUERY: 04

Q1. Write a query to update the records from employee.

Syntax: syntax for update records from the table.

SQL> UPDATE <<TABLE NAME> SET <COLUMNANE>=<VALUE> WHERE <COLUMN NAME=<VALUE>;

Command:

SQL> UPDATE EMP SET SALARY=16000 WHERE EMPNO=101;

1 row updated.

SQL> SELECT * FROM EMP;

EMPNO ENAME DESIGNATIN SALARY

101 NAGARAJAN LECTURER 16000

102 SARAVANAN LECTURER 15000
103 PANNERSELVAM ASST. PROF 20000
104 CHINNI HOD,PROF 45000

Update Multiple Columns:

QUERY: 05

Q5. Write a query to update multiple records from employee.

Syntax: syntax for update multiple records from the table.

SQL> UPDATE <<TABLE NAME> SET <COLUMNANE>=<VALUE> WHERE <COLUMN NAME=<VALUE>;

Command:

SQL>UPDATE EMP SET SALARY = 16000, DESIGNATIN='ASST. PROF' WHERE EMPNO=102;

1 row updated.

SQL> SELECT * FROM EMP;

EMPNO ENAME DESIGNATIN SALARY

101 NAGARAJAN LECTURER 16000

102 SARAVANAN ASST. PROF 16000
103 PANNERSELVAM ASST. PROF 20000
104 CHINNI HOD, PROF 45000
 DELETE

The SQL DELETE Query is used to delete the existing records from a table. You can use
WHERE clause with DELETE query to delete selected rows, otherwise all the records would be deleted.

QUERY: 06

Q5. Write a query to delete records from employee.

Syntax: Syntax for delete Records from the table:

SQL> DELETE <TABLE NAME> WHERE <COLUMN NAME>=<VALUE>;

Command:

SQL> DELETE EMP WHERE EMPNO=103;

1 row deleted.

SQL> SELECT * FROM EMP;

EMPNO ENAME DESIGNATIN SALARY

101 NAGARAJAN LECTURER 16000

102 SARAVANAN ASST. PROF 16000

104 CHINNI HOD, PROF 45000

RESULT:

Thus the SQL commands for DML has been verified and executed successfully.
Practical No. 03
Performing Insertion, Deletion, Modifying, Altering, Updating and Viewing records based on
conditions.

AIM:

To performing insertion, deletion, modifying, altering, updating and viewing records based
on conditions.

ALGORITHM:

STEP 1: Start the DBMS

STEP 2: Connect to the database (DB)

STEP 3: Create the table with its essential attributes.

STEP 4: Insert the record into table based on some condition using WHERE CLAUSE

STEP 5: Update the existing records into the table based on some condition

STEP 6: Delete the records in to the table based on some condition

STEP 7: Use commit for permanently save the records

STEP 8: Stop the program

 DRL-DATA RETRIEVAL IMPLEMENTING ON SELECT COMMANDS
Command:
SQL> CREATE TABLE EMP(
EMPNO NUMBER (4),
ENAME VARCHAR2 (10),
JOB VARCHAR2(20),
MGR NUMBER(4),
HIREDATE DATE,
SAL NUMBER(8,2),
DEPTNO NUMBER(3)
);
Table created.

SQL> INSERT INTO EMP VALUES(7369,'SMITH','CLERK',5001,'17-DEC-

80','8000',200); 1 row created.

SQL> INSERT INTO EMP VALUES(7499,'ALLEN','SALESMAN',5002,'20-FEB-

80','3000',300); 1 row created.

SQL> INSERT INTO EMP VALUES(7521,'WARD','SALESMAN',5003,'22-FEB-

80','5000',500); 1 row created.

SQL> INSERT INTO EMP VALUES(7566,'JONES','MANAGER',5002,'02-APR-85','75000',200);

1 row created.

SQL> INSERT INTO EMP VALUES(7566,'RAJA','OWNER',5000,'30-APR-75',NULL,100);

1 row created.

SQL> INSERT INTO EMP VALUES(7566,'KUMAR','COE',5002,'12-JAN-87','55000',300);

1 row created.

SQL> INSERT INTO EMP VALUES(7499,'RAM KUMAR','SR.SALESMAN',5003,'22-JAN-87','12000.55',200);

1 row created.

SQL> INSERT INTO EMP VALUES(7521,'SAM KUMAR','SR.SALESMAN',5003,'22-JAN-

75','22000',300); 1 row created.

THE SELECT STATEMENT SYNTAX WITH ADDITIONAL CLAUSES:

Select [ Distinct / Unique ] ( *columnname [ As alias}, ….]
From tablename
[ where condition ]
[ Group BY group _by_expression ]
[Having group_condition ]
[ORDER BY {col(s)|expr|numeric_pos} [ASC|DESC] [NULLS FIRST|LAST]];
SQL> SELECT * FROM EMP;
EMPNO ENAME JOB MGR HIREDATE SAL DEPTNO

7369 SMITH CLERK 5001 17-DEC-80 8000 200

7499 ALLEN SALESMAN 5002 20-FEB-80 3000 300
7521 WARD SALESMAN 5003 22-FEB-80 5000 500
7566 JONES MANAGER 5002 02-APR-85 75000 200
7566 RAJA OWNER 5000 30-APR-75 100
7566 KUMAR COE 5002 12-JAN-87 55000 300
7499 RAM KUMAR SR.SALESMAN 5003 22-JAN-87 12000.55 200
7521 SAM KUMAR SR.SALESMAN 5003 22-JAN-75 22000 300
8 rows selected.
BY USING SELECTED COLUNMS
SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,JOB,SAL FROM EMP;
EMPNO ENAME JOB SAL

7369 SMITH CLERK 8000

7499 ALLEN SALESMAN 3000
7521 WARD SALESMAN 5000
7566 JONES MANAGER 75000
7566 RAJA OWNER
7566 KUMAR COE 55000
7499 RAM KUMAR SR.SALESMAN 12000.55
7521 SAM KUMARSR.SALESMAN 22000
8 rows selected.

SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,JOB,SAL FROM EMP WHERE SAL=5000;

EMPNO ENAME JOB SAL

7521 WARD SALESMAN 5000

BY USING BETWEEN / NOT / IN / NULL / LIKE

BETWEEN Syntax:
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name BETWEEN value1 AND value2;

SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,JOB,SAL FROM EMP WHERE SAL BETWEEN 10000 AND 30000;
EMPNO ENAME JOB SAL

7499 RAM KUMAR SR.SALESMAN 12000.55

7521 SAM KUMAR SR.SALESMAN 22000
SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,JOB,SAL FROM EMP WHERE SAL NOT BETWEEN 10000 AND 30000;
EMPNO ENAME JOB SAL

7369 SMITH CLERK 8000

7499 ALLEN SALESMAN 3000
7521 WARD SALESMAN 5000
7566 JONES MANAGER 75000
7566 KUMAR COE 55000

IN Syntax
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name IN (value1,value2,...);

SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,JOB,SAL FROM EMP WHERE SAL IN (1000.5,75000);

EMPNO ENAME JOB SAL

7566 JONES MANAGER 75000

SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,JOB,SAL FROM EMP WHERE SAL NOT IN (1000.5,75000);

EMPNO ENAME JOB SAL

7369 SMITH CLERK 8000

7499 ALLEN SALESMAN 3000
7521 WARD SALESMAN 5000
7566 KUMAR COE 55000
7499 RAM KUMAR SR.SALESMAN 12000.55
7521 SAM KUMARSR.SALESMAN 22000
6 rows selected.

SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,JOB,SAL FROM EMP WHERE SAL IS NULL;

EMPNO ENAME JOB SAL

7566 RAJA OWNER

SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,JOB,SAL FROM EMP WHERE SAL IS NOT NULL;

EMPNO ENAME JOB SAL

7369 SMITH CLERK 8000

7499 ALLEN SALESMAN 3000
7521 WARD SALESMAN 5000
7566 JONES MANAGER 75000
7566 KUMAR COE 55000
7499 RAM KUMAR SR.SALESMAN 12000.55
7521 SAM KUMAR SR.SALESMAN 22000
7 rows selected.
LIKE Syntax:
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name LIKE pattern;

SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,JOB,SAL FROM EMP WHERE SAL LIKE 55000;

EMPNO ENAME JOB SAL

7566 KUMAR COE 55000

SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,JOB,SAL FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE 'S%';

EMPNO ENAME JOB SAL

7369 SMITH CLERK 8000

7521 SAM KUMARSR.SALESMAN 22000

SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,JOB,SAL FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE '%R';

EMPNO ENAME JOB SAL

7566 KUMAR COE 55000

7499 RAM KUMAR SR.SALESMAN 12000.55
7521 SAM KUMARSR.SALESMAN 22000

SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,JOB,SAL FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE '%U%';

EMPNO ENAME JOB SAL
-
7566 KUMAR COE 55000
7499 RAM KUMAR SR.SALESMAN 12000.55
7521 SAM KUMAR SR.SALESMAN 22000

SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,JOB,SAL FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE '%A%';

EMPNO ENAME JOB SAL

7499 ALLEN SALESMAN 3000

7521 WARD SALESMAN 5000
7566 RAJA OWNER
7566 KUMAR COE 55000
7499 RAM KUMAR SR.SALESMAN 12000.55
7521 SAM KUMAR SR.SALESMAN 22000
6 rows selected.
SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,JOB,SAL FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE '%LL%';
EMPNO ENAME JOB SAL

7499 ALLEN SALESMAN 3000

SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,JOB,SAL FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE '%E%';
EMPNO ENAME JOB SAL

7499 ALLEN SALESMAN 3000

7566 JONES MANAGER 75000
SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,JOB,SAL FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE '%U%A%';

EMPNO ENAME JOB SAL

-
7566 KUMAR COE 55000
7499 RAM KUMAR SR.SALESMAN 12000.55
7521 SAM KUMAR SR.SALESMAN 22000

SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,JOB,SAL FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE 'R '; //3_

EMPNO ENAME JOB SAL

7566 RAJA OWNER

SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,JOB,SAL FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE 'R_J_';

EMPNO ENAME JOB SAL

7566 RAJAOWNER

SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,JOB,SAL FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE '_M%';

EMPNO ENAME JOB SAL

7369 SMITH CLERK 8000

SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,JOB,SAL FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE '_M';

no rows selected

SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,JOB,SAL FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE ' R'; // 4_

EMPNO ENAME JOB SAL

7566 KUMAR COE 55000

SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,JOB,SAL FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE 'K R'; // 3_

EMPNO ENAME JOB SAL

7566 KUMAR COE 55000

SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,JOB,SAL FROM EMP WHERE ENAME NOT LIKE 'R_J_';

EMPNO ENAME JOB SAL

7369 SMITH CLERK 8000

7499 ALLEN SALESMAN 3000
7521 WARD SALESMAN 5000
7566 JONES MANAGER 75000
7566 KUMAR COE 55000
7499 RAM KUMAR SR.SALESMAN 12000.55
7521 SAM KUMAR SR.SALESMAN 22000

7 rows selected.
 RELATIONAL OPERATOR
SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,JOB,SAL FROM EMP WHERE SAL=55000;
EMPNO ENAME JOB SAL

7566 KUMAR COE 55000

SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,JOB,SAL FROM EMP WHERE SAL!=55000;
EMPNO ENAME JOB SAL

7369 SMITH CLERK 8000

7499 ALLEN SALESMAN 3000
7521 WARD SALESMAN 5000
7566 JONES MANAGER 75000
7499 RAM KUMAR SR.SALESMAN 12000.55
7521 SAM KUMAR SR.SALESMAN 22000
6 rows selected.
SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,JOB,SAL FROM EMP WHERE SAL<>55000;
EMPNO ENAMEJOB SAL

7369 SMITH CLERK 8000

7499 ALLEN SALESMAN 3000
7521 WARD SALESMAN 5000
7566 JONES MANAGER 75000
7499 RAM KUMARSR.SALESMAN12000.55
7521 SAM KUMARSR.SALESMAN 22000
6 rows selected.
SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,JOB,SAL FROM EMP WHERE SAL>55000;
EMPNO ENAME JOB SAL

7566 JONES MANAGER 75000

SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,JOB,SAL FROM EMP WHERE SAL<55000;
EMPNO ENAME JOB SAL

7369 SMITH CLERK 8000

7499 ALLEN SALESMAN 3000
7521 WARD SALESMAN 5000
7499 RAM KUMAR SR.SALESMAN 12000.55
7521 SAM KUMARSR.SALESMAN 22000

SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,JOB,SAL FROM EMP WHERE SAL<=55000;

EMPNO ENAME JOB SAL

7369 SMITH CLERK 8000

7499 ALLEN SALESMAN 3000
7521 WARD SALESMAN 5000
7566 KUMAR COE 55000
7499 RAM KUMAR SR.SALESMAN 12000.55
7521 SAM KUMARSR.SALESMAN 22000
6 rows selected.
SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,JOB,SAL FROM EMP WHERE SAL>=55000;
EMPNO ENAME JOB SAL

7566 JONES MANAGER 75000

7566 KUMAR COE 55000
 AND / OR
SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,JOB,SAL FROM EMP WHERE JOB='SR.SALESMAN' AND SAL=22000;
EMPNO ENAME JOB SAL

7521 SAM KUMARSR.SALESMAN 22000

SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,JOB,SAL FROM EMP WHERE JOB='SR.SALESMAN' OR SAL=22000;

EMPNO ENAME JOB SAL

7499 RAM KUMAR SR.SALESMAN 12000.55

7521 SAM KUMAR SR.SALESMAN 22000
SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,JOB,SAL FROM EMP
WHERE SAL=5000 AND (JOB='SR.SALESMAN' OR JOB='SALESMAN');
EMPNO ENAME JOB SAL

7521 WARD SALESMAN 5000

ORDER BY

Syntax:
SELECT column_name,column_name
FROM table_name
ORDER BY column_name,column_name ASC|DESC;

SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,JOB,SAL FROM EMP ORDER BY ENAME;

EMPNO ENAME JOB SAL

7499 ALLEN SALESMAN 3000

7566 JONES MANAGER 75000
7566 KUMAR COE 55000
7566 RAJA OWNER
7499 RAM KUMAR SR.SALESMAN 12000.55
7521 SAM KUMARSR.SALESMAN 22000
7369 SMITH CLERK 8000
7521 WARD SALESMAN 5000
8 rows selected.
SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,JOB,SAL FROM EMP ORDER BY ENAME DESC;
EMPNO ENAME JOB SAL

7521 WARD SALESMAN 5000

7369 SMITH CLERK 8000
7521 SAM KUMAR SR.SALESMAN 22000
7499 RAM KUMAR SR.SALESMAN 12000.55
7566 RAJA OWNER
7566 KUMAR COE 55000
7566 JONES MANAGER 75000
7499 ALLEN SALESMAN 3000

8 rows selected.
SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,JOB,SAL FROM EMP ORDER BY ENAME ASC;
EMPNO ENAME JOB SAL

7499 ALLEN SALESMAN 3000

7566 JONES MANAGER 75000
7566 KUMAR COE 55000
7566 RAJA OWNER
7499 RAM KUMAR SR.SALESMAN 12000.55
7521 SAM KUMARSR.SALESMAN 22000
7369 SMITH CLERK 8000
7521 WARD SALESMAN 5000
8 rows selected.

TOP

// TOP clause is not in oracle instead of that ROWNUM

Syntax
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE ROWNUM <= number;

SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,JOB,SAL FROM EMP WHERE ROWNUM <4;

EMPNO ENAME JOB SAL

7369 SMITH CLERK 8000

7499 ALLEN SALESMAN 3000
7521 WARD SALESMAN 5000

SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,JOB,SAL FROM EMP WHERE ROWNUM <4 ORDER BY ENAME;
EMPNO ENAME JOB SAL

7499 ALLEN SALESMAN 3000

7369 SMITH CLERK 8000
7521 WARD SALESMAN 5000

DISTINCT
Syntax:
SELECT DISTINCT column_name,column_name
FROM table_name;
Ex:
SQL> SELECT DISTINCT JOB FROM EMP;
JOB

CLERK
SALESMAN
SR.SALESMAN
MANAGER
COE
OWNER
6 rows selected.
 USING ALTER

This can be used to add or remove columns and to modify the precision of the datatype.

a) ADDING COLUMN

Syntax:
alter table <table_name> add <col datatype>;

Ex:
SQL> DESC EMP;
Name Null? Type

EMPNO NUMBER(4)
ENAME VARCHAR2(10)
JOB VARCHAR2(20)
MGR NUMBER(4)
HIREDATE DATE
SAL NUMBER(8,2)
DEPTNO NUMBER(3)
SQL> alter table EMP add TAX number;
Table altered.

SQL> DESC EMP;

Name Null? Type

EMPNO NUMBER(4)
ENAME VARCHAR2(10)
JOB VARCHAR2(20)
MGR NUMBER(4)
HIREDATE DATE
SAL NUMBER(8,2)
DEPTNO NUMBER(3)
TAX NUMBER

b) REMOVING COLUMN

Syntax:
alter table <table_name> drop <col datatype>;

Ex:

SQL> alter table EMP drop column TAX;

Table altered.

SQL> DESC EMP;

Name Null? Type

EMPNO NUMBER(4)
ENAME VARCHAR2(10)
JOB VARCHAR2(20)
MGR NUMBER(4)
HIREDATE DATE
SAL NUMBER(8,2)
DEPTNO NUMBER(3)
c) INCREASING OR DECREASING PRECISION OF A COLUMN

Syntax:

alter table <table_name> modify <col datatype>;

Ex:

SQL> alter table EMP modify DEPTNO number(5);

Table altered.

SQL> DESC EMP;

Name Null? Type

EMPNO NUMBER(4)
ENAME VARCHAR2(10)
JOB VARCHAR2(20)
MGR NUMBER(4)
HIREDATE DATE
SAL NUMBER(8,2)
DEPTNO NUMBER(5)

* To decrease precision the column should be empty.

d) MAKING COLUMN UNUSED

Syntax:
alter table <table_name> set unused column <col>;

Ex:
SQL> alter table EMP set unused column DEPTNO;
Table altered.

SQL> DESC EMP;

Name Null? Type

EMPNO NUMBER(4)
ENAME VARCHAR2(10)
JOB VARCHAR2(20)
MGR NUMBER(4)
HIREDATE DATE
SAL NUMBER(8,2)

SQL> SELECT * FROM EMP;

EMPNO ENAME JOB MGR HIREDATE SAL

7369 SMITH CLERK 5001 17-DEC-80 8000

7499 ALLEN SALESMAN 5002 20-FEB-80 3000
7521 WARD SALESMAN 5003 22-FEB-80 5000
9 rows selected.

Even though the column is unused still it will occupy memory.

d) DROPPING UNUSED
COLUMNS Syntax:
alter table <table_name> drop unused columns;

Ex:
SQL> alter table EMP drop unused columns;
Table altered.

* You can not drop individual unused columns of a table.

e) RENAMING
COLUMN Syntax:
alter table <table_name> rename column <old_col_name> to <new_col_name>;
Ex:
SQL> alter table EMP rename column SAL to SALARY;

Table altered.

SQL> DESC EMP;

Name Null? Type

EMPNO NUMBER(4)
ENAME VARCHAR2(10)
JOB VARCHAR2(20)
MGR NUMBER(4)
HIREDATE DATE
SALARY NUMBER(8,2)

INSERT
Method 1

GENERAL INSERT COMMAND:

SQL> INSERT INTO EMP(EMPNO,ENAME,JOB,MGR,HIREDATE,SALARY)

VALUES(1111,'RAMU','SALESMAN',5063,'12-JAN-87','5643.55');
1 row created.

Method 2

WITHOUT SPECIFY THE COLUMNS DETAILS

SQL> INSERT INTO Emp VALUES(1111,'RAMU','SALESMAN',5063,'12-JAN-
87','5643.55'); 1 row created.

Method 3

INSERTING DATA INTO SPECIFIED COLUMNS

SQL> INSERT INTO EMP(EMPNO,ENAME,JOB)
VALUES(1111,'RAMU','SALESMAN'); 1 row created.

Method 4

BY CHANGE THE ORDER OF COLUMNS

SQL> INSERT INTO EMP(salary,EMPNO,ENAME,JOB)

VALUES(35000,1111,'RAMU','SALESMAN'); 1 row created.
SQL> select * from emp;

EMPNO ENAME JOB MGR HIREDATE SALARY

7369 SMITH CLERK 5001 17-DEC-80 8000

7499 ALLEN SALESMAN 5002 20-FEB-80 3000
7521 WARD SALESMAN 5003 22-FEB-80 5000
7566 JONES MANAGER 5002 02-APR-85 75000
7566 RAJA OWNER 5000 30-APR-75
7566 KUMAR COE 5002 12-JAN-87 55000
7499 RAM KUMAR SR.SALESMAN 5003 22-JAN-87 12000.55
7521 SAM KUMAR SR.SALESMAN 5003 22-JAN-75 22000
7521 SAM KUMAR SR.SALESMAN 5003 22-JAN-75 22000
1111 RAMU SALESMAN 5063 12-JAN-87 5643.55
1111 RAMU SALESMAN 5063 12-JAN-87 5643.55
1111 RAMU SALESMAN
1111 RAMU SALESMAN 35000
13 rows selected.

Method 5

INSERT WITH SELECT

Using this we can insert existing table data to another table in a single trip. But the table structure should be same.
Syntax:

Insert into <table1> select * from <table2>;

Ex:

SQL> DESC EMP

Name Null? Type

EMPNO NUMBER(4)
ENAME VARCHAR2(10)
JOB VARCHAR2(20)
MGR NUMBER(4)
HIREDATE DATE
SALARY NUMBER(8,2)

SQL> create table EMPLOYEE(EMP_NO,EMP_NAME,EMP_JOB,HR,HIREDATE,SALARY) as

select * from EMP where 1 = 2;
Table created.

SQL> DESC EMPLOYEE

Name Null? Type

EMP_NO NUMBER(4)
EMP_NAME VARCHAR2(10)
EMP_JOB VARCHAR2(20)
HR NUMBER(4)
HIREDATE DATE
SALARY NUMBER(8,2)

SQL> SELECT * FROM

EMPLOYEE; no rows selected

SQL> insert into EMPLOYEE select * from

EMP; 13 rows created.
SQL> SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEE;
EMP_NO EMP_NAME EMP_JOB HR HIREDATE SALARY

7369 SMITH CLERK 5001 17-DEC-80 8000

7499 ALLEN SALESMAN 5002 20-FEB-80 3000
7521 WARD SALESMAN 5003 22-FEB-80 5000
7566 JONES MANAGER 5002 02-APR-85 75000
7566 RAJA OWNER 5000 30-APR-75
7566 KUMAR COE 5002 12-JAN-87 55000
7499 RAM KUMAR SR.SALESMAN 5003 22-JAN-87 12000.55
7521 SAM KUMARSR.SALESMAN 5003 22-JAN-75 22000
7521 SAM KUMARSR.SALESMAN 5003 22-JAN-75 22000
1111 RAMU SALESMAN 5063 12-JAN-87 5643.55
1111 RAMU SALESMAN 5063 12-JAN-87 5643.55
1111 RAMU SALESMAN
1111 RAMU SALESMAN 35000
13 rows selected.

Method 6

MULTIBLE INSERTS
We have table called DEPT with the following columns and data
SQL> select * from DEPT;
DEPTNO DNAME LOC
----------- ---------- -------
10 accounting new york
20 research dallas
30 sales Chicago
40 operations boston

CREATE STUDENT TABLE

SQL> Create table student(no number(2),name varchar(2),marks number(3));

b) MULTI INSERT WITH ALL FIELDS

SQL> Insert all

Into student values(1,’a’,100)
Into student values(2,’b’,200)
Into student values(3,’c’,300)
Select *from dept where deptno=10;
3 rows created.

SQL> Select * from student;

NO NAME MARKS
------- -------- ----------
1 a 100
2 b 200
3 c 300
c) MULTI INSERT WITH SPECIFIED FIELDS

SQL> insert all

Into student (no,name) values(4,’d’)
Into student(name,marks) values(’e’,400)
Into student values(3,’c’,300)
Select *from dept where
deptno=10; 3 rows created.

SQL> Select * from student;

NO NAME MARKS

1 a 100
2 b 200
3 c 300
4 d
e 400
3 c 300
6 rows selected.

d) MULTI INSERT WITH DUPLICATE ROWS

SQL> insert all

Into student values(1,’a’,100)
Into student values(2,’b’,200)
Into student values(3,’c’,300)
Select *from dept where deptno >
10; 9 rows created.

-- This inserts 9 rows because in the select statement retrieves 3 records (3 inserts for each row
retrieved) SQL> Select * from student;
NO NAME MARKS

1 a 100
2 b 200
3 c 300
4 d
e 400
3 c 300
1 a 100
1 a 100
1 a 100
2 b 200
2 b 200
2 b 200
3 c 300
3 c 300
3 c 300
15 rows selected.
e) MULTI INSERT WITH CONDITIONS BASED

SQL> create table mytbl1(name varchar2(20),no number(10));

Table created.

SQL> insert into mytbl1 values('ram',111);

1 row created.

SQL> insert into mytbl1 values('sam',222);

1 row created.

SQL> insert into mytbl1 values('tam',333);

1 row created.

SQL> select * from mytbl1;

NAME NO

ram 111
sam 222
tam 333

SQL> create table yourtbl1(name varchar2(20),no number(10));

Table created.

SQL> create table yourtbl2(name varchar2(20),no number(10));

Table created.

SQL> create table yourtbl3(name varchar2(20),no number(10));

Table created.

SQL> select * from

yourtbl1; no rows selected

SQL> select * from

yourtbl2; no rows selected

SQL> select * from

yourtbl3; no rows selected
SQL> insert all
when no > 111 then
into yourtbl1 values('ramu',1111)
when name = 'sam' then
into yourtbl2 values('samu',2222)
when name = 'tam' then
into yourtbl3 values('tamu',3333) select
* from mytbl1 where no > 111;
4 rows created.
SQL> select * from mytbl1;
NAME NO

ram 111
sam 222
tam 333
SQL> select * from yourtbl1;
NAME NO

ramu 1111
ramu 1111

SQL> select * from yourtbl2;

NAME NO

samu 2222

SQL> select * from yourtbl3;

NAME NO

tamu 3333

-- This inserts 4 rows because the first condition satisfied 3 times, second condition
satisfied once and the last none.
f) MULTI INSERT WITH CONDITIONS BASED AND ELSE

SQL> create table mytbl1(name varchar2(20),no

number(10)); Table created.
SQL> insert into mytbl1
values('ram',111); 1 row created.
SQL> insert into mytbl1
values('sam',222); 1 row created.
SQL> insert into mytbl1
values('tam',333); 1 row created.
SQL> select * from mytbl1;
NAME NO

ram 111
sam 222
tam 333
SQL> create table yourtbl1(name varchar2(20),no number(10));
Table created.
SQL> create table yourtbl2(name varchar2(20),no number(10));
Table created.
SQL> create table yourtbl3(name varchar2(20),no number(10));
Table created.
SQL> create table yourtbl4(name varchar2(20),no number(10));
Table created.

SQL> insert all

when no > 111 then
into yourtbl1 values('ramu',1111)
when name = 'sam' then
into yourtbl2 values('samu',2222)
when name = 'tam' then
into yourtbl3
values('tamu',3333) else
into yourtbl4 values('chotta',4444)
select * from mytbl1 where no > 111;
4 rows created.

SQL> select * from yourtbl1;

NAME NO

ramu 1111
ramu 1111

SQL> select * from yourtbl2;

NAME NO

samu 2222

SQL> select * from yourtbl3;

NAME NO

tamu 3333
g) MULTI INSERT WITH CONDITIONS BASED AND FIRST

SQL> create table mytbl1(name varchar2(20),no number(10));

Table created.

SQL> insert into mytbl1

values('ram',111); 1 row created.

SQL> insert into mytbl1

values('sam',222); 1 row created.

SQL> insert into mytbl1

values('tam',333); 1 row created.

SQL> create table yourtbl1(name varchar2(20),no number(10));

Table created.

SQL> create table yourtbl2(name varchar2(20),no number(10));

Table created.

SQL> create table yourtbl3(name varchar2(20),no number(10));

Table created.

SQL> create table yourtbl4(name varchar2(20),no number(10));

Table created.

SQL> select * from mytbl1;

NAME NO

ram 111
sam 222
tam 333

SQL> insert first

when no=111 then
into yourtbl1 values('ramu',1111)
when name = 'sam' then
into yourtbl2 values('samu',2222)
when name = 'tam' then
into yourtbl3 values('tamu',3333)
select * from mytbl1 where
name='ram'; 1 row created.

SQL> select * from yourtbl1;

NAME NO

ramu 1111
-- This inserts 1 record because the first clause avoid to check the remaining conditions once the condition is satisfied.
h) MULTI INSERT WITH CONDITIONS BASED, FIRST AND ELSE

SQL> create table mytbl1(name varchar2(20),no number(10));

Table created.

SQL> insert into mytbl1

values('ram',111); 1 row created.

SQL> insert into mytbl1

values('sam',222); 1 row created.

SQL> insert into mytbl1

values('tam',333); 1 row created.

SQL> create table yourtbl1(name varchar2(20),no number(10));

Table created.

SQL> create table yourtbl2(name varchar2(20),no number(10));

Table created.

SQL> create table yourtbl3(name varchar2(20),no number(10));

Table created.
SQL> create table yourtbl4(name varchar2(20),no number(10));
Table created.

SQL> select * from mytbl1;

NAME NO

ram 111
sam 222
tam 333
SQL> insert first
when no=111 then
into yourtbl1 values('ramu',1111)
when name = 'bam' then
into yourtbl2 values('samu',2222)
when name = 'tam' then
into yourtbl3
values('tamu',3333) else
into yourtbl4 values('kamu',4444) select
* from mytbl1 where name='ram';
1 row created.

SQL> select * from yourtbl1;

NAME NO

ramu 1111

SQL> select * from

yourtbl2; no rows selected

SQL> select * from

yourtbl3; no rows selected

SQL> select * from

yourtbl4; no rows selected
i) MULTI INSERT WITH MULTIBLE TABLES
SQL> create table mytbl1(name varchar2(20),no number(10));
Table created.

SQL> insert into mytbl1

values('ram',111); 1 row created.
SQL> insert into mytbl1
values('sam',222); 1 row created.

SQL> insert into mytbl1

values('tam',333); 1 row created.
SQL> select * from mytbl1;
NAME NO

ram 111
sam 222
tam 333

SQL> create table yourtbl1(name varchar2(20),no number(10));

Table created.
SQL> create table yourtbl2(name varchar2(20),no number(10));
Table created.
SQL> create table yourtbl3(name varchar2(20),no number(10));
Table created.
SQL> create table yourtbl4(name varchar2(20),no
number(10)); Table created.
SQL> insert all
into yourtbl1 values('ramu',11111)
into yourtbl2 values('samu',22222)
into yourtbl3 values('tamu',33333)
into yourtbl4 values('kamu',44444)
select * from mytbl1 where
name='ram'; 4 rows created.
SQL> select * from yourtbl1;
NAME NO

ramu 11111
SQL> select * from yourtbl2;
NAME NO

samu 22222
SQL> select * from yourtbl3;
NAME NO

tamu 33333
SQL> select * from yourtbl4;
NAME NO

kamu 44444
** You can use multi tables with specified fields, with duplicate rows, with conditions, with first and else clauses.
 GROUP BY

Using group by, we can create groups of related information. Columns used in select must be used with group by;
otherwise it was not a group by expression.

Ex:

SQL> select * from emp;

EMPNO ENAME JOB MGR HIREDATE SAL DEPTNO

7369 SMITH CLERK 500117-DEC-80 8000 200

7499 ALLEN SALESMAN 500220-FEB-80 3000 300
7521 WARD SALESMAN 5003 22-FEB-80 5000 500
7499 RAM KUMARSR.SALESMAN 5003 22-JAN-87 12000.55200
7566 JONES MANAGER 5002 02-APR-85 75000 200
7521 SAM KUMARSR.SALESMAN 5003 22-JAN-75 22000 300
6 rows selected.

SQL> select job from EMP group by job;

JOB

CLERK
SALESMAN
SR.SALESMAN
MANAGER

SQL> select job,SUM(SAL) from EMP group by job;

JOB SUM(SAL)

CLERK 8000
SALESMAN 8000
SR.SALESMAN 34000.55
MANAGER 75000
HAVING
This will work as where clause which can be used only with group by because of absence of where clause in group by.

SQL> select deptno,job,sum(sal) Total_Salary_Of_Each_Dept

from emp group by deptno,job having sum(sal) > 3000;

DEPTNO JOB TOTAL_SALARY_OF_EACH_DEPT

200 MANAGER 75000

200 SR.SALESMAN 12000.55
200 CLERK 8000
500 SALESMAN 5000
300 SR.SALESMAN 22000

SQL> select deptno,job,sum(sal) Total_Salary_of_Each_Dept from emp

group by deptno,job
having sum(sal) > 3000
order by job;
DEPTNO JOB TOTAL_SALARY_OF_EACH_DEPT

200 CLERK 8000

200 MANAGER 75000
500 SALESMAN 5000
200 SR.SALESMAN 12000.55
300 SR.SALESMAN 22000
 USING DELETE

SQL> select * from EMP;

EMPNO ENAME JOB MGR HIREDATE SAL DEPTNO

1001 RAM CLERK 5001 17-DEC-84 8000 301

1002 SAM MANAGER 5001 11-JAN-81 85000 301
1003 SAMU SALESMAN 5003 09-FEB-82 8000 302
1004 RAMU SR.SALESMAN 5002 22-JUN-85 45000 303

SQL> DELETE EMP WHERE ENAME='SAM';

1 row deleted.

SQL> select * from EMP;

EMPNO ENAME JOB MGR HIREDATE SAL DEPTNO

1001 RAM CLERK 5001 17-DEC-84 8000 301

1003 SAMU SALESMAN 5003 09-FEB-82 8000 302
1004 RAMU SR.SALESMAN 5002 22-JUN-85 45000 303

SQL> DELETE EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE 'R ';

1 row deleted.

SQL> select * from EMP;

EMPNO ENAME JOB MGR HIREDATE SAL DEPTNO

1003 SAMU SALESMAN 5003 09-FEB-82 8000 302

1004 RAMU SR.SALESMAN 5002 22-JUN-85 45000 303

SQL> DELETE FROM EMP WHERE

ENAME='SAMU'; 1 row deleted.

TO DELETE ALL RECORDS

SQL> DELETE FROM
EMP; 1 row deleted.

DELETE DUPLICATE ROWS

SQL> SELECT * FROM myTBL;
NAME MARK

RAM 101
RAM 101
SAM 102
SAM 102
RAMU
RAMU
SAMU 103
SAMU 103
SAMU 103
TAM
RAJA 555
KAJA 123

12 rows selected.
SQL> delete from myTBL t1
where t1.rowid > (select min(t2.rowID) from myTBL
t2 where t1.name = t2.name and t1.mark = t2.mark);
4 rows deleted.
SQL> SELECT * FROM myTBL;

NAME MARK
--------- ----------
RAM 101
SAM 102
RAMU
SAMU 103
TAM
RAJA 555
KAJA 123

8 rows selected.
Using UPDATE

SQL> select * from EMP;

EMPNO ENAME JOB MGR HIREDATE SAL DEPTNO

1001 RAM CLERK 5001 17-DEC-84 8000 301

1002 SAM MANAGER 5001 11-JAN-81 85000 301
1003 SAMU SALESMAN 5003 09-FEB-82 8000 302

SQL> UPDATE EMP SET SAL = 55555,JOB = 'SR.MANAGER' WHERE ENAME LIKE
'R '; 1 row updated.

SQL> select * from EMP;

EMPNO ENAME JOB MGR HIREDATE SAL DEPTNO

1001 RAM SR.MANAGER 5001 17-DEC-84 55555 301

1002 SAM MANAGER 5001 11-JAN-81 85000 301
1003 SAMU SALESMAN 5003 09-FEB-82 8000 302

SQL> UPDATE EMP SET SAL = 55555,JOB = 'SR.MANAGER';

3 rows updated.

SQL> select * from EMP;

EMPNO ENAME JOB MGR HIREDATE SAL DEPTNO

1001 RAM SR.MANAGER 5001 17-DEC-84 55555 301

1002 SAM SR.MANAGER 5001 11-JAN-81 55555 301
1003 SAMU SR.MANAGER 5003 09-FEB-82 55555 302

RESULT:

Thus the SQL commands for Performing Insertion, Deletion, Modifying, Altering, Updating and
Viewing records based on conditions has been verified and executed successfully.
Practical No. 03
Creation of Views
AIM:

To create the view, execute and verify the various operations on views.

OBJECTIVE:

Views Helps to encapsulate complex query and make it reusable.

Provides user security on each view - it depends on your data policy security.
Using view to convert units - if you have a financial data in US currency, you can create view
to convert them into Euro for viewing in Euro currency.

A view is nothing more than a SQL statement that is stored in the database with an associated name. A
view is actually a composition of a table in the form of a predefined SQL query.

A view can contain all rows of a table or select rows from a table. A view can be created from one or
many tables which depends on the written SQL query to create a view.

Views, which are kind of virtual tables, allow users to do the following:

Structure data in a way that users or classes of users find natural or intuitive.

Restrict access to the data such that a user can see and (sometimes) modify exactly what they
need and no more.

ALGORITHM:

STEP 1: Start the DMBS.

STEP 2: Connect to the existing database(DB)
STEP 3: Create the table with its essential attributes.
STEP 4: Insert record values into the table.
STEP 5: Create the view from the above created table.
STEP 6: Display the data presented on the VIEW.
STEP 7: Insert the records into the VIEW,
STEP 8: Check the database object table and view the inserted values presented
STEP 9: Execute different Commands and extract information from the View.
STEP 10: Stop the DBMS.
 COMMANDS EXECUTION
CREATION OF TABLE:

Database views are created using the CREATE VIEW statement. Views can be created from a
single table, multiple tables, or another view. To create a view, a user must have the appropriate
system privilege according to the specific implementation.

SQL> CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE (

EMPLOYEE_NAME VARCHAR2(10),
EMPLOYEE_NO NUMBER(8),
DEPT_NAME VARCHAR2(10),
DEPT_NO NUMBER (5),
DATE_OF_JOIN DATE
);
Table created.

TABLE DESCRIPTION:

SQL> DESC EMPLOYEE;

NAME NULL? TYPE

EMPLOYEE_NAME VARCHAR2(10)
EMPLOYEE_NO NUMBER(8)
DEPT_NAME VARCHAR2(10)
DEPT_NO NUMBER(5)
DATE_OF_JOIN DATE

CREATE VIEW
SUNTAX FOR CREATION OF VIEW

CREATE [OR REPLACE] [FORCE ] VIEW viewname [(column-name, column-name)]

AS Query [with check option];

CREATION OF VIEW

SQL> CREATE VIEW EMPVIEW AS SELECT EMPLOYEE_NAME,

EMPLOYEE_NO,
DEPT_NAME,
DEPT_NO,
DATE_OF_JOIN FROM EMPLOYEE;
View Created.

DESCRIPTION OF VIEW

SQL> DESC EMPVIEW;

NAME NULL? TYPE

EMPLOYEE_NAME VARCHAR2(10)
EMPLOYEE_NO NUMBER(8)
DEPT_NAME VARCHAR2(10)
DEPT_NO NUMBER(5)
DISPLAY VIEW:

SQL> SELECT * FROM EMPVIEW;

EMPLOYEE_N EMPLOYEE_NO DEPT_NAME DEPT_NO

RAVI 124 ECE 89

VIJAY 345 CSE 21
RAJ 98 IT 22
GIRI 100 CSE 67

INSERTION OF VALUES INTO VIEW

Rows of data can be inserted into a view. The same rules that apply to the UPDATE command also apply to
the INSERT command. Here, we can not insert rows in CUSTOMERS_VIEW because we have not included all the
NOT NULL columns in this view, otherwise you can insert rows in a view in similar way as you insert them in a
table.

INSERT STATEMENT SYNTAX:

SQL> INSERT INTO <VIEW_NAME> (COLUMN NAME1, …) VALUES(VALUE1,….);

COMMAND:

SQL> INSERT INTO EMPVIEW VALUES ('SRI', 120,'CSE', 67,'16-NOV-1981');

1 ROW CREATED.

SQL> SELECT * FROM EMPVIEW;

EMPLOYEE_N EMPLOYEE_NO DEPT_NAMEDEPT_NO

RAVI 124 ECE 89

VIJAY 345 CSE 21
RAJ 98 IT 22
GIRI 100 CSE 67
SRI 120 CSE 67

SQL> SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEE;

EMPLOYEE_N EMPLOYEE_NO DEPT_NAMEDEPT_NO DATE_OF_J

RAVI 124 ECE 89 15-JUN-05

VIJAY 345 CSE 21 21-JUN-06
RAJ 98 IT 22 30-SEP-06
GIRI 100 CSE 67 14-NOV-81
SRI 120 CSE 67 16-NOV-81
DELETION OF VIEW:
Rows of data can be deleted from a view. The same rules that apply to the UPDATE and INSERT
commands apply to the DELETE command.

DELETE STATEMENT SYNTAX:

SQL> DELETE <VIEW_NMAE>WHERE <COLUMN NMAE> =’VALUE’;

Command:
SQL> DELETE FROM EMPVIEW WHERE
EMPLOYEE_NAME='SRI'; 1 row deleted.
SQL> SELECT * FROM EMPVIEW;
EMPLOYEE_N EMPLOYEE_NO DEPT_NAMEDEPT_NO

RAVI 124 ECE 89

VIJAY 345 CSE 21
RAJ 98 IT 22
GIRI 100 CSE 67

UPDATE STATEMENT:
A view can be updated under certain conditions:
The SELECT clause may not contain the keyword DISTINCT.
The SELECT clause may not contain summary functions.
The SELECT clause may not contain set functions.
The SELECT clause may not contain set operators.
The SELECT clause may not contain an ORDER BY
clause. The FROM clause may not contain multiple tables.
The WHERE clause may not contain subqueries.
The query may not contain GROUP BY or
HAVING. Calculated columns may not be updated.
All NOT NULL columns from the base table must be included in the view in
order for the INSERT query to function.
SYNTAX:

SQL>UPDATE <VIEW_NAME> SET< COLUMN NAME> = <COLUMN NAME> +<VIEW>

WHERE <COLUMN NAME>=VALUE;

Command:

SQL> UPDATE EMPKAVIVIEW SET EMPLOYEE_NAME='KAVI' WHERE

EMPLOYEE_NAME='RAVI'; 1 row updated.

SQL> SELECT * FROM EMPKAVIVIEW;

EMPLOYEE_N EMPLOYEE_NO DEPT_NAMEDEPT_NO

KAVI 124 ECE 89

VIJAY 345 CSE 21
RAJ 98 IT 22
GIRI 100 CSE 67
DROP A VIEW:
Obviously, where you have a view, you need a way to drop the view if it is no longer needed.

SYNTAX:

SQL> DROP VIEW <VIEW_NAME>

EXAMPLE

SQL>DROP VIEW
EMPVIEW; view droped
CREATE A VIEW WITH SELECTED FIELDS:
SYNTAX:

SQL>CREATE [OR REPLACE] VIEW <VIEW NAME>AS SELECT <COLUMN NAME1>…..FROM

<TABLE ANME>;

EXAMPLE-2:

SQL> CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW EMPL_VIEW1 AS SELECT EMPNO, ENAME,SALARY FROM

EMPL; SQL> SELECT * FROM EMPL_VIEW1;

EXAMPLE-3:

SQL> CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW EMPL_VIEW2 AS SELECT * FROM EMPL WHERE

DEPTNO=10; SQL> SELECT * FROM EMPL_VIEW2;

Note:
Replace is the keyboard to avoid the error “ora_0095:name is already used by an existing ab

CHANGING THE COLUMN(S) NAME M THE VIEW DURING AS SELECT

STATEMENT:

TYPE-1:

SQL> CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW EMP_TOTSAL(EID,NAME,SAL) AS SELECT EMPNO, ENAME,SALARY

FROM EMPL;
View created.

EMPNO ENAME S ALARY

7369 SMITH 1000

7499 MARK 1050
7565 WILL 1500
7678 JOHN 1800
7578 TOM 1500
7548 TURNER 1500
6 rows selected.
View created.
SQL> SELECT * FROM EMP_TOTSAL;
EMPNO ENAME SALARY MGRNO DEPTNO

7578 TOM 1500 7298 10

7548 TURNER 1500 7298 10
View created.

TYPE-2:

SQL> CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW EMP_TOTSAL AS SELECT EMPNO "EID",

ENAME "NAME", SALARY "SAL" FROM EMPL;

SQL> SELECT * FROM EMP_TOTSAL;

EXAMPLE FOR JOIN VIEW:

TYPE-3:

SQL> CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW DEPT_EMP AS SELECT A.EMPNO "EID",

A.ENAME "EMPNAME",
A.DEPTNO "DNO",
B.DNAME "D_NAME",
B.LOC "D_LOC"
FROM EMPL A,DEPMT B WHERE A.DEPTNO=B.DEPTNO;

SQL> SELECT * FROM DEPT_EMP;

EID NAME SAL

7369 SMITH 1000

7499 MARK 1050
7565 WILL 1500
7678 JOHN 1800
7578 TOM 1500
7548 TURNER 1500
6 rows selected.
View created.

EID NAME SAL

7369 SMITH 1000

7499 MARK 1050
7565 WILL 1500
7678 JOHN 1800
7578 TOM 1500
7548 TURNER 1500
6 rows selected.

View created.
EID EMPNAME DNO D_NAME D_LOC

7578 TOM 10 ACCOUNT NEW YORK

7548 TURNER 10 ACCOUNT NEW YORK
7369 SMITH 20 SALES CHICAGO
7678 JOHN 20 SALES CHICAGO
7499 MARK 30 RESEARCHZURICH
7565 WILL 30 RESEARCH ZURICH

VIEW READ ONLY AND CHECK OPTION:

READ ONLY CLAUSE:
You can create a view with read only option which enable other to only query .no DML operation can
be performed to this type of a view.
EXAMPLE-4:
SQL>CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW EMP_NO_DML AS SELECT * FROM EMPL WITH READ ONLY;

WITH CHECK OPTION CLAUSE:

EXAMPLE-4:
SQL> CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW EMP_CK_OPTION AS SELECT EMPNO, ENAME, SALARY, DEPTNO
FROM EMPL WHERE DEPTNO=10 WITH CHECK OPTION;

SQL> SELECT * FROM EMP_CK_OPTION;

JOIN VIEW:
EXAMPLE-5:
SQL> CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW DEPT_EMP_VIEW AS SELECT A.EMPNO,
A.ENAME,
A.DEPTNO,
B.DNAME,
B.LOC
FROM EMPL A, DEPMT B
WHERE A.DEPTNO=B.DEPTNO;
SQL> SELECT * FROM DEPT_EMP_VIEW;
View created.

EMPNO ENAME SALARY DEPTNO

7578 TOM 1500 10

7548 TURNER 1500 10
View created.
EMPNO ENAME DEPTNO DNAME LOC

7578 TOM 10 ACCOUNT NEW YORK

7548 TURNER 10 ACCOUNT NEW YORK
7369 SMITH 20 SALES CHICAGO
7678 JOHN 20 SALES CHICAGO
7499 MARK 30 RESEARCH ZURICH
7565 WILL 30 RESEARCH ZURICH
6 rows selected.

FORCE VIEW:
EXAMPLE-6:

SQL> CREATE OR REPLACE FORCE VIEW MYVIEW AS SELECT * FROM XYZ;

SQL> SELECT * FROM MYVIEW;
SQL> CREATE TABLE XYZ AS SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,SALARY,DEPTNO FROM EMPL;
SQL> SELECT * FROM XYZ;
SQL> CREATE OR REPLACE FORCE VIEW MYVIEW AS SELECT * FROM XYZ;
SQL> SELECT * FROM MYVIEW;
Warning: View created with compilation errors.
SELECT * FROM MYVIEW
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-04063: view "4039.MYVIEW" has errors
Table created.

EMPNO ENAME SALARY DEPTNO

7369 SMITH 1000 20

7499 MARK 1050 30
7565 WILL 1500 30
7678 JOHN 1800 20
7578 TOM 1500 10
7548 TURNER 1500 10
6 rows selected.
View created.

EMPNO ENAME SALARY DEPTNO

7369 SMITH 1000 20

7499 MARK 1050 30
7565 WILL 1500 30
7678 JOHN 1800 20
7578 TOM 1500 10
7548 TURNER 1500 10
6 rows selected
COMPILING A VIEW:
SYNTAX:
ALTER VIEW <VIEW_NAME> COMPILE;
EXAMPLE:
SQL> ALTER VIEW MYVIEW COMPILE;

RESULT:

Thus the SQL commands for View has been verified and executed successfully.
Practical No. 04
Creating an Employee database to set various constraints in RDBMS

AIM:

At the end of this exercise students are able

To differentiate between self referential constraints and foreign key constraint.

To refer a field of a given table or another table by using foreign key.

To apply check constraint & default constraint in an effective manner.

ALGORITHM:

STEP 1: Start the DMBS.

STEP 2: Connect to the existing database (DB)

STEP 3: Create the table with its essential constraint.

STEP 4: Insert record values into the table and then check the constraint.

STEP 5: disable the constraints and insert the values into the table.

STEP 6: if you want to re-enable the constraint then enable you can do.

STEP 7: Stop the DBMS.

 CONSTRAINTS
Constraints are part of the table definition that limits and restriction on the value entered into
its columns.

INTEGRITY CONSTRAINT

An integrity constraint is a mechanism used by oracle to prevent invalid data entry into the table. It
has enforcing the rules for the columns in a table.

The types of the integrity constraints are:

a) Domain Integrity

b) Entity Integrity

c) Referential Integrity

TYPES OF CONSTRAINTS:

1) Primary key

2) Foreign key/references

3) Check

4) Unique

5) Not null

6) Null

7) Default

CONSTRAINTS CAN BE CREATED IN THREE WAYS:

1) Column level constraints

2) Table level constraints

3) Using DDL statements-alter table command

OPERATION ON CONSTRAINT:
i) ENABLE

ii) DISABLE

iii) DROP
 PRIMARY KEY CONSTRAINTS
A primary key avoids duplication of rows and does not allow null values. It can be defined on one or more
columns in a table and is used to uniquely identify each row in a table. These values should never be changed and
should never be null. A table should have only one primary key. If a primary key constraint is assigned to more than
one column or combination of column is said to be composite primary key, which can contain 16 columns.

Column level constraints using primary key:

QUERY: 13
Q13. Write a query to create primary constraints with column
level Syntax: Column level constraints using primary key.
SQL> CREATE<OBJ.TYPE><OBJ.NAME> (COLUMN NAME.1 <DATATYPE> (SIZE)<TYPE OF
CONSTRAINTS>, COLUMN NAME.1 <DATATYPE> (SIZE)........................................);
Command:
SQL> CREATE TABLE TBL_PKEY(
RegNo NUMBER(5) PRIMARY
KEY, Name VARCHAR2(20),
ANY_SUB_MARK NUMBER(3)
);
Table created.
SQL> insert into result values(10001,'raju',75);
1 row created.
SQL> insert into result values(10002,'KAMAL;',100);
1 row created.
SQL> insert into result values(0,'RAVI;',75);
1 row created.
SQL> insert into result values(NULL,'KAVI',65);
1 row created.
SQL> insert into TBL_PKEY values(10001,'raju',75);
1 row created.
SQL> insert into TBL_PKEY values(10002,'raj',85);
1 row created.
SQL> insert into TBL_PKEY values(0,'Kaj',22);
1 row created.
SQL> insert into TBL_PKEY values(NULL,'Kaj',22);
insert into TBL_PKEY values(NULL,'Kaj',22)
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-01400: cannot insert NULL into ("SENTHIL"."TBL_PKEY"."REGNO")
SQL> insert into TBL_PKEY values(10002,'RAJAN',95);
insert into TBL_PKEY values(10002,'RAJAN',95)
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-00001: unique constraint (SENTHIL.SYS_C0011650) violated
SQL> insert into TBL_PKEY values(10003,'RAJA',85);
1 row created.
SQL> select * FROM TBL_PKEY;
REGNO NAME ANY_SUB_MARK

10001 raju 75
10002 raj 85
0 Kaj 22
10003 RAJA 85
 Column level constraints using primary key with naming convention:
QUERY: 14
Q14. Write a query to create primary constraints with column level with naming convention
Syntax: syntax for column level constraints using primary key.
SQL >CREATE <OBJ.TYPE><OBJ.NAME> (
COL NAME.1 <DATATYPE> (SIZE)CONSTRAINTS <NAME OF CONSTRAINTS><TYPE OF
CONSTRAINTS>, COL NAME.2 <DATATYPE> (SIZE)… ........................................................... );
Command:
SQL>CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE (
EMPNO NUMBER (4) CONSTRAINT EMP_EMPNO_PK PRIMARY KEY,
ENAMEVARCHAR2 (10),JOB VARCHAR2 (6),SAL NUMBER (5),DEPTNO NUMBER (7));
Table level primary key constraints:
QUERY: 15
Q15. Write a query to create primary constraints with table level with naming convention
Syntax: The syntax for table level constraints using primary key
SQL: >CREATE <OBJ.TYPE><OBJ.NAME> (COLUMN NAME.1 <DATATYPE>
(SIZE), COLUMN NAME.1 <DATATYPE> (SIZE),
CONSTRAINTS <NAME OF THE CONSTRAINTS><TYPE OF THE CONSTRAINTS>);
Command:
SQL>CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE (EMPNO NUMBER(6),ENAME VARCHAR2(20),JOB
VARCHAR2(6), SAL NUMBER(7), DEPTNO NUMBER(5),
CONSTRAINT EMP_EMPNO_PK PRIMARY KEY(EMPNO));

Table level constraint with alter command (primary key):

QUERY: 16
Q16. Write a query to create primary constraints with alter command
Syntax: The syntax for column level constraints using primary key.
SQL:>CREATE <OBJ.TYPE><OBJ.NAME> (COLUMN NAME.1 <DATATYPE>(SIZE),
COLUMN NAME.1 <DATATYPE> (SIZE));
[OR]
SQL> ALTER TABLE <TABLE NAME> ADD CONSTRAINTS <NAME OF THECONSTRAINTS> <TYPE OF
THE CONSTRAINTS><COLUMN NAME>);
Command:
SQL>CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE(EMPNO NUMBER(5),ENAME VARCHAR2(6),JOB VARCHAR2(6),
SAL NUMBER(6),DEPTNO NUMBER(6));

SQL>ALTER TABLE EMP3 ADD CONSTRAINT EMP3_EMPNO_PK PRIMARYKEY (EMPNO);

 REFERENCE /FOREIGN KEY CONSTRAINT
It enforces relationship between tables. To establish parent-child relationship between 2 tables having a
common column definition, we make use of this constraint. To implement this, we should define the column in the
parent table as primary key and same column in the child table as foreign key referring to the corresponding parent
entry.
Foreign key
A column or combination of column included in the definition of referential integrity, which would refer to a
referenced key.
Referenced key
It is a unique or primary key upon which is defined on a column belonging to the parent table.
Column level foreign key constraint
QUERY: 17
Write a query to create foreign key constraints with column level
Parent Table:
Syntax: Syntax for Column level constraints Using Primary key
SQL:>CREATE <OBJ.TYPE><OBJ.NAME> (
COLUMN NAME.1 <DATATYPE>(SIZE)<TYPE OF CONSTRAINTS> ,
COLUMN NAME.1 <DATATYPE> (SIZE) .................................. );

Command:
SQL> CREATE TABLE DEPT(
DEPTNO NUMBER(3) PRIMARY KEY,
DNAME VARCHAR2(20),LOCATION VARCHAR2(15));

Table created.
SQL> desc DEPT;
Name Null? Type

DEPTNO NOT NULL NUMBER(3)

DNAME VARCHAR2(20)
LOCATION VARCHAR2(15)
SQL> select * from DEPT;
DEPTNO DNAME LOCATION

101 kamal chennai

102 rajini madurai
103 Ajith kovai
Child Table:
Syntax: The syntax for column level constraints using foreign key.
SQL:>CREATE <OBJ.TYPE><OBJ.NAME> (COLUMN NAME.1 <DATATYPE>(SIZE),
COLUMN NAME2 <DATATYPE> (SIZE) REFERENCES <TABLE NAME>(COLUMN NAME> ….);

Command:
SQL> CREATE TABLE EMPL(EMPNO NUMBER(4),
DEPTNO NUMBER(3) REFERENCES DEPT(DEPTNO),
DESIGN VARCHAR2(10));
Table created.
SQL> desc EMPL;
Name Null? Type

EMPNO NUMBER(4)
DEPTNO NUMBER(3)
DESIGN VARCHAR2(10)

SQL> insert into EMPL

values(5001,101,'RAJA'); 1 row created.

SQL> insert into EMPL

values(5003,103,'KAJA'); 1 row created.

SQL> insert into EMPL values(5006,104,'RAMYA');

insert into EMPL values(5006,104,'RAMYA')
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-02291: integrity constraint (SYSTEM.SYS_C0011294) violated - parent key
not found

SQL> select * from EMPL;

EMPNO DEPTNO DESIGN
---------- ------------ -------------
5001 101 RAJA
5003 103 KAJA

Column level foreign key constraint with naming conversions

QUERY: 18
Write a query to create foreign key constraints with column level

Parent Table:
Syntax: The syntax for column level constraints using primary key.
SQL :> CREATE<OBJ.TYPE><OBJ.NAME> (COLUMN NAME.1 <DATATYPE>(SIZE)<TYPE OF
CONSTRAINTS>,COLUMN NAME.1 <DATATYPE> (SIZE)…);

Child Table:
Syntax: syntax for column level constraints using foreign key.
SQL :> CREATE<OBJ.TYPE><OBJ.NAME> (COLUMN NAME.1 <DATATYPE>(SIZE) ,
COLUMN NAME2 <DATATYPE> (SIZE) CONSTRAINT <CONST.NAME>REFERENCES <TABLE NAME>
(COLUMN NAME>…);
Command:
SQL>CREATE TABLE DEPT (DEPTNO NUMBER (2) PRIMARYKEY,
DNAME VARCHAR2 (20), LOCATION VARCHAR2 (15));
SQL>CREATE TABLE EMP4A (EMPNO NUMBER (3),
DEPTNO NUMBER (2) CONSTRAINT EMP4A_DEPTNO_FK REFERENCES DEPT (DEPTNO),
DESIGN VARCHAR2 (10));
 Table level foreign key constraints:
QUERY: 19
Write a query to create foreign key constraints with Table level.
Parent Table:
Syntax:
SQL :> CREATE<OBJ.TYPE><OBJ.NAME> (COLUMN NAME.1 <DATATYPE>(SIZE) <TYPE OF
CONSTRAINTS>, COLUMN NAME.1 <DATATYPE> (SIZE)…);
Child Table:
Syntax: The syntax for table level constraints using foreign key.
SQL :> CREATE<OBJ.TYPE><OBJ.NAME> (COLUMN NAME.1
<DATATYPE>(SIZE), COLUMN NAME2 <DATATYPE> (SIZE),
CONSTRAINT <CONST.NAME>REFERENCES <TABLE NAME> (COLUMN NAME>);
Command:
SQL>CREATE TABLE DEPT(DEPTNO NUMBER(2) PRIMARY KEY,
DNAME VARCHAR2(20),LOCATION VARCHAR2(15));

SQL>CREATE TABLE EMP5(EMPNO NUMBER(3),DEPTNO NUMBER(2),

DESIGN VARCHAR2(10) CONSTRAINT ENP2_DEPTNO_FK FOREIGNKEY(DEPT NO) REFERENCES
DEPT(DEPTNO));
Table level foreign key constraints with alter command:
QUERY:20
Write a query to create foreign key constraints with Table level with altercommand.
Parent Table:
Syntax:
SQL :>CREATE<OBJ.TYPE><OBJ.NAME> (COLUMN NAME.1 <DATATYPE>(SIZE)<TYPE OF
CONSTRAINTS> , COLUMN NAME.1 <DATATYPE> (SIZE) ................................................... );
Child Table:
Syntax: The syntax for table level constraints using foreign key.
SQL:>CREATE <OBJ.TYPE><OBJ.NAME> (COLUMN NAME.1 <DATATYPE>(SIZE),
COLUMN NAME2 <DATATYPE> (SIZE));
Syntax:
SQL> ALTER TABLE <TABLE NAME> ADD CONSTRAINT <CONST. NAME>REFERENCES <TABLE
NAME> (COLUMN NAME>);

Command:
SQL>CREATE TABLE DEPT(DEPTNO NUMBER(2) PRIMARY KEY, DNAME VARCHAR2(20),
LOCATION VARCHAR2 (15));
SQL>CREATE TABLE EMP5 (EMPNO NUMBER(3), DEPTNO NUMBER (2), DESIGN VARCHAR2 (10));

SQL>ALTER TABLE EMP6 ADD CONSTRAINT EMP6_DEPTNO_FK

FOREIGNKEY(DEPTNO)REFERENCES DEPT(DEPTNO);
 CHECK CONSTRAINT

Check constraint can be defined to allow only a particular range of values .when the manipulation violates
this constraint, the record will be rejected. Check condition cannot contain sub queries.

Column level checks constraint:

QUERY: 21
Write a query to create Check constraints with column level

Syntax: syntax for column level constraints using check.

SQL:>CREATE <OBJ.TYPE><OBJ.NAME> (COLUMN NAME.1 <DATATYPE>(SIZE)

CONSTRAINT <CONSTRAINTS NAME><TYPE OF CONSTRAINTS>(CONSTRAITNS CRITERIA)

, COLUMN NAME2 <DATATYPE> (SIZE));

Command:
SQL>CREATE TABLE EMP7(EMPNO NUMBER(3),ENAME VARCHAR2(20),DESIGN VARCHAR2(15),

SAL NUMBER(5)CONSTRAINT EMP7_SAL_CK CHECK(SAL>500 ANDSAL<10001),

DEPTNO NUMBER(2));

Table Level Check Constraint:

QUERY: 22
Write a query to create Check constraints with table level

Syntax: Syntax for Table level constraints using Check.

SQL:>CREATE <OBJ.TYPE><OBJ.NAME> (COLUMN NAME.1

<DATATYPE>(SIZE), (COLUMN NAME2 <DATATYPE> (SIZE),
CONSTRAINT<CONSTRAINTS NAME><TYPE OF CONSTRAINTS> (CONSTRAITNSCRITERIA));

Command:

SQL>CREATE TABLE EMP8(EMPNO NUMBER(3),ENAME VARCHAR2(20),DESIGN

VARCHAR2(15), SAL NUMBER(5),DEPTNO NUMBER(2),
CONSTRAINTS EMP8_SAL_CK CHECK(SAL>500 ANDSAL<10001));

Check Constraint with Alter Command:

QUERY:23
Write a query to create Check constraints with table level using alter command.

Syntax: Syntax for Table level constraints using Check.

SQL:>CREATE <OBJ.TYPE><OBJ.NAME> (COLUMN NAME.1

<DATATYPE>(SIZE), (COLUMN NAME2 <DATATYPE> (SIZE),
CONSTRAINT<CONSTRAINTS NAME><TYPE OF CONSTRAINTS> (CONSTRAITNSCRITERIA)) ;

Command:

SQL>CREATE TABLE EMP9(EMPNO NUMBER,ENAME VARCHAR2(20),DESIGN

VARCHAR2(15), SAL NUMBER(5));
SQL>ALTER TABLE EMP9 ADD CONSTRAINTS EMP9_SAL_CKCHECK(SAL>500 AND SAL<10001);
 UNIQUE CONSTRAINT

It is used to ensure that information in the column for each record is unique, as with telephone or drivers
license numbers. It prevents the duplication of value with rows of a specified column in a set of column. A column
defined with the constraint can allow null value.
If unique key constraint is defined in more than one column i.e., combination of column cannot be specified.
Maximum combination of columns that a composite unique key can contain is 16.

Column Level Constraint:

QUERY:24
Write a query to create unique constraints with column level
Syntax: syntax for column level constraints with unique.

SQL :> CREATE <OBJ.TYPE><OBJ.NAME> (<COLUMN NAME.1> <DATATYPE> (SIZE) CONSTRAINT

<NAME OF CONSTRAINTS><CONSTRAINT
TYPE>, (COLUMN NAME2 <DATATYPE> (SIZE));
Command:
SQL>CREATE TABLE EMP10(EMPNO NUMBER(3),ENAME VARCHAR2(20),
DESGIN VARCHAR2 (15)CONSTRAINT EMP10_DESIGN_UK UNIQUE,
SAL NUMBER (5));
Table Level Constraint:
QUERY: 25
Write a query to create unique constraints with table
level Syntax: syntax for table level constraints with unique.
SQL :> CREATE <OBJ.TYPE><OBJ.NAME> (<COLUMN NAME.1><DATATYPE>
(SIZE), (COLUMN NAME2 <DATATYPE> (SIZE),
CONSTRAINT<NAME OF CONSTRAINTS><CONSTRAINT TYPE>(COLUMN NAME);) ;
Command:
SQL>CREATE TABLE EMP11(EMPNO NUMBER(3),ENAME VARCHAR2(20),DESIGN
VARCHAR2(15), SAL NUMBER(5),
CONSTRAINT EMP11_DESIGN_UK UNIGUE(DESIGN));

Table Level Constraint Alter Command:

QUERY:26
Write a query to create unique constraints with table level
Syntax: syntax for table level constraints with check using alter.

SQL :> CREATE <OBJ.TYPE><OBJ.NAME> (<COLUMN NAME.1><DATATYPE> (SIZE),

(<COLUMN NAME.2><DATATYPE> (SIZE)) ;

SQL> ALTER TABLE ADD <CONSTRAINTS><CONSTRAINTS NAME><CONSTRAINTS TYPE>

(COLUMN NAME);

Command:
SQL>CREATE TABLE EMP12(EMPNO NUMBER(3),ENAME VARCHAR2(20),DESIGN
VARCHAR2(15), SAL NUMBER(5));
SQL>ALTER TABLE EMP12 ADD CONSTRAINT EMP12_DESIGN_UKUNIQUE(DESING);
 NOT NULL CONSTRAINTS

While creating tables, by default the rows can have null value .the enforcement of not null constraint in a
table ensure that the table contains values.

Column Level Constraint:

QUERY: 27

Write a query to create Not Null constraints with column level

Syntax: syntax for column level constraints with not null

SQL :> CREATE <OBJ.TYPE><OBJ.NAME>(<COLUMN NAME.1><DATATYPE> (SIZE) CONSTRAINT

<NAME OF CONSTRAINTS> <CONSTRAINT TYPE>,
(COLUMN NAME2 <DATATYPE> (SIZE)) ;

Command:

SQL>CREATE TABLE EMP13(EMPNO NUMBER(4),

ENAME VARCHAR2(20) CONSTRAINT EMP13_ENAME_NN NOT NULL,
DESIGN VARCHAR2(20),SAL NUMBER(3));

NULL CONSTRAINTS

Setting null value is appropriate when the actual value is unknown, or when a value would not be meaningful.

A null value is not equivalent to a value of zero.

A null value will always evaluate to null in any expression.
When a column name is defined as not null, that column becomes a
mandatory i.e., the user has to enter data into it.

Not null Integrity constraint cannot be defined using the alter table command when the table contain rows.

Column Level Constraint:

QUERY:28

Write a query to create Null constraints with column level

Syntax: syntax for column level constraints with null

SQL :> CREATE <OBJ.TYPE><OBJ.NAME> (

<COLUMN NAME.1><DATATYPE> (SIZE) CONSTRAINT <NAME OF CONSTRAINTS>
<CONSTRAINT TYPE>,(COLUMN NAME2 <DATATYPE> (SIZE)) ;

Command:

SQL>CREATE TABLE EMP13(EMPNO NUMBER(4),

ENAME VARCHAR2(20) CONSTRAINT EMP13_ENAME_NN NULL,
DESIGN VARCHAR2(20),SAL NUMBER(3));
 DEFAULT CONSTRAINTS

Default constraints assign the default values if the values is not passed at the time of inserting the values to the table

QUERY:28

Write a query to create default constraints with column level

Syntax: syntax for column level constraints with default

SQL :> CREATE <OBJ.TYPE><OBJ.NAME> (

<COLUMN NAME.1><DATATYPE> (SIZE) ,
<COLUMN NAME.2 <DATATYPE> (SIZE) Default <default value>) ;

Command:

SQL> CREATE TABLE DF(

REGNO NUMBER(5),

NAME VARCHAR2(20),

MARKS NUMBER(3) DEFAULT 55

);

Table created.

SQL> INSERT INTO DF VALUES(1001,'ARJUN',NULL);

1 row created.

SQL> INSERT INTO DF(REGNO) VALUES(1005);

1 row created.

SQL> INSERT INTO DF VALUES(1001,'RAJ',78);

1 row created.

SQL> SELECT * FROM DF;

REGNO NAME MARKS

1001 ARJUN
1005 55
1001 RAJ 78
Practical No. 05
CREATING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE DATABASES IN RDBMS

AIM:

To Execute and verify The SQL Commands For Set Operators Implementation In Relational Model
.
OBJECTIVE:

Set operators are used to retrieve the data from two or multiple tables.
They are different types.
Union
Union all
Intersect
Minus
ALGORITHM:

STEP 1: Start
STEP 2: Create two different tables with its essential attributes.
STEP 3: Insert attribute values into the tables.
STEP 4: Create the result for the various set operation.
STEP 5: Execute Command and extract information from the tables.
STEP 6: Stop

SAMPLE TABLES

SQL> select * from STUDENT_IT;

REG_NO NAME BRANC SUBJECT

10001 ram IT DATA STRUCTURE

10002 Sam IT DATABASE SYSTEM
10003 Tam IT WEB TECHNOLOGY
10004 RAJ IT DSP
10005 TAJ IT DIP
10006 khan IT WEB TECHNOLOGY
30005 RAJA ECE CIRCUIT DESIGN
7 rows selected.

SQL> select * from STUDENT_ECE;

REG_NO NAME BRANC SUBJECT

30001 RAMU ECE DIP

30002 SAMU ECE DSP
30003 TAMU ECE CIRCUIT DESIGN
30004 RAJU ECE ELECTRO MECHANICS
30005 RAJA ECE CIRCUIT DESIGN
30005 RAJA ECE CIRCUIT DESIGN
UNION
This will combine the records of multiple tables having the same structure.
Ex:
SQL> select * from student_IT union select * from student_ECE;
REG_NO NAME BRANC SUBJECT

10001 ram IT DATA STRUCTURE

10002 Sam IT DATABASE SYSTEM
10003 Tam IT WEB TECHNOLOGY
10004 RAJ IT DSP
10005 TAJ IT DIP
10006 khan IT WEB TECHNOLOGY
30001 RAMUECE DIP
30002 SAMU ECE DSP
30003 TAMU ECE CIRCUIT DESIGN
30004 RAJU ECE ELECTRO MECHANICS
30005 RAJA ECE CIRCUIT DESIGN
11 rows selected.

UNION ALL
This will combine the records of multiple tables having the same structure but including duplicates.
Ex:
SQL> select * from student_IT union all select * from student_ECE;
REG_NO NAME BRANC SUBJECT

10001 ram IT DATA STRUCTURE

10002 Sam IT DATABASE SYSTEM
10003 Tam IT WEB TECHNOLOGY
10004 RAJ IT DSP
10005 TAJ IT DIP
10006 khan IT WEB TECHNOLOGY
30005 RAJA ECE CIRCUIT DESIGN
30001 RAMU ECE DIP
30002 SAMU ECE DSP
30003 TAMU ECE CIRCUIT DESIGN
30004 RAJU ECE ELECTRO MECHANICS
30005 RAJA ECE CIRCUIT DESIGN
30005 RAJA ECE CIRCUIT DESIGN
13 rows selected.

INTERSECT
This will give the common records of multiple tables having the same structure.
Ex:

SQL> select * from student_IT INTERSECT select * from student_ECE;

REG_NO NAME BRANC SUBJECT

30005 RAJA ECE CIRCUIT DESIGN

MINUS
This will give the records of a table whose records are not in other tables having the same structure.
Ex:

SQL> select * from student_IT MINUS select * from student_ECE;

REG_NO NAME BRANC SUBJECT

10001 ram IT DATA STRUCTURE

10002 Sam IT DATABASE SYSTEM
10003 Tam IT WEB TECHNOLOGY
10004 RAJ IT DSP
10005 TAJ IT DIP
10006 khan IT WEB TECHNOLOGY
6 rows selected.

RESULT:

Thus the SQL commands for SET operators has been verified and executed successfully.
Practical No. 06
CREATING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE DATABASES IN RDBMS

AIM:

To execute and verify the SQL commands for Nested Queries.

OBJECTIVE:

Nested Query can have more than one level of nesting in one single query. A SQL nested query is
a SELECT query that is nested inside a SELECT, UPDATE, INSERT, or DELETE SQL query.

ALGORITHM:

STEP 1: Start the program.

STEP 2: Create two different tables with its essential attributes.

STEP 3: Insert attribute values into the table.

STEP 4: Create the Nested query from the above created table.

STEP 5: Execute Command and extract information from the tables.

STEP 6: Stop the program.

Table -1

Syntax: syntax for creating a table.

SQL: CREATE <OBJ.TYPE> <OBJ.NAME> (COLUMN NAME.1 <DATATYPE> (SIZE),
COLUMN NAME.1 <DATATYPE> (SIZE) …);
Command:
SQL> CREATE TABLE EMP2(EMPNO NUMBER(5),ENAME VARCHAR2(20),JOB
VARCHAR2(20), SAL NUMBER(6),MGRNO NUMBER(4),DEPTNO NUMBER(3));
Syntax: syntax for insert records in to a table.
SQL :> INSERT INTO <TABLE NAME> VALUES< VAL1, ‘VAL2’,…..);
Command:
SQL> SELECT *FROM EMP2;

EMPNO ENAME JOB SAL MGRNO DPTNO

1001 MAHESH PROGRAMMER 15000 1560 200

1002 MANOJ TESTER 12000 1560 200
1003 KARTHIK PROGRAMMER 13000 1400 201
1004 NARESH CLERK 1400 1400 201
1005 MANI TESTER 13000 1400 200
1006 VIKI DESIGNER 12500 1560 201
1007 MOHAN DESIGNER 14000 1560 201
1008 NAVEEN CREATION 20000 1400 201
1009 PRASAD DIR 20000 1560 202
1010 AGNESH DIR 15000 1400 200

TABLE- 2

Syntax: syntax for creating a table.

SQL: CREATE <OBJ.TYPE> <OBJ.NAME> (COLUMN NAME.1 <DATATYPE> (SIZE),
COLUMN NAME.1 <DATATYPE> (SIZE) ........................ ;
Command:
SQL> CREATE TABLE DEPT2(DEPTNO NUMBER(3),DEPTNAME VARCHAR2(10),
LOCATION VARCHAR2(15));
Table created.

Syntax: syntax for insert records in to a table.

SQL :> INSERT INTO <TABLE NAME> VALUES< VAL1, ‘VAL2’,…..);

SQL> SELECT *FROM DEPT2;

DEPTNO DEPTNAME LOCATION

107 DEVELOP ADYAR

201 DEBUG UK
200 TEST US
201 TEST USSR
108 DEBUG ADYAR
109 BUILDPOTHERI
6 rows selected.
Syntax:
GENERAL SYNTAX FOR NESTED QUERY:
SQL> SELECT "COLUMN_NAME1"
FROM "TABLE_NAME1"
WHERE "COLUMN_NAME2"
[COMPARISON OPERATOR] (SELECT "COLUMN_NAME3" FROM "TABLE_NAME2"
WHERE [CONDITION])
Syntax: syntax nested query statement.

SQL> SELECT <COLUMN_NAME>

FROM FRORM <TABLE _1>
WHERE <COLUMN_NAME> <RELATIONAL _OPERATION> ‘VALUE’
(SELECT (AGGRECATE FUNCTION) FROM <TABLE_1> WHERE <COLUMN NAME> = ‘VALUE’
(SELECT <COLUMN_NAME> FROM <TABLE_2> WHERE <COLUMN_NAME= ‘VALUE’));
NESTED QUERY STATEMENT:
Command:

SQL> SELECT ENAME FROM EMP2

WHERE SAL>(SELECT MIN(SAL)
FROM EMP2 WHERE DPTNO=(SELECT DEPTNO FROM DEPT2 WHERE LOCATION='UK'));

Nested Query Output:

ENAME

MAHESH
MANOJ
KARTHIK
MANI
VIKI
MOHAN
NAVEEN
PRASAD
AGNESH

RESULT:

Thus the SQL commands for to implementation of nested queries has been verified and
executed successfully.
Practical No. 07
CREATING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE DATABASES IN RDBMS

To implementation the Join Operations

AIM:

To execute and verify the SQL commands for various join operation.

ALGORITHM:

STEP 1: Start the program.

STEP 2: Create two different tables with its essential attributes.

STEP 3: Insert attribute values into the table.

STEP 4: Create the table object for easy reference.

STEP 5: Join two tables by using JOIN operator.

STEP 6: Display the result of the result table.

STEP 7: Stop the program.

JOINS:

Joins are used to retrieve the data from multiple tables.

Types of Joins:

1. EQUI_JOIN

2. NON EQUI_JOIN

3. SELF JOIN

4. OUTER JOIN

Right outer join

Left outer join

Full outer join

1. EQUI_JOIN:

When tables are joined basing on a common column it is called EQUI_JOIN.

Ex:

select empno, ename, dname from emp, dept where emp.deptno = dept.deptno;

EMPNO ENAME DNAME

7369 SMITH RESEARCH
7499 ALLEN SALES
7521 WARD SALES

Note:

We need to mention join conditions in the where clause.

In EQUI_JOINS we along use to equal to operator in join condition.

Ex:

SQL>Selete empno, ename, sal, job, dname, loc

from emp, dept

where emp.deptno = dept.deptno;

SQL>Selete empno, ename, sal, deptno, dname,

loc from emp, dept

where emp.deptno = dept.deptno;// error

SQL>Selete empno, ename, sal, emp.deptno, dname,

loc from emp, dept

where emp.deptno = dept.deptno; //valid

Note:

we need to mention table name dot column(emp.deptno) name for the common column to resolve
the any table.

The common column can be retrieved from any of the table.

We can filter the data from the result of join.

Ex:

SQL>Select empno, ename, sal, emp.deptno, dname,

loc from emp, dept

where emp.deptno = dept.deptno AND sal > 2000;

To improve the performance of the join we need mention table name dot column name for all the columns.

Ex:

SQL>Select emp.empno, emp.ename, emp.sal,emp.deptno, dept.dname,

dept.loc from emp,dept

where emp.deptno = dept.deptno AND sal > 2000;

Table alias:

Table alias is an alternate name given to a table.

By using a table alias length of the table reduces and at the same time performance is maintains.

Table alias are create in same clause can be used in select clause as well as where clause.

Table alias is temporary once the query is executed the table alias are losed.
Ex:

SQL>Select E.Empno, E.Ename, E.sal, E.deptno, D.Dname,

D.loc from emp E, Dept D

where E.deptno = D.deptno;

Join the multiple tables(3 tables):

Select * from Areas;

City State
Newyork AP
Dallas Mh

Ex:

SQL>Select E.empno, E.ename,

E.sal,D.dname,A.state from emp E, dept D, Areas A

where E.deptno = D.deptno AND D.loc = A.city;

Note: To join ‘n’ tables we ne-e1dconnditions.

NON EQUI JOIN:

When we do not use NON EQUI JOIN to operator in the join condition is NON EQUI JOIN.

Ex:

SQL>Select * from SALGRADE;

GRADE LOSAL HISAL

1 700 1200
2 1201 1400
3 1401 2000
4 2001 3000
5 3001 9999

SQL>Select e.empno, e.ename, e.sal,

s.grade from emp e, salgrade s

where e.sal BETWEEN s.losal AND hisal;

EMPNO ENAME GRADE

7369 SMITH 1
7876 ADAMS 1
7900 JAMES 2

SQL>Select e.empno, e.ename,

s.grade from emp e, salgrade s

where e.sal BETWEEN s.losal AND s.hisal AND s.grade = 4;

SELF JOIN:

When a table is joining to it self it is called self join. In self joins we need to create two table
aliases for the same table.

SQL>Select empno, ename, job, mgr, from emp;

SQL>Select e.empno, e.ename, e.job,

m.ename from emp e, emp m

where e.mgr = m.empno;

Empno Ename Job Ename

7902 FORD ANALYST JONES

7869 SCOTT CLERK JONES

7900 JAMES SALESMAN BLAKE

CARTESIAN PRODUCT:

When tables are joined without any join condition it is called Cartesian product. In the result we
get all possible combination.

SQL>Select e.empno, e.ename, e.sal, e.deptno, d.dname, d.loc

from emp e, dept d; //14*4=56 rows are selected

ANSI JOINS:

They are the three types.

INNER JOINS:

It is same as Equi join.

Ex:

SQL>Select e.empno, e.ename, e.sal, e.deptno, d.dname,

d.loc from emp e INNER JOIN dept d ON(e.deptno =

d.deptno); 2.NATURAL JOIN:

It is same as Equi join.

Ex:

SQL>Select empno, ename, sal, deptno, dname,loc from NATURAL JOIN dept;

CROSS PRODUCT/CROSS JOIN:

It is same as Cartesian product.

Ex:

SQL>Select e.empno, e.ename, e.sal, e.deptno, d.dname, d.loc

from emp e CROSS JOIN dept d; //14*4 = 56 rows are displayed.

DEFAULT:

Ex:

SQL>Create table stu1(sno number(3),

Sname varchar2(10),

Marks number(3) default 100,

Doj Date DEFAULT sysdate);

SQL>Insert into stu1(sno, sname) values(101,’malli’);

SQL>Insert into stu1 values(102,’ARUN’-,J4A0N

,’-1019’);

SQL>Insert into stu1 values (103,’KIRAN’,NU-LFLE,B

’1-1
20’);

SNO SNAME MARKS DOJ

101 malli 100 26-JUN-12
102 ARUN 40 11-JAN-09
103 KIRAN 12-FEB-10

SUPER KEY:

Combination of columns which can be used unique key identify every row is called as super
key. Table object

Column Attributes

Row Tuple/Record

OUTER JOINS:

It is extension of EQUI JOINS.

In outer joins we get match as well as non matching rows.

(+) This called as outer join operator.

1. RIGHT OUTER JOIN:

SQL Syntax:

SQL>Select e.empno, e.ename, e.sal, e.deptno, d.dname, d.loc

from emp e, dept d

where e.deptno(+) = d.deptno; //14 + 1 = 15 rows

empno ename sal deptno dname loc
7900 james 950 30 sales chicago
8963 adams 1400 20 clerk newyork
6798 adams 2000 10 sales india

ANSI SYNTAX OF RIGHT OUTER JOIN:

ANSI SYSTAX:

SQL>Select e.empno, e.ename, e.sal, e.deptno, d.dname, d.loc

from emp e RIGHT OUTER JOIN dept d ON(e.deptno = d.deptno);

LEFT OUTER JOIN:

SQL Syntax:

SQL>Select e.empno, e.ename, e.sal, e.deptno, d.dname,

d.loc from emp e, dept d

where e.deptno = d.deptno(+); //14+3 = 17 row displayed

ANSI SYNTAX OF LEFT OUTER JOIN:

ANSI SYNTAX:

SQL>Select e.empno, e.ename, e.sal, e.deptno, d.dname, d.loc from

emp e LEFT OUTER JOIN dept d ON(e.deptno = d.deptno);

FULL OUTER JOIN:

ANSI SYNTAX:

SQL>Select e.empno, e.ename, e.sal, e.deptno, d.dname, d.loc from

emp e FULL OUTER JOIN dept d ON(e.deptno = d.deptno);

//14 + 2 + 3 = 19 rows are displayed.

RESULT:

Thus the SQL commands to implementation the join operations has been verified and
executed successfully.