Quality Core Tools

Statistical Process Control SPC

Rev k

Ing. Ricardo Espinosa Álvarez, CQE, CPIM, CSCP

Certified Specialist in Core Tools by AIAG
ISO9001: 2008 Certified Lead Auditor by RABQSA
ISO9001: 2015 Certified Lead Auditor by Exemplar Global
Certified Auditor of Suppliers ISO / TS 16949: 2009 by AIAG
IATF 16949: 2016 Certified Supplier Auditor by Exemplar Global
ASQ Certified Black Belt
Master Black Belt in Lean Six Sigma
Email: [email protected]
www.kaizensigma.com 1

Content
• SPC Control Charts
• Control charts for continuous variables
• Control chart methodology
• Sampling plan for continuous variables control charts
• Calculation of control limits with Excel and Minitab
• Control Rules for Continuous Variables Control Charts
• Control chart case study Xbar-R
• Control chart Xbar-R with Minitab
• Control chart Xbar-S with Minitab
• I-MR control chart with Minitab
• Control Charts for Attributes with Minitab

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 Content
• Process Capability Study
• Process Capability Study methodology
• Calculating Capability and Performance Indices with Excel and Minitab
• Process Capability case study Xbar-R
• Process Capability Study Xbar-R with Minitab
• Process Capability Study Xbar-S with Minitab
• I-MR Process Capability Study with Minitab
• Non-normal Capability Study with Minitab

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Statistical Concepts
• Variation: No 2 products or characteristics are exactly the same, because any process contains many
sources of variability. The differences between products can be large, or they can be dimensionally
small, but they are always present.
• Common causes: they refer to the many sources of variation that are consistently acting in a process.
Common causes within a process generate a stable and repeatable distribution over time. This is called
"in a state of statistical control"," In statistical control ", or sometimes just" in control ". Common
causes generate a system stable of random causes.
• Process Capability it is determined by the variation that comes from common causes. To be
acceptable, the process must be in a state of statistical control and the capability (common cause
variation) must be less than tolerance.
• Over-adjustment it is the practice of treating each deviation from the goal, as if it were the result of
the actions of special causes of variation in the process. If a stable process is adjusted on the basis of
each measurement made, then the adjustment becomes an additional source of variation.

AIAG Second Edition SPC Manual 4

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 Control Charts For Continuous Variables

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Type of Data
• Quantitative data is divided into 2 types:
• Continuous, also known as variable data
• Discrete, also known as attribute data
• Continuous data is the result of measurements on a continuous scale such as length, weight, or
temperature. They are called continuous scales because between 2 values there is an infinite number
of values.

• Discrete data is used when counting the times an event occurs. For example the number of leaking
valves or the number of bubbles in a square meter of paint.

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 Continuous Variables
Examples:
• Length
• Mass
• Weather
• Electric current
• Temperature
• Density
• Pressure
• Etc.

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Process Approach
The outputs are controlled at the inputs

Controlled factors (P, V, T)

PROCESS
Inputs (X) Outputs (Y)
• Resin • Product
• Colorant Uncontrolled factors
• Humidity • Temperature
• Humidity

A process is a series of steps that converts inputs into outputs

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 Control Chart
• The control chart is a statistical model that analyzes the variation of product and process
characteristics over time.
• In the absence of special causes, the control chart shows the natural variation of the process, due only
to common causes.
• The control limits are statistically calculated with the analyzed data and cover 99.73% of the expected
variation for the averages, when the process conditions (Material, labor, method, environment,
machinery and measurement) are kept under control.
• The Control limits are not related to product specifications.

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Objectives of the control chart

• Detect variation due to special causes in real time
• Stabilize the process by eliminating special causes
• Keep the process centered on the nominal value to minimize defects
• Estimate the capability and performance of the process (Cpk and Ppk)
• Improve the capability and performance of processes (Cpk and Ppk)

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 Control Chart Elements
• Appropriate scale
• UCL Upper Control Limit (UCL)
• LCL Lower Control Limit (LCL)
• Center line
• Subgroup sequence
• Identification of out of control points
• Event log
• Potential sources of variation
• Actions taken to resolve out of control points

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Control Chart Methodology

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 Steps to Use Control Charts
• Collect data
• Establish control limits
• Interpret statistical control
• Extend the control limits for continuous control

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Control Chart Analysis

• Requirements of a Control chart analysis:
• Choose the product quality characteristic to be analyzed and its specifications. The priority is the
special quality and safety characteristics of the product and those product characteristics that require
improvement in Six Sigma projects. These characteristics must be in the PFMEA, control plan and work
instructions.
• Verify the correct operation of the manufacturing equipment. Carry out the necessary preventive and
corrective maintenance.
• Validate work instructions and staff skills for the set-up and operation of the manufacturing equipment.
• Validate the measurement system. High variation in the measurement system can increase process
variation and will produce an unreliable estimate of process capability. Ensure the calibration of the
measurement equipment and make the necessary analysis of resolution, type 1, linearity, accuracy and
GR&R.

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 Control Chart Analysis
Procedure for conducting a Control chart analysis.
• Equipment set up.
• Adjust the manufacturing equipment so that the average readings match the nominal specification or
the objective of the product characteristic.
• Collect information.
• Measure at least 100 consecutive pieces and analyze with Xbar-R chart with subgroups of size 5.
Number the pieces.
• If the process is low volume or the measurement is destructive, measure 30 consecutive pieces and
analyze with I-MR chart with subgroups of size 1.
• Do not adjust the process once the measurements have started (if adjusted, start the measurements
again and discard measurements taken prior to adjustment.). This is to evaluate the natural variation
of the process.
• Keep a record of the changes observed during the study (tooling changes, machine stoppages, tool
sharpening, Operator changes, measurement system calibrations, etc.) to analyze potential causes of
variation and eliminate them.

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Control Chart Analysis

• Procedure for conducting a Control chart analysis.
• Check the process stability.
• Ensure that the process is under statistical control. This is accomplished through control charts. In case
the process is out of control, necessary improvements must be made.

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 Control Chart Analysis
• Improvements in statistical process control:
• Center the process on the nominal specification of the product characteristic. Generally this involves
adjusting the process parameters (pressure, voltage, speed, etc.).
• Eliminate variation due to special causes. Special causes are identified by the control chart and are
generally due to significant changes in the process (adjustments, equipment failures, etc.).
• Reduce variation due to common causes. Common causes occur in stable processes. To reduce this
type of variation, regression analysis or design of experiments are generally used to determine the
optimal levels of the input variables (pressure, velocity, temperature, etc.).
• Repeat the Control chart analysis. Once the improvements have been made to have a stable process,
repeat the Control chart analysis. Maintain fixed the control limits of the characteristic to be controlled
and implement the control chart in real time.
• Check the set-up and operation of the equipment. Implement control charts in the special
characteristics of the process (Temperature, pressure, etc.)

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Control Chart Analysis

Potential special causes:
• Errors in measurement or data entry
• Significant changes in the manufacturing process (Special causes)
• Machine failures
• Over-adjustments
• Lack of standardization in set up and operation of equipment.
• Data mixed (Different machines, molds, cavities, etc.)
• Nature of manufacturing process (Wear from molds, tooling, etc.)
• Bad resolution of measurement system

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 How To Implement A Control Chart
• Fill in the control chart in real time according to the subgroup size and established frequency. If the
subgroup size is changed, the control limits must be recalculated.
• If the subgroup size is 5 and the frequency is every hour, then 5 consecutive pieces need to be
measured every hour.
• Analyze each chartted point.
• If the process is stable, continue to produce without adjustments.
• If the process shows instability, identify the point in the chart, analyze and eliminate the special
cause. Document the action taken in the log of the control chart.
• Do not recalculate control limits unless
• variation has been reduced
• subgroup size changed
• nominal or target value changed

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Logic For Implementing Control Charts

Start α
Calculate Average Are there
Characteristic Collect
x, c, np, u Chart data control
Sampling information limits?
R, MR, s No
•Size
•Frequency
No Yes
Points out
of
Analyze
control? data
Center on nominal
and extend control Yes
limits
Root cause analysis
No Corrective action
No Enough
Points out data?
of control? Control Chart
Analyze •UCL
Yes
data •Average
Yes •LCL
Calculate Limits
•UCL
Yes Repeat •Average
Causes study •LCL
removed?

No
Obtain customer
authorization
α
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 Sampling Plan For Continuous Variables Control Charts

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Sampling Plan
Define subgroup size
• A subgroup is made up of consecutive pieces produced under the same controlled process conditions.
• Taking consecutive samples for subgroups minimizes the opportunity for the process to change due to
special causes and allows the variation due only to common causes to be estimated.
• The objective is to minimize the variation due to special causes within a subgroup, while maximizing
the possibility of variation due to assignable causes between subgroups.
• The size of the subgroup is determined by the responsible team depending on the type of process.

Tim e : 8 12 4 8 12 4 8 12 4 8 12 4 8 12 4 8 12 4 8 12 4 8 12 4 8

Da y: 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 5 6 6 6 7 7 7 8 8 8 9

Subgro up 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

1 11.811 11.809 11.820 11.820 11.814 11.821 11.810 11.817 11.816 11.819 11.840 11.813 11.799 11.811 11.806 11.816 11.815 11.813 11.811 11.819 11.807 11.820 11.818 11.806 11.808

2
Readings

11.800 11.821 11.806 11.810 11.813 11.809 11.821 11.819 11.813 11.821 11.830 11.811 11.817 11.817 11.812 11.807 11.817 11.821 11.816 11.821 11.818 11.810 11.819 11.812 11.817

3 11.799 11.811 11.822 11.816 11.808 11.820 11.812 11.800 11.820 11.812 11.850 11.820 11.811 11.812 11.814 11.801 11.807 11.807 11.809 11.815 11.809 11.813 11.808 11.818 11.806

4 11.819 11.798 11.812 11.814 11.816 11.819 11.812 11.818 11.812 11.798 11.830 11.805 11.809 11.818 11.822 11.810 11.817 11.810 11.813 11.798 11.816 11.811 11.815 11.815 11.819

5 11.821 11.820 11.815 11.816 11.813 11.812 11.820 11.815 11.812 11.815 11.800 11.793 11.813 11.804 11.814 11.821 11.815 11.809 11.809 11.819 11.806 11.812 11.817 11.815 11.812

A v e ra g e 11.8 10 11.8 12 11.8 15 11.8 15 11.8 13 11.8 16 11.8 15 11.8 14 11.8 15 11.8 13 11.8 3 0 11.8 0 8 11.8 10 11.8 12 11.8 14 11.8 11 11.8 14 11.8 12 11.8 12 11.8 14 11.8 11 11.8 13 11.8 15 11.8 13 11.8 12

R a ng e 0 .0 2 2 0 .0 2 3 0 .0 16 0 .0 10 0 .0 0 8 0 .0 12 0 .0 11 0 .0 19 0 .0 0 8 0 .0 2 3 0 .0 50 0 .0 2 7 0 .0 18 0 .0 14 0 .0 16 0 .0 2 0 0 .0 10 0 .0 14 0 .0 0 7 0 .0 2 3 0 .0 12 0 .0 10 0 .0 11 0 .0 12 0 .0 13

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 Homogeneous Subgroup
• The pieces that make up a subgroup are consecutive pieces produced under the same conditions:
• Same machine
• Same operator
• Same mold
• Same material
• Same tool
• Etc.

• It is necessary to evaluate each process, machine, mold, cavity separately.

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Subgroup Size
• Subgroups of five pieces are frequently used in non-destructive tests and the Xbar-R chart

• 1-piece subgroups with I-MR chart are used in destructive or expensive tests

• In high volume processes charts are used Xbar-S with subgroups of 10 pieces

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 Sampling Plan
• The subgroup size must remain constant.
• Number of subgroups: 25 or more containing 100 or more individual readings.
• In practice, 125 readings are used in subgroups of size 5.

Tim e : 8 12 4 8 12 4 8 12 4 8 12 4 8 12 4 8 12 4 8 12 4 8 12 4 8
Da y: 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 5 6 6 6 7 7 7 8 8 8 9

S ubgro up 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

1 11.811 11.809 11.820 11.820 11.814 11.821 11.810 11.817 11.816 11.819 11.840 11.813 11.799 11.811 11.806 11.816 11.815 11.813 11.811 11.819 11.807 11.820 11.818 11.806 11.808

2
Readings

11.800 11.821 11.806 11.810 11.813 11.809 11.821 11.819 11.813 11.821 11.830 11.811 11.817 11.817 11.812 11.807 11.817 11.821 11.816 11.821 11.818 11.810 11.819 11.812 11.817

3 11.799 11.811 11.822 11.816 11.808 11.820 11.812 11.800 11.820 11.812 11.850 11.820 11.811 11.812 11.814 11.801 11.807 11.807 11.809 11.815 11.809 11.813 11.808 11.818 11.806

4 11.819 11.798 11.812 11.814 11.816 11.819 11.812 11.818 11.812 11.798 11.830 11.805 11.809 11.818 11.822 11.810 11.817 11.810 11.813 11.798 11.816 11.811 11.815 11.815 11.819

5 11.821 11.820 11.815 11.816 11.813 11.812 11.820 11.815 11.812 11.815 11.800 11.793 11.813 11.804 11.814 11.821 11.815 11.809 11.809 11.819 11.806 11.812 11.817 11.815 11.812

A v e ra g e 11.8 10 11.8 12 11.8 15 11.8 15 11.8 13 11.8 16 11.8 15 11.8 14 11.8 15 11.8 13 11.8 3 0 11.8 0 8 11.8 10 11.8 12 11.8 14 11.8 11 11.8 14 11.8 12 11.8 12 11.8 14 11.8 11 11.8 13 11.8 15 11.8 13 11.8 12

R a ng e 0 .0 2 2 0 .0 2 3 0 .0 16 0 .0 10 0 .0 0 8 0 .0 12 0 .0 11 0 .0 19 0 .0 0 8 0 .0 2 3 0 .0 50 0 .0 2 7 0 .0 18 0 .0 14 0 .0 16 0 .0 2 0 0 .0 10 0 .0 14 0 .0 0 7 0 .0 2 3 0 .0 12 0 .0 10 0 .0 11 0 .0 12 0 .0 13

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How To Select A Control Chart

Type of
characteristic

Continuous
Attribute
variable

n=1 n: 2-8 n>8 Defective unit Defect

I-MR X-R X-S p np c u

Sample size Constant Constant Constant Constant Constant Constant Constant

or variable or variable

26

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 Sampling rate
• There is no rule that establishes how often the subgroups should be obtained
• Sampling tables can be used to establish the sample size:
• ANSI / ASQ Z1.9 tables (for continuous variables)

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ANSI / ASQ Z1.9 Table

Production per Use special

shift per process inspection level
S3 or reduced
n=1 S4 for
I-MR destructive
measurements

n=5
Initially use
Xbar-R normal general
inspection level
II for non-
N= 10 destructive
Xbar-S measurements

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 ANSI / ASQ Z1.9 Table

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ANSI Z1.9 Table B-4

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 Xbar-r Sampling Frequency
• Example for sampling by continuous variables, non-destructive measurements:
• In one process, 1,000 pieces must be produced per 8-hour shift. Determine the total of inspections
and the number of subgroups. Use normal level II general inspection.
• From the ANSI / ASQ Z1.9 table, the total inspections per shift must be a minimum of 35
• Use subgroups of 5 pieces
• The total of subgroups must be 35/5 = 7
• Take a sample of 5 pieces every hour: 5x8 = 40
• Use the Xbar-R chart for having subgroups of size 5

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I-MR Sampling Frequency

• Example for sampling by continuous variables, non-destructive measurements:
• In one process, 60 pieces must be produced per 8-hour shift. Determine the total of inspections and
the number of subgroups. Use normal level II general inspection.
• From the ANSI / ASQ Z1.9 table, the total inspections per shift must be a minimum of 7
• Use subgroups of 1 piece
• The total of subgroups must be 7
• Take a sample of 1 pieces every hour: 1x8 = 8
• Use the I-MR chart for having subgroups of size 1

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 Xbar-s Sampling Frequency
• Example for sampling by continuous variables, non-destructive measurements:
• In one process, 6,000 pieces must be produced per 8-hour shift. Determine the total of inspections
and the number of subgroups. Use normal level II general inspection.
• From the ANSI / ASQ Z1.9 table, the total inspections per shift must be 75 minimum
• Use subgroups of 10 pieces
• The total of subgroups must be 8
• Take a sample of 10 pieces every hour: 10x8 = 80
• Use the Xbar-S chart for having subgroups of size 10

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I-MR Destructive Sampling Frequency

• Example for sampling by continuous variables, destructive measurements:
• In one process, 6,000 pieces must be produced per 8-hour shift. Determine the total of inspections
and the number of subgroups. Use general inspection special level S3 reduced.
• From the ANSI / ASQ Z1.9 table, the total inspections per shift must be a minimum of 4
• Use subgroups of 1 piece
• The total of subgroups must be 4
• Take a sample of 1 pieces every 2 hours: 4x1 = 4
• Use the I-MR chart for having subgroups of size 1

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 Variation Due To Common And Special Causes

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Variation Due To Common And Special Causes

Variation due to common causes

Variation due to special causes ? ?

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 Common Causes
• Many sources of variation that consistently act on the process
• They produce a stable and repeatable distribution over time, known as a state of statistical control.
• The result of the process is stable.

A process is under control when it is stable and

therefore predictable

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Process Stability

A stable process displays a control chart with no out-of-control points

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 Special Causes
• Factors that cause variation that affects only a
part of the result of the process.
• They are intermittent and unpredictable
• Special causes are identified by one or more
points outside the control limits or non-random
patterns of points within the control limits.
• The process is not stable
?
• They can be harmful (remove) or beneficial ?
(make permanent)

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Process Out Of Control

An unstable process
...

? ?
…it's unpredictable.

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 Process Out Of Control

An unstable process displays a control chart with out of control points

I-MR Chart of Output Roundness
1

0.02
6 U C L=0.01770
Indiv idual V alue

5
6 6
4
0.01
_
X=0.00657
3
0.00 6

LC L=-0.00457
1 6 11 16 21 26 31 36 41 46
O bser vation

0.015
U C L=0.01368
M ov ing Range

0.010

0.005 __
M R=0.00419

0.000 LC L=0
1 6 11 16 21 26 31 36 41 46
O bser vation

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Control Rules for Continuous Variables Control Charts

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 Control Rules for Continuous Variables Control Charts

1. Any point outside the control limits

2. 7 consecutive points on the same side
UCL of the center line
C
B 3. 6 consecutive points increasing or
decreasing
TO 4. 14 consecutive points alternating
6s 4s 2s
TO increasing and decreasing
B 5. 2 out of 3 points in the same area C or
beyond
6. 4 out of 5 points in the same zone B or
beyond
Note:
7. 15 consecutive points in any zone A
Tests 1-8 apply to control charts by
variables (xbar, I) 8. 8 points in a row outside zone A, either
side of the center line
Tests 1-4 apply to control charts of
dispersion by variables (R, s, MR) and
by attributes (p, np, c, u)

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Average Control Chart Rules

Rule #1: Any pointRegla

outside
1 the control limits
Cualquier punto fuera de los límites de control
10.00
UCL
9.00

8.00
Average

7.00 CL

6.00
LCL
5.00

4.00
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25
Sample

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 Average Control Chart Rules

Rule #2: 7 consecutive points on the

Regla 2 same side of the center line
7 puntos consecutivos sin cruzar la línea central
8.00
7.80 UCL
7.60
7.40
Average

7.20
7.00
CL c
6.80
6.60
6.40 LCL
6.20
6.00
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25

Sample

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Average Control Chart Rules

Rule #3: 6 consecutiveRegla

points
3 increasing or decreasing
6 puntos consecutivos subiendo o bajando
8.50
UCL
8.00

7.50
Average

7.00
CL
6.50

6.00
LCL
5.50
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25

Sample

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 Average Control Chart Rules

Rule #4: 14 consecutive points alternating

Regla 4 increasing and decreasing
14 puntos consecutivo alternando arriba y abajo

8.50
UCL
8.00

7.50
Average

7.00
CL
6.50

6.00
LCL
5.50
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25

Sample

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Average Control Chart Rules

Rule #5: 2 out of 3 points in the same area C or beyond

Regla 5
2 de 3 puntos consecutivos en la zona C o más lejos
9.00
UCL
8.50
C
8.00
B
Average

7.50
A
7.00
CL A
6.50
B
6.00
C
5.50
LCL
5.00
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25

Sample

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 Average Control Chart Rules

Rule #6: 4 out of 5 points

Regla 6in the same zone B or beyond
4 de 5 puntos consecutivos en la zona B o más lejos

8.50
UCL
8.00 C

7.50
B
Average

A
7.00
CL A
6.50
B
6.00 C
5.50
LCL
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25

Sample

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Average Control Chart Rules

Rule #7: 15 consecutive

Regla 7
points in any zone A
15 puntos consecutivos dentro de las zonas A
8.50
UCL
8.00
C
7.50 B
Average

7.00
A
CL A
6.50 B
C
6.00
LCL
5.50
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25

Sample

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 Average Control Chart Rules

Rule #8: 8 points in a row outside zone

Regla 8 A, either side of the center line
8 puntos consecutivos fuera de la zona A

8.50 UCL
8.00 C

7.50
B
Average

A
7.00
CL A
6.50
B
6.00
LCL C
5.50
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25

Sample

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Range Control Chart Rules

Regla 1
Rule #1: Any point outside the control limits
Cualquier punto fuera de los límites de control

1.6

1.4

UCL
1.2

1
Rango

0.8

0.6
R
0.4

0.2

LCL
0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25
Sample

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 Range Control Chart Rules

Regla
Rule #2: 7 consecutive 2 on the same side of the center line
points
7 puntos consecutivos sin cruzar la línea central

1.8

1.6
UCL

1.4

1.2
Rango

0.8

0.6

0.4
R
0.2
LCL
0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25
Sample

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Range Control Chart Rules

Regla 3 points increasing or decreasing

Rule #3: 6 consecutive
6 puntos consecutivos subiendo o bajando
1.4

1.2
UCL

0.8
Rango

0.6

R
0.4

0.2
LCL
0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25
Sample

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 Range Control Chart Rules

Regla points
Rule #4: 14 consecutive 4 alternating increasing and
14 puntos consecutivo alternando
decreasingarriba y abajo
1

0.9

0.8 UCL
0.7

0.6
Rango

0.5

0.4

0.3
R
0.2 LCL
0.1

0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25
Sample

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How To Change Tests in Minitab

File> Options> Control Charts and Quality

Tools> Tests

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 Xbar-r Control Chart With Minitab

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How To Select A Control Chart

Type of
characteristic

Continuous
Attribute
variable

n=1 n: 2-8 n>8 Defective unit Defect

I-MR X-R X-S p np c u

Sample size Constant Constant Constant Constant Constant Constant Constant

or variable or variable

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 Average-Range Chart
• It is used for continuous variables
• Measurements are taken from subgroups of n units (2-8)
• The average chart measures the centering of the process
• The Range chart measures the dispersion

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 59

Average-range Chart Example

Bolt length

Subgroup x1 x2 x3 x4 x5
1 3.409 3.417 3.365 3.491 3.406
2 3.457 3.329 3.370 3.417 3.471
3 3.361 3.446 3.403 3.451 3.393
4 3.438 3.413 3.384 3.407 3.450
5 3.441 3.466 3.435 3.436 3.455
6 3.432 3.414 3.411 3.320 3.432
7 3.389 3.463 3.443 3.418 3.411
8 3.391 3.478 3.407 3.422 3.408
9 3.429 3.370 3.443 3.319 3.446
10 3.456 3.404 3.404 3.407 3.364
11 3.404 3.410 3.404 3.403 3.401
12 3.426 3.484 3.399 3.438 3.478
13 3.436 3.403 3.415 3.432 3.514
14 3.437 3.449 3.398 3.452 3.369
15 3.416 3.461 3.453 3.454 3.439
16 3.367 3.398 3.429 3.453 3.452
17 3.439 3.418 3.425 3.412 3.445
18 3.440 3.380 3.382 3.449 3.410
19 3.444 3.419 3.340 3.440 3.442
20 3.433 3.465 3.531 3.402 3.423
21 3.317 3.378 3.438 3.458 3.438
22 3.439 3.456 3.451 3.398 3.469
23 3.431 3.394 3.472 3.436 3.424
24 3.427 3.395 3.438 3.359 3.438
25 3.473 3.449 3.412 3.370 3.471

X-bar-R.xls
© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 60

Ricardo Espinosa ©2024 30

 Average-range Chart

Stat> Control Charts> Variables Charts For

Subgroups> Xbar-R

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 61

Average-range Chart

Average of each subgroup 𝑈𝐶𝐿 = 𝑋 + 𝐴 𝑅

𝑋 = Total average

𝐿𝐶𝐿 = 𝑋 − 𝐴 𝑅

Range of each subgroup 𝑈𝐶𝐿 = 𝐷 𝑅

R = Average range

𝐿𝐶𝐿 = 𝐷 𝑅

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 62

Ricardo Espinosa ©2024 31

 Average Chart

𝑈𝐶𝐿 = 𝑋 + 𝐴 𝑅
𝑈𝐶𝐿 = 3.423 + (0.577 ∗ 0.087) = 3.4738

𝐿𝐶𝐿 = 𝑋 − 𝐴 𝑅

𝐿𝐶𝐿 = 3.423 − (0.577 ∗ 0.087) = 3.3716

R = 0.087
Valores de 𝐴

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 63

Range Chart

𝑈𝐶𝐿 = 𝐷 𝑅

𝑈𝐶𝐿 = 2.114 ∗ 0.087 = 0.184

𝐿𝐶𝐿 = 𝐷 𝑅 = 0 ∗ 0.087 = 0

R = 0.0869

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 64

Ricardo Espinosa ©2024 32

 Extended Limits

Stat> Control Charts> Variables Charts For

Subgroups> Xbar-R

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 65

Extended Limits

Stat> Control Charts> Variables Charts For

Subgroups> Xbar-R

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 66

Ricardo Espinosa ©2024 33

 Extended Limits

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 67

Control Chart Constants Table

X-bar and R Charts X-bar and s Charts

Chart for Chart for
Averages Averages
(X-bar) Chart for Ranges (R) (X-bar) Chart for Standard Deviations (s)
Divisors for Divisors for
Subgroup Factors for Estimate of St. Factors for Estimate of St.
Size Control Limits Dev. Factors for Control Limits Control Limits Dev. Factors for Control Limits
n A2 d2 D3 D4 A3 c4 B3 B4
2 1.880 1.128 0 3.267 2.659 0.7979 0 3.2670
3 1.023 1.693 0 2.574 1.954 0.8862 0 2.5680
4 0.729 2.059 0 2.282 1.628 0.9213 0 2.2660
5 0.577 2.326 0 2.114 1.427 0.9400 0 2.0890
6 0.483 2.534 0 2.004 1.287 0.9515 0.300 1.9700
7 0.419 2.704 0.076 1.924 1.182 0.9594 0.118 1.8820
8 0.373 2.874 0.136 1.864 1.099 0.9650 0.185 1.8150
9 0.337 2.970 0.184 1.816 1.032 0.9693 0.239 1.7610
10 0.308 3.078 0.223 1.777 0.975 0.9727 0.284 1.7160
11 0.285 3.173 0.256 1.744 0.927 0.9754 0.321 1.6790
12 0.266 3.258 0.283 1.717 0.886 0.9776 0.354 1.6460
13 0.249 3.336 0.307 1.693 0.850 0.9794 0.382 1.6180
14 0.235 3.407 0.328 1.672 0.817 0.9810 0.406 1.5940
15 0.223 3.472 0.347 1.653 0.789 0.9823 0.428 1.5720
16 0.212 3.532 0.363 1.637 0.763 0.9835 0.448 1.5520
17 0.203 3.588 0.378 1.622 0.739 0.9845 0.466 1.5340
18 0.194 3.640 0.391 1.608 0.718 0.9854 0.482 2.5180
19 0.187 3.698 0.403 1.597 0.698 0.9862 0.497 1.5030
20 0.180 3.735 0.415 1.585 0.680 0.9869 0.510 1.4900
21 0.173 3.778 0.425 1.575 0.663 0.9876 0.523 1.4770
22 0.167 3.819 0.434 1.566 0.647 0.9882 0.534 1.4660
23 0.162 3.858 0.443 1.557 0.633 0.9887 0.545 1.4550
24 0.157 3.895 0.451 1.548 0.619 0.9892 0.555 1.4450
25 0.153 3.931 0.459 1.541 0.606 0.9896 0.565 1.4350

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 68

Ricardo Espinosa ©2024 34

 Average-range Chart Example
Subgroup Runout Data in a single column:
one 0.032
5 0.030
eleven 0.024 16 0.034 20-one 0.044
one 0.036
6 0.048
eleven 0.026 16 0.026 20-one 0.044
one 0.030
6 0.040 eleven 0.004 16 0.034 20-one 0.034
one 0.026
6 0.036 eleven 0.042 16 0.022 20-one 0.050
one 0.036
6 0.040 eleven 0.038 16 0.042 20-one 0.050
2 0.026
6 0.044 12 0.040 17 0.050 22 0.042
2 0.030
7 0.042 12 0.034 17 0.030 22 0.042
2 0.044
7 0.034 12 0.044 17 0.046 22 0.025
2 0.028
7 0.030 12 0.020 17 0.022 22 0.028
2 0.040
7 0.032 12 0.030 17 0.042 22 0.044
3 0.036
7 0.018 13 0.048 18 0.036 23 0.048
3 0.050
8 0.046 13 0.024 18 0.032 23 0.046
3 0.042
8 0.038 13 0.016 18 0.036 23 0.040
3 0.044
8 0.026 13 0.026 18 0.040 23 0.032
3 0.040
8 0.042 13 0.028 18 0.016 23 0.040
4 0.030
8 0.046 14 0.028 19 0.036 24 0.044
4 0.040
9 0.030 14 0.040 19 0.034 24 0.030
4 0.044
9 0.030 14 0.038 19 0.038 24 0.036
4 0.034
9 0.048 14 0.030 19 0.026 24 0.038
4 0.020
9 0.050 14 0.024 19 0.024 24 0.048
5 0.026
9 0.026 fifteen 0.036 20 0.022 25 0.044
5 0.030
10 0.038 fifteen 0.040 20 0.026 25 0.040
5 0.034
10 0.048 fifteen 0.036 20 0.040 25 0.032
5 0.038
10 0.030 fifteen 0.036 20 0.026 25 0.038
10 0.032 fifteen 0.032 20 0.040 25 0.034
10 0.036

X-bar-R.xls
© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 69

Average-range Chart
Stat> Control Charts> Variables Charts For
Subgroups> Xbar-R

7 points for the automotive sector and 9

for the non-automotive sector
© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 70

Ricardo Espinosa ©2024 35

 Average-range Chart

Xbar-R Chart of Runout

UCL=0.04620
0.045
Average of each subgroup 𝑈𝐶𝐿 = 𝑋 + 𝐴 𝑅
0.040
Sample Mean

__
0.035 X=0.03514

0.030

0.025 LCL=0.02409 𝐿𝐶𝐿 = 𝑋 − 𝐴 𝑅

1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25
Sample

0.04 UCL=0.04051 𝑈𝐶𝐿 = 𝐷 𝑅

0.03
Range of each subgroup
Sample Range

_
0.02 R=0.01916

0.01 2

0.00 LCL=0 𝐿𝐶𝐿 = 𝐷 𝑅

1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25
Sample

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 71

Xbar-s Control Chart With Minitab

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 72

Ricardo Espinosa ©2024 36

 Average-sigma Chart
• Used for variables
• Measurements of subgroups greater than 8 units are taken
• The average chart measures the centering of the process
• The standard deviation chart measures the dispersion

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 73

How To Select A Control Chart

Type of
characteristic

Continuous
Attribute
variable

n=1 n: 2-8 n>8 Defective unit Defect

I-MR X-R X-S p np c u

Sample size Constant Constant Constant Constant Constant Constant Constant

or variable or variable

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 74

Ricardo Espinosa ©2024 37

 Sigma Concept

∑ 𝑥 − 𝑥̄
𝑠=
𝑛−1

s = sigma or standard deviation

x = individual measurements
𝑥= average of the subgroup measurements

n = subgroup size

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 75

Average-sigma Chart Example

Thicknes

Sample x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7 x8 x9 x10
1 2.5 0.5 2.0 -1.0 1.0 -1.0 0.5 1.5 0.5 -1.5
2 0.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 1.0 -1.0 1.0 1.5 -1.0
3 1.5 1.0 1.0 -1.0 0.0 -1.5 -1.0 -1.0 1.0 -1.0
4 0.0 0.5 -2.0 0.0 -1.0 1.5 -1.5 0.0 -2.0 -1.5
5 0.0 0.0 0.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -0.5 -0.5 0.0 0.0
6 1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5 -1.0 1.0 -2.0 1.0
7 1.0 -1.0 -1.0 -1.0 0.0 1.5 0.0 1.0 0.0 0.0
8 0.0 -1.5 -0.5 1.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 -1.0 0.5 -0.5
9 -2.0 -1.5 1.5 1.5 0.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 0.0 1.0
10 -0.5 3.5 0.0 -1.0 -1.5 -1.5 -1.0 -1.0 1.0 0.5
11 0.0 1.5 0.0 0.0 2.0 -1.5 0.5 -0.5 2.0 -1.0
12 0.0 -2.0 -0.5 0.0 -0.5 2.0 1.5 0.0 0.5 -1.0
13 -1.0 -0.5 -0.5 -1.0 0.0 0.5 0.5 -1.5 -1.0 -1.0
14 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 -2.0 -1.0 -1.5 0.0 1.5 1.5
15 1.0 0.0 1.5 1.5 1.0 -1.0 0.0 1.0 -2.0 -1.5

XBar-s.xls
© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 76

Ricardo Espinosa ©2024 38

 Average-sigma Chart

Stat> Control Charts> Variables Charts For

Subgroups> Xbar-s

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 77

Average-sigma Chart
∑ 𝑥 − 𝑥̄
𝑠=
𝑛−1

𝑈𝐶𝐿 ̄ = 𝑋 + 𝐴 𝑠
Average of each subgroup

𝑋 = total average

𝐿𝐶𝐿 ̄ = 𝑋 − 𝐴 𝑠

𝑈𝐶𝐿 = 𝐵 𝑠
Standard deviation of each subgroup
𝑠 = sigma average

𝐿𝐶𝐿 = 𝐵 𝑠

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 78

Ricardo Espinosa ©2024 39

 Average Chart

𝑈𝐶𝐿 ̄ = 𝑋 + 𝐴 𝑠

𝑈𝐶𝐿 ̄ = −0.003 + (0.975)(1.066) = 1.037

𝐿𝐶𝐿 ̄ = 𝑋 − 𝐴 𝑠

𝐿𝐶𝐿 ̄ = −0.003 − (0.975)(1.066) = −1.043

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 79

Sigma chart s

𝑈𝐶𝐿 = 𝐵 𝑠

𝑈𝐶𝐿 ̄ = (1.716)(1.066) = 1.830

𝐿𝐶𝐿 = 𝐵 𝑠

𝐿𝐶𝐿 ̄ = (0.284)(1.066) = 0.302

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 80

Ricardo Espinosa ©2024 40

 Control Chart Constants Table

X-bar and R Charts X-bar and s Charts

Chart for Chart for
Averages Averages
(X-bar) Chart for Ranges (R) (X-bar) Chart for Standard Deviations (s)
Divisors for Divisors for
Subgroup Factors for Estimate of St. Factors for Estimate of St.
Size Control Limits Dev. Factors for Control Limits Control Limits Dev. Factors for Control Limits
n A2 d2 D3 D4 A3 c4 B3 B4
2 1.880 1.128 0 3.267 2.659 0.7979 0 3.2670
3 1.023 1.693 0 2.574 1.954 0.8862 0 2.5680
4 0.729 2.059 0 2.282 1.628 0.9213 0 2.2660
5 0.577 2.326 0 2.114 1.427 0.9400 0 2.0890
6 0.483 2.534 0 2.004 1.287 0.9515 0.300 1.9700
7 0.419 2.704 0.076 1.924 1.182 0.9594 0.118 1.8820
8 0.373 2.874 0.136 1.864 1.099 0.9650 0.185 1.8150
9 0.337 2.970 0.184 1.816 1.032 0.9693 0.239 1.7610
10 0.308 3.078 0.223 1.777 0.975 0.9727 0.284 1.7160
11 0.285 3.173 0.256 1.744 0.927 0.9754 0.321 1.6790
12 0.266 3.258 0.283 1.717 0.886 0.9776 0.354 1.6460
13 0.249 3.336 0.307 1.693 0.850 0.9794 0.382 1.6180
14 0.235 3.407 0.328 1.672 0.817 0.9810 0.406 1.5940
15 0.223 3.472 0.347 1.653 0.789 0.9823 0.428 1.5720
16 0.212 3.532 0.363 1.637 0.763 0.9835 0.448 1.5520
17 0.203 3.588 0.378 1.622 0.739 0.9845 0.466 1.5340
18 0.194 3.640 0.391 1.608 0.718 0.9854 0.482 2.5180
19 0.187 3.698 0.403 1.597 0.698 0.9862 0.497 1.5030
20 0.180 3.735 0.415 1.585 0.680 0.9869 0.510 1.4900
21 0.173 3.778 0.425 1.575 0.663 0.9876 0.523 1.4770
22 0.167 3.819 0.434 1.566 0.647 0.9882 0.534 1.4660
23 0.162 3.858 0.443 1.557 0.633 0.9887 0.545 1.4550
24 0.157 3.895 0.451 1.548 0.619 0.9892 0.555 1.4450
25 0.153 3.931 0.459 1.541 0.606 0.9896 0.565 1.4350

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 81

I-MR Control Chart With Minitab

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 82

Ricardo Espinosa ©2024 41

 I-MR Chart
• It is used for continuous variables
• Low production volume processes
• Destructive or expensive testing
• Continuous processes
• Individual measurements are taken
• The individual data chart I measures the centering of the process
• The moving range chart MR measures the dispersion

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 83

How To Select A Control Chart

Type of
characteristic

Continuous
Attribute
variable

n=1 n: 2-8 n>8 Defective unit Defect

I-MR X-R X-S p np c u

Sample size Constant Constant Constant Constant Constant Constant Constant

or variable or variable

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 84

Ricardo Espinosa ©2024 42

 Example Of I-MR Chart
Maximum voltage

Sample Voltage
21 6.2
1 7
22 6.8
2 7.4
23 7
3 7.2
24 7.4
4 6.4
5 7.3 25 6.9
6 6.8 26 7.4
7 6.5 27 7.4
8 6.5 28 6.7
9 7.1 29 6.8
10 7 30 7.1
11 6.6 31 6.7
12 7.2 32 7.1
13 6.9 33 6.6
14 7.4 34 7.4
15 7.3 35 7.1
16 7.1 36 6.8
17 7.1 37 6.3
18 6.8 38 6.8
19 6.6 39 6.7
20 7.1 40 6.6

I-MR.xls

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 85

I-MR Chart

Stat> Control Charts> Variables Charts For

Individuals> I-MR

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 86

Ricardo Espinosa ©2024 43

 I-MR Chart

𝑀𝑅
𝑈𝐶𝐿 = 𝑥 + 3
𝑑
Individual readings

𝑀𝑅
𝐿𝐶𝐿 = 𝑥 − 3
𝑑

𝑈𝐶𝐿 = 𝐷 𝑀𝑅
Moving range of 2 consecutive pieces

𝐿𝐶𝐿 = 𝐷 𝑀𝑅

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 87

Individual Data Chart I

𝑀𝑅
𝑈𝐶𝐿 = 𝑥 + 3
𝑑
0.385
𝑈𝐶𝐿 = 6.928 + 3 = 7.95
1.128

𝑀𝑅
𝐿𝐶𝐿 = 𝑥 − 3
𝑑

0.385
𝐿𝐶𝐿 = 6.928 − 3 = 5.905
1.128

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 88

Ricardo Espinosa ©2024 44

 MR Moving Range Chart
𝑈𝐶𝐿 = 𝐷 𝑀𝑅

𝑈𝐶𝐿 = 3.267 ∗ 0.385 = 1.257

𝐿𝐶𝐿 = 𝐷 𝑀𝑅

𝐿𝐶𝐿 = 0 ∗ 0.385 = 0

Valores para B y B

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 89

Control Charts For Attributes With Minitab

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 90

Ricardo Espinosa ©2024 45

 Control charts for attributes
• Pass-fail
• Defective proportion p
• Number of defective parts np
• Defects
• Number of defects c
• Number of defects per unit u

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 91

How to select a Control Chart

Type of
characteristic

Continuous
Attribute
variable

n=1 n: 2-8 n>8 Defective unit Defect

I-MR X-R X-S p np c u

Sample size Constant Constant Constant Constant Constant Constant Constant

or variable or variable

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 92

Ricardo Espinosa ©2024 46

 Defect vs. Defective
• An article defective is the one with one or more defects

• np - number of defective units

• p - proportion of defective units

• A defect is each non-conformity to the specified acceptance criteria.

• c - number of defects
• u - number of defects per inspection unit

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 93

Defect vs. Defective

In these 12 pieces ... there are ...

3 Defective
parts

6 Defects

• Number of defectives np = 3 defective parts

• Defective proportion p =np/ n = 3/12 = 0.25 defective proportion
• Number of defects c = 6 defects
• Defects per unit u = c / n = 6/12 = 0.5 dpu
© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 94

Ricardo Espinosa ©2024 47

 p Chart
• Used for attributes
• Measures the fraction of defective parts p
• Pass-fail
• Used in batches or subgroups of constant and variable size

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 95

p Chart Example

Batch Inspected Defective

1 1200 21
2 1200 20
3 1200 27
4 1200 33
5 1100 22
6 1200 29
7 1180 27
8 1180 23
9 1200 20
10 1200 26
11 1200 28
12 1200 21
13 1100 23
14 1200 21
15 1200 25
16 1200 29
17 1200 20
18 1200 28
19 1200 18
20 1100 24
21 1200 18
22 1200 23
23 1100 18
24 1300 19
25 1100 26

p.xls
© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 96

Ricardo Espinosa ©2024 48

 p Chart

Stat> Control Charts> Attribute Charts> p

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 97

p Chart

𝑝(1 − 𝑝)
𝑈𝐶𝐿 = 𝑝 + 3
𝑛
Defective proportion of each subgroup

Total 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠

𝑝=
Total 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠

𝑛𝑝 ≥ 5

𝑝(1 − 𝑝)
𝑈𝐶𝐿 = 𝑝 − 3
𝑛

Total 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠

𝑛=
Total 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝𝑠

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 98

Ricardo Espinosa ©2024 49

 np Chart
• Used for attributes
• Measures the number of defective parts p
• Pass-fail
• Used in batches or subgroups of constant size

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 99

np Chart Example

Defective parts

Batch Inspected Defective

1 1200 21
2 1200 20
3 1200 27
4 1200 33
5 1200 22
6 1200 30
7 1200 27
8 1200 23
9 1200 20
10 1200 26
11 1200 28
12 1200 21
13 1200 23
14 1200 21
15 1200 25
16 1200 29
17 1200 20
18 1200 28
19 1200 18
20 1200 24
21 1200 13
22 1200 23
23 1200 12
24 1200 19
25 1200 26

np.xls
© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 100

Ricardo Espinosa ©2024 50

 np Chart

Stat> Control Charts> Attribute Charts> np

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 101

np Chart

𝑈𝐶𝐿 = 𝑛𝑝 + 3 𝑛𝑝(1 − 𝑝)

Defective units of each subgroup

Total d𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠

𝑛𝑝 =
Total 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝𝑠

Total d𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠

𝑝=
Total 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠

𝐿𝐶𝐿 = 𝑛𝑝 − 3 𝑛𝑝(1 − 𝑝)

𝑛𝑝 ≥ 5

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 102

Ricardo Espinosa ©2024 51

 np Chart

𝑈𝐶𝐿 = 𝑛𝑝 + 3 𝑛𝑝(1 − 𝑝)

= 23.16 + 3 23.16(1 − 0.0193) = 37.46

579
𝑛𝑝 = = 23.16
25

𝐿𝐶𝐿 = 𝑛𝑝 − 3 𝑛𝑝(1 − 𝑝)

= 23.16 − 3 23.16(1 − 0.0193) = 8.86

579
𝑝= = 0.0193
30,000
© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 103

c Chart
• Used for attributes
• Measures the number of defects c
• A part can have several defects
• Used in batches or subgroups of constant size

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 104

Ricardo Espinosa ©2024 52

 c Chart Example

Defects

Batch Inspected Defective

1 10 7
2 10 5
3 10 10
4 10 2
5 10 6
6 10 5
7 10 4
8 10 9
9 10 7
10 10 5
11 10 6
12 10 7
13 10 8
14 10 4
15 10 5
16 10 12
17 10 8
18 10 10
19 10 4
20 10 7
21 10 3
22 10 10
23 10 6
24 10 6
25 10 7

c.xls
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c Chart

Stat> Control Charts> Attribute Charts> c

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 c Chart

𝑈𝐶𝐿 = 𝑐 + 3 𝑐
Defects for each subgroup

Number of defects in each subgroup

Total 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑠
𝑐=
Num𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝𝑠

𝐿𝐶𝐿 = 𝑐 − 3 𝑐

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 107

c Chart

𝑈𝐶𝐿 = 𝑐 + 3 𝑐

Defects for each subgroup 𝑈𝐶𝐿 = 6.52 + 3 6.52 = 14.18

163
𝑐= = 6.52
25

𝐿𝐶𝐿 = 𝑐 − 3 𝑐

L𝐶𝐿 = 6.52 − 3 6.52 = −1.14 → 0

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 u Chart
• Used for attributes
• Measures the number of defects per unit u
• A part can have several defects
• Used in batches or subgroups of constant or variable size

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 109

u Chart Example

Defects

Batch Inspected Defective

1 114 17
2 153 24
3 115 16
4 174 26
5 157 15
6 219 15
7 149 20
8 147 18
9 131 26
10 91 10
11 112 25
12 158 21
13 244 30
14 111 24
15 120 33

u.xls
© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 110

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 U Chart

Stat> Control Charts> Attribute Charts> u

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 111

u Chart

𝑢
Defect rate for each subgroup 𝑈𝐶𝐿 = 𝑢 + 3
𝑛

𝑢
𝐿𝐶𝐿 = 𝑢 − 3
𝑛

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 Process Capability Study Methodology

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 113

Process Capability Study

Application of the Process Capability study
• The purpose of a Process Capability study, is to determine if the process is capable of consistently
meeting the customer's specifications, and to take corrective actions if necessary.

Requirements of a Process Capability study

• Stable process.
• There are no special causes. It is verified with the control chart of averages and ranges, averages
and sigmas or I-MR. This applies to indices Cp and Cpk. Stability is to ensure that the process
remains centered on the nominal product specification or process objective and that the process
variation remains within control limits. Indices Pp Y Ppk they do not require the process to be
stable.
• Individual data normality.
• The individual data is normally distributed. Normality is a requirement for estimating defects in
parts per million ppm.
• Capable process.
• Cpk and Ppk meet customer requirements (1.67 for the automotive sector and 1.33 for the non-
automotive sector).

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 Process Capability Study

Stable process in
chart of averages
(centering)
Normal data
(P> 0.05)
Stable process in
Range chart
(dispersion)

Process capable
(Cpk and Ppk>
1.67)

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 115

Process Capability Study

The requirements of any Capability Study include the following:
• Choose the product quality characteristic to be analyzed and its specifications. The priority is the
special quality and safety characteristics of the product and those product characteristics that require
improvement in Six Sigma projects. These characteristics must be in the PFMEA, control plan and work
instructions.
• Verify the correct operation of the manufacturing equipment. Carry out the necessary preventive and
corrective maintenance.
• Validate work instructions and staff skills. For the set-up and operation of the manufacturing
equipment.
• Validate the measurement system. High variation in the measurement system can increase process
variation and will produce an unreliable estimate of process capability. Ensure the calibration of the
measurement equipment and make the necessary analysis of resolution, type 1, linearity, accuracy and
GR&R.

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 Process Capability Study
Procedure for conducting a Process Capability study.
• Equipment set up.
• Adjust the manufacturing equipment so that the average readings match the nominal specification
of the product characteristic.
• Collect information.
• Measure 125 consecutive pieces and analyze with Xbar-R chart with size 5 subgroups. Number the
pieces.
• If there are several sources of variation (equipment, molds, cavities), carry out a study for each of
them.
• If the process is low volume or the measurement is destructive, measure 30 consecutive pieces
and analyze with I-MR chart with subgroups of size 1.
• Do not adjust the process once the measurements have started (if adjusted, start the
measurements again and discard measurements taken prior to adjustment.). This is to evaluate
the natural variation of the process.
• Keep a record of the changes observed during the study (tooling changes, machine stoppages, tool
sharpening, Operator changes, measurement system calibrations, etc.) to analyze potential causes of
variation and eliminate them.

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 117

Process Capability Study

Procedure for conducting a Process Capability study.
• Check the process stability.
• Ensure that the process is under statistical control. This is accomplished through control charts. In
the event that the process is out of control, the special cause variation must be identified and
eliminated through a root cause analysis.
• Verify that the individual data is normally distributed.
• Chart the individual data on a histogram and assess their normality with the Anderson-Darling test.
• If the data is not normal, eliminate special causes or use the non-normal data distribution that
corresponds to the data (Weibull, lognormal, exponential, etc.).
• Do not transform data.
• Determine process capability.
• In case the process is not capable, make improvements to the process.

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 Process Capability Study
Process Capability improvements:
• Center the process on the nominal specification or objective of the product characteristic. Generally
this involves adjusting the process parameters (pressure, voltage, speed, etc.).
• Eliminate variation due to special causes. Special causes are identified by the control chart and are
generally due to significant changes in the process (adjustments, equipment failures, etc.).
• Reduce variation due to common causes. Common causes occur in stable processes. To reduce this
type of variation, regression analysis or design of experiments are generally used to determine the
optimal levels of the input variables (pressure, velocity, temperature, etc.).
• Repeat the Capability study. Once the improvements have been made to have a stable, capable and
normal process, repeat the Capability study. Maintain fixed the control limits of the characteristic to be
controlled and implement the control chart in real time.
• Check the set-up and operation of the equipment. Implement control charts in the special
characteristics of the process (Temperature, pressure, etc.)

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 119

The Normal Distribution

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 The Normal Distribution
• Most natural phenomena and man-made processes have a normal distribution.
• Properties of the normal distribution:

1st Property: A normal distribution can be fully described with:

 Mean
 Standard deviation

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The Normal Distribution

2nd Property: The area under the curve can be used to estimate the
cumulative probability that a certain event will occur. For example, the
probability of defects in % or ppm.

68.26%

95.44%

99.73%

Standard
deviations - 4s - 3s - 2s -1s 0 1s 2s 3s 4s

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 Normality Test
Graph> Probability plot

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 123

Normality Test

Distribution is
normal if p> 0.05

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 Process Capability Study
Potential causes for non normal data:
• Errors in measurement or data entry
• Significant changes in the manufacturing process (Special causes)
• Machine failures
• Over-adjustments
• Lack of standardization in set up and operation of equipment.
• Data mixed (Different machines, molds, cavities, etc.)
• Incomplete data
• Nature of manufacturing process (GD&T characteristics, time related variables, etc.)
• Bad resolution of measurement system

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 125

Process Capability Study

Potential causes for non normal data:
• Errors in measurement or data entry
• Significant changes in the manufacturing process (Special causes)
• Machine failures
• Over-adjustments
• Lack of standardization in set up and operation of equipment.
Outlier

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 Process Capability Study
Potential causes for non normal data:
• Bad resolution of measurement system

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 127

Process Capability Study

Potential causes for non normal data:
• Data mixed (Different machines, molds, cavities, etc.)

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 Process Capability Study
Potential causes for non normal data:
• Incomplete data

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 129

Process Capability Study

• Potential causes for non normal data:
• Nature of manufacturing process (Characteristics from product GD&T)

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 Process Capability Study
Potential causes for non normal data:
• Nature of manufacturing process (Time related variables)

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 131

Internal And Total Variation

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 Internal And Total Variation
Total (Pp, Ppk, Cpm)
2
  
 x1  x 
s s
n

 
p
i n 1
Beneficio

Internal (Cp, Cpk)

𝑅
𝜎 =
𝑑

po
𝜎 =

em
𝑐

Ti
n A2 D3 D4 d2 c4
2 1,880 0 3,267 1,128 0.7979
3 1,023 0 2,574 1,693 0.8862
𝑀𝑅
𝜎 = 4 0.729 0 2,282 2,059 0.9213
1.128
5 0.577 0 2,114 2,326 0.9400
6 0.483 0 2.004 2,534 0.9515
7 0.419 0.076 1,924 2,704 0.9594
8 0.373 0.136 1,864 2,847 0.9650
9 0.337 0.184 1,816 2,970 0.9693
10 0.308 0.223 1,777 3,078 0.9727

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 133

Internal variation

Tim e : 8 12 4 8 12 4 8 12 4 8 12 4 8 12 4 8 12 4 8 12 4 8 12 4 8
Day: 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 5 6 6 6 7 7 7 8 8 8 9
S ubgro up 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

1 11.811 11.809 11.820 11.820 11.814 11.821 11.810 11.817 11.816 11.819 11.840 11.813 11.799 11.811 11.806 11.816 11.815 11.813 11.811 11.819 11.807 11.820 11.818 11.806 11.808

2
Readings

11.800 11.821 11.806 11.810 11.813 11.809 11.821 11.819 11.813 11.821 11.830 11.811 11.817 11.817 11.812 11.807 11.817 11.821 11.816 11.821 11.818 11.810 11.819 11.812 11.817

3 11.799 11.811 11.822 11.816 11.808 11.820 11.812 11.800 11.820 11.812 11.850 11.820 11.811 11.812 11.814 11.801 11.807 11.807 11.809 11.815 11.809 11.813 11.808 11.818 11.806

4 11.819 11.798 11.812 11.814 11.816 11.819 11.812 11.818 11.812 11.798 11.830 11.805 11.809 11.818 11.822 11.810 11.817 11.810 11.813 11.798 11.816 11.811 11.815 11.815 11.819

5 11.821 11.820 11.815 11.816 11.813 11.812 11.820 11.815 11.812 11.815 11.800 11.793 11.813 11.804 11.814 11.821 11.815 11.809 11.809 11.819 11.806 11.812 11.817 11.815 11.812

A v e ra g e 11.8 10 11.8 12 11.8 15 11.8 15 11.8 13 11.8 16 11.8 15 11.8 14 11.8 15 11.8 13 11.8 3 0 11.8 0 8 11.8 10 11.8 12 11.8 14 11.8 11 11.8 14 11.8 12 11.8 12 11.8 14 11.8 11 11.8 13 11.8 15 11.8 13 11.8 12

R a ng e 0 .0 2 2 0 .0 2 3 0 .0 16 0 .0 10 0 .0 0 8 0 .0 12 0 .0 11 0 .0 19 0 .0 0 8 0 .0 2 3 0 .0 50 0 .0 2 7 0 .0 18 0 .0 14 0 .0 16 0 .0 2 0 0 .0 10 0 .0 14 0 .0 0 7 0 .0 2 3 0 .0 12 0 .0 10 0 .0 11 0 .0 12 0 .0 13

n A2 D3 D4 d2 c4
𝑅
2 1,880 0 3,267 1,128 0.7979 𝜎 =
3 1,023 0 2,574 1,693 0.8862
𝑑
4 0.729 0 2,282 2,059 0.9213
Beneficio

5 0.577 0 2,114 2,326 0.9400 𝑅 0.01504

𝜎 = =
6 0.483 0 2.004 2,534 0.9515 𝑑 2.326
7 0.419 0.076 1,924 2,704 0.9594
8 0.373 0.136 1,864 2,847 0.9650
po
em

9 0.337 0.184 1,816 2,970 0.9693

Ti

10 0.308 0.223 1,777 3,078 0.9727

Internal sigma = 0.006466

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 Total variation

Tim e : 8 12 4 8 12 4 8 12 4 8 12 4 8 12 4 8 12 4 8 12 4 8 12 4 8
Day: 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 5 6 6 6 7 7 7 8 8 8 9
S ubgro up 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

1 11.811 11.809 11.820 11.820 11.814 11.821 11.810 11.817 11.816 11.819 11.840 11.813 11.799 11.811 11.806 11.816 11.815 11.813 11.811 11.819 11.807 11.820 11.818 11.806 11.808

2
Readings

11.800 11.821 11.806 11.810 11.813 11.809 11.821 11.819 11.813 11.821 11.830 11.811 11.817 11.817 11.812 11.807 11.817 11.821 11.816 11.821 11.818 11.810 11.819 11.812 11.817

3 11.799 11.811 11.822 11.816 11.808 11.820 11.812 11.800 11.820 11.812 11.850 11.820 11.811 11.812 11.814 11.801 11.807 11.807 11.809 11.815 11.809 11.813 11.808 11.818 11.806

4 11.819 11.798 11.812 11.814 11.816 11.819 11.812 11.818 11.812 11.798 11.830 11.805 11.809 11.818 11.822 11.810 11.817 11.810 11.813 11.798 11.816 11.811 11.815 11.815 11.819

5 11.821 11.820 11.815 11.816 11.813 11.812 11.820 11.815 11.812 11.815 11.800 11.793 11.813 11.804 11.814 11.821 11.815 11.809 11.809 11.819 11.806 11.812 11.817 11.815 11.812

A v e ra g e 11.8 10 11.8 12 11.8 15 11.8 15 11.8 13 11.8 16 11.8 15 11.8 14 11.8 15 11.8 13 11.8 3 0 11.8 0 8 11.8 10 11.8 12 11.8 14 11.8 11 11.8 14 11.8 12 11.8 12 11.8 14 11.8 11 11.8 13 11.8 15 11.8 13 11.8 12

R a ng e 0 .0 2 2 0 .0 2 3 0 .0 16 0 .0 10 0 .0 0 8 0 .0 12 0 .0 11 0 .0 19 0 .0 0 8 0 .0 2 3 0 .0 50 0 .0 2 7 0 .0 18 0 .0 14 0 .0 16 0 .0 2 0 0 .0 10 0 .0 14 0 .0 0 7 0 .0 2 3 0 .0 12 0 .0 10 0 .0 11 0 .0 12 0 .0 13

 2
 
 x1  x 
s s
n

 
p
i n 1 Beneficio

Total sigma = 0.006150

Calculation with Excel:

po
em
Ti
DEVEST.M
STDEV.S

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Calculation Of Capability And Performance Indices

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 Specification Limits
Tolerance =
USL-LSL
Nominal

The Specification Limits

apply to individual
measurements not
averages

LSL USL
When you have both upper (USL) and
Nominal is
lower specification (LSL) limits, this is the
better
most commonly used characteristic type.

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 137

Specification Limits

The Specification Limits

apply to individual
measurements not
averages

LSL

More is When there is only one specification limit,

better the LSL.

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 Specification Limits

The Specification Limits

apply to individual
measurements not
averages

LSL USL
Less is When there is only one specification limit,
better the USL

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 139

Process capability
• Cpk -The Capability index for a stable process. The estimation of Sigma is based on the internal
variation (R-bar / d2 or S-bar / c4

𝑅 𝑀𝑅
𝜎 = 𝜎 =
𝑑 1.128

𝑠
𝜎 =
𝑐

• Ppk- The performance index. The estimation of sigma is based on the total variation.

2
  
 x1  x 
s s
n

 
p
i n 1

Ref: AIAG PPAP Reference Manual Fourth Edition © Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 140

Ricardo Espinosa ©2024 70

 Process capability
• Process Capability is determined by variation that comes from common causes
• To be acceptable, a process must be in a state of statistical control and the capability (common cause
variation) must be less than tolerance.

LSL USL

Measurements
Individual

6s

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 141

Process Capability (Internal Variation)

LSL USL
The Cp index reflects the
Cp = 1 potential of the process if the
average were perfectly centered
between the specification limits

The larger the index

Cp, better!
Cp > 1
𝑈𝑆𝐿 − 𝐿𝑆𝐿 Voice of the Customer
𝐶 =
6𝜎 Voice of the Process

Cp <1

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 Process Capability
Process Capability (Cp)

Calculation of Cp

𝑈𝑆𝐿 − 𝐿𝑆𝐿
𝐶 =
6𝜎
Mean

Cpk calculation

X−L𝑆𝐿 USL−X
Cpk = Min( , )
3𝜎 3𝜎

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 143

Process Capability Indices

Variation within subgroups (Internal)
𝑠 𝑀𝑅
𝑅 𝜎 = 𝜎 =
𝜎 = 𝑐 1.128
𝑑

𝑈𝑆𝐿 − 𝐿𝑆𝐿 n A2 D3 D4 d2 c4
C =
6𝜎 2 1,880 0 3,267 1,128 0.7979

3 1,023 0 2,574 1,693 0.8862

4 0.729 0 2,282 2,059 0.9213

USL−X
CPU = 5 0.577 0 2,114 2,326 0.9400
3𝜎 6 0.483 0 2.004 2,534 0.9515

7 0.419 0.076 1,924 2,704 0.9594

X−L𝑆𝐿 8 0.373 0.136 1,864 2,847 0.9650

CPL = 9 0.337 0.184 1,816 2,970 0.9693
3𝜎
10 0.308 0.223 1,777 3,078 0.9727

Cpk = Min(CPU, CPL)

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 Process Performance Indices
2
 
 x1  x  Total process variation (Total)
n 
s p s 
i n 1

𝑈𝑆𝐿 − 𝐿𝑆𝐿 Taguchi index

P =
6𝜎
𝑈𝑆𝐿 − 𝐿𝑆𝐿
Cpm =
USL−X 6 𝜎 + (𝑇 − 𝑥 )
PPU =
3𝜎

T = Nominal
X−L𝑆𝐿
PPL =
3𝜎

Ppk = Min(PPU, PPL)

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 145

Xbar-R Process Capability Study with Minitab

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 Xbar-R Process Capability
• Example: There is information on the length of Length Spec: 21.5-23.5

125 bolts shown in the following table. Evaluate Subgroup x1 x2 x3 x4 x5

capability and performance. 1 22.30 22.54 22.01 22.62 22.65
2 22.86 22.68 22.43 22.58 22.73
• LSL = 21.5 3 22.88 22.68 22.46 22.30 22.61

• USL = 23.5 4
5
22.44
22.59
22.66
22.65
22.48
22.78
22.37
22.58
22.56
22.33
6 22.37 22.34 22.75 22.71 22.51
7 22.23 22.36 22.90 22.45 22.48
8 22.60 22.72 22.35 22.51 22.69
9 22.61 22.52 22.52 22.49 22.31
10 22.42 22.64 22.52 22.40 22.63
11 22.28 22.55 22.38 22.65 22.56
12 22.54 22.25 22.40 22.72 22.90
13 22.31 22.57 22.38 22.58 22.30
14 22.42 22.21 22.45 22.24 22.55
15 22.25 22.36 22.25 22.34 22.67
16 22.65 22.50 22.41 22.39 22.48
17 22.50 22.86 22.60 22.60 22.66
18 22.79 22.61 22.81 22.66 22.37
19 22.65 22.75 21.92 22.00 22.45
20 22.51 22.58 22.46 22.76 22.56
21 22.48 22.38 22.28 22.72 22.96
22 22.53 22.52 22.61 22.62 22.60
23 22.54 22.56 22.36 22.46 22.71
24 22.84 22.52 22.88 22.68 22.54

X-bar-R.xls
25 22.76 22.65 22.51 22.77 22.43

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Xbar-R Process Capability

Stat> Quality Tools> Capability Sixpack> Normal

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 Xbar-R Process Capability

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 149

Process Capability Indices

𝑅 0.418
𝜎 = = = 0.1799 Variation within subgroups (internal)
𝑑 2.326

. .
𝐶 = = = 1.85
∗ .

USL−X 23.5 − 22.5308

CPU = = = 1.80
3𝜎 3 ∗ 0.1799

X−𝐿𝑆𝐿 22.5308 − 21.5

CPL = = = 1.91
3𝜎 3 ∗ 0.1799

Cpk = Min(CPU, CPL) = 1.8

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 Process Performance Indices
2
 
 x1  x 
s p s   
n
=0.1887 Total variation (Overall) 𝑈𝑆𝐿 − 𝐿𝑆𝐿
i n1 Cpm =
6 𝜎 + (𝑇 − 𝑥)
. .
P = = = 1.77 . .
∗ . Cpm = =1.75
, ( . . )

USL−X 23.5 − 22.5308

PPU = = = 1.71
3𝜎 3 ∗ 0.1887

X−𝐿𝑆𝐿 22.5308 − 21.5

PPL = = = 1.82
3𝜎 3 ∗ 0.1887

Ppk = Min(PPU, PPL) = 1.71

© Copyright by Kaizen Sigma. 151

Xbar-S Process Capability Study with Minitab

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 Xbar-S Process Capability
• Example: There is information on the filling height of containers shown in the following table. Evaluate
capability and performance.
• LSL = -3
• USL = 3 Height

Subgroup x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7 x8 x9 x10
1 2.5 0.5 2.0 -1.0 1.0 -1.0 0.5 1.5 0.5 -1.5
2 0.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 1.0 -1.0 1.0 1.5 -1.0
3 1.5 1.0 1.0 -1.0 0.0 -1.5 -1.0 -1.0 1.0 -1.0
4 0.0 0.5 -2.0 0.0 -1.0 1.5 -1.5 0.0 -2.0 -1.5
5 0.0 0.0 0.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -0.5 -0.5 0.0 0.0
6 1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5 -1.0 1.0 -2.0 1.0
7 1.0 -1.0 -1.0 -1.0 0.0 1.5 0.0 1.0 0.0 0.0
8 0.0 -1.5 -0.5 1.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 -1.0 0.5 -0.5
9 -2.0 -1.5 1.5 1.5 0.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 0.0 1.0
10 -0.5 3.5 0.0 -1.0 -1.5 -1.5 -1.0 -1.0 1.0 0.5
11 0.0 1.5 0.0 0.0 2.0 -1.5 0.5 -0.5 2.0 -1.0
12 0.0 -2.0 -0.5 0.0 -0.5 2.0 1.5 0.0 0.5 -1.0
13 -1.0 -0.5 -0.5 -1.0 0.0 0.5 0.5 -1.5 -1.0 -1.0
14 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 -2.0 -1.0 -1.5 0.0 1.5 1.5
15 1.0 0.0 1.5 1.5 1.0 -1.0 0.0 1.0 -2.0 -1.5

Xbar-S.xls
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Xbar-S Process Capability

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 Xbar-S Process Capability

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Process Capability Indices

𝑠 1.066
𝜎 = = = 1.096 Variation within subgroups (internal)
𝑐 0.9727

𝑈𝑆𝐿 − 𝐿𝑆𝐿 3 − (−3)

C = = = 0.91
6𝜎 6 ∗ 1.09618

USL−X 3 − (−0.003)
CPU = = = 0.91
3𝜎 3 ∗ 1.09618

X−𝐿𝑆𝐿 −0.003 − (−3)

CPL = = = 0.91
3𝜎 3 ∗ 1.09618

Cpk = Min(CPU, CPL) = 0.91

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 Process performance indices
2
 
 x1  x 
n  𝑈𝑆𝐿 − 𝐿𝑆𝐿
s p s  =1.088 Total process variation (Overall) Cpm =
i n1
6 𝜎 + (𝑇 − 𝑥)
𝑈𝑆𝐿 − 𝐿𝑆𝐿 3 − (−3)
P = = = 0.92 ( )
6𝜎 6 ∗ 1.0876 Cpm = =0.92
. ( ( . ))

USL−X 3 − (−0.003)
PPU = = = 0.92
3𝜎 3 ∗ 1.0876

X−L𝑆𝐿 −0.003 − (−3)

PPL = = = 0.92
3𝜎 3 ∗ 1.0876

Ppk = Min(PPU, PPL) = 0.92

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I-MR Process Capability Study

with Minitab

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 Process Capability I-MR
Exercise: There is information on the temperature of a process shown in the following table.
Evaluate capability and performance.
LSL = 30
USL = 40 Temperature

Subgroup Temperature
1 37.4 21 35.3
2 36.8 22 35
3 34.3 23 33.8
4 36.6 24 36.5
5 35 25 33.3
6 35.6 26 33.8
7 35.1 27 35.5
8 36.5 28 36.4
9 35.8 29 37.5
10 34.7 30 37
11 33.3 31 36
12 33.3 32 36
13 34.7 33 34
14 33.4 34 35.1
15 37.4 35 35
16 34.7 36 32.9
17 33.7 37 33.6
18 36.7 38 34.7
19 35.2 39 34.4
20 35.5 40 35.4

I-Mr.xls
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Process Capability I-MR

Stat> Quality Tools> Capability Sixpack> Normal

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 Process Capability I-MR

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Process Capability Indices

𝑅 1.272
𝜎 = = = 1.127 Variation within subgroups (internal)
𝑑 1.128

𝐶 = = = 1.48
∗ .

.
CPU = = =1.43
∗ .

−𝐿 𝑆 𝐿 .
CPL = = =1.53
∗ .

Cpk = Min(CPU, CPL) = 1.43

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 Process Performance Indices
2
 
 x1  x 
s p s   
n
=1.280 Total variation (Overall) 𝑈𝑆𝐿 − 𝐿𝑆𝐿
i n1 Cpm =
6 𝜎 + (𝑇 − 𝑥)
P = = = 1.30 . .
∗ . Cpm = =1.75
, ( . . )

USL−X 40 − 35.172
PPU = = = 1.26
3𝜎 3 ∗ 1.280

X−𝐿𝑆𝐿 35.172 − 30
PPL = = = 1.35
3𝜎 3 ∗ 1.280

Ppk = Min(PPU, PPL) = 1.26

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Non-normal Capability Study with Minitab

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 Non-Normal process capability
Example: There is information on the density of certain bottles. The
specification is 45 to 55. Evaluate capability and performance.
Density

Spec: 45-55

Subgroup x1 x2 x3 x4 x5
1 50.8 49.8 52.0 51.2 49.1
2 50.4 49.2 50.8 49.7 50.7
3 51.1 48.4 48.9 50.9 47.9
4 50.0 48.7 49.0 49.7 52.3
5 51.2 47.6 51.3 50.7 50.7
6 49.7 51.5 50.2 49.6 50.8
7 51.0 50.6 51.4 50.4 50.2
8 51.1 48.3 49.9 48.6 51.0
9 50.1 50.3 50.1 48.6 49.5
10 46.6 51.7 49.6 51.3 50.3
11 51.8 50.3 50.8 49.9 49.1
12 48.4 49.8 49.2 48.7 47.7
13 51.1 50.0 49.0 49.4 51.5
14 47.6 50.0 49.8 49.7 51.3
15 49.5 51.0 49.1 48.9 49.3
16 50.7 50.9 49.8 50.2 49.0
17 49.7 50.3 50.8 50.4 47.3
18 49.5 48.1 49.8 51.0 50.5
19 49.6 45.7 50.7 51.5 51.6
20 50.4 50.1 50.5 50.5 50.9
21 50.7 51.0 46.4 50.2 48.6
22 51.2 50.9 50.4 46.2 47.8
23 50.3 49.4 50.2 50.1 49.2
24 50.1 49.1 47.4 50.0 48.6
25 50.4 48.9 49.8 49.2 50.5

Density.xls
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Non-Normal Process Capability

Stat> Quality Tools> Capability Sixpack> Normal

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 Non-Normal Process Capability

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Non-Normal Process Capability

Stat> Quality Tools> Individual Distribution
Identification

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 Non-Normal Process Capability

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Non-Normal Process Capability

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 Non-Normal Process Capability

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Non-Normal Process Capability

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 Non-Normal Process Capability

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Non-Normal Process Capability

Stat> Quality Tools> Capability Sixpack> No

Normal

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 Non-Normal Process Capability

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Non-Normal Process Capability

Stat> Quality Tools> Capability Sixpack> Normal

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 Non-Normal Process Capability

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• Questions?

• Thanks a lot

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