Yr 10 Science - 2023

James Bui/Nguyen & Shadi Sayrafi

SCOPE & SEQUENCE

Yr 10 Science - Moodle

SCIENCE LITERACY
DEFINITIONS
DIRECTIVE VERBS
Analyse: Identify components and the relationship between them; draw out and relate implications.
Assess: Make a judgement of value, quality, outcomes, results or size. Look at the pros and cons and
make a judgement.
Compare: Show how things are similar or different.
Contrast: Show how things are different.
Describe: Provide characteristics and features.
Discuss: Identify issues and provide points for and/or against.
Explain: Relate cause and effect; make the relationship between things evident; provide why (because)
and/or how (in time or cause).
Evaluate: Make a judgement based on criteria; determine the value of. Involves:
● Description of feature/issue.
● Points for.
● Points against.
● Criteria(ion).
● Judgement (of each point issued against criteria).
Justify: Make a judgement and support an argument or conclusion → Points supporting the
argument/point of view/conclusion.

VARIABLES
Independent Variable: Variable that we change in an experiment. For example, the amount of water given
to a plant.
Dependent Variable: Variable that we measure in an experiment. For example, the height of the plants.
Controlled Variables: Variables that stay the same and keep constant during the whole experiment. For
example, sunlight, soil PH, plant type, temperature.
Control: Group we treat exactly the same as the experimental group, except it doesn’t receive any
treatment that's expected to cause an outcome. It’s used to prove that the independent variable being
tested is responsible for the results observed. For example, a plant that receives no water.
Discrete Variables: Variables/data consisting only of values in categories or whole numbers. They can
only take on particular values. E.g the number of people in a household. With discrete variables, we draw
column graphs.
Continuous Variables: Consist of any numerical value within a given range. They can occupy any value.
E.g temperature. With continuous variables, we draw line graphs.
Ordered Variables: Have a definite order which may or may not be numerical. E.g shoe size, age (to the
nearest year), number of siblings.
Nominal Variables: Variables that are names or categories, with no implied order. E.g gender, mode of
transport, cause of death.
DATA
Quatitative Data: Includes variables, measurements or data that are numbers. Characterised by their
quantity rather than their quality. For example, plant height can be measured using a ruler, given a
numerical value in centimetres.
Qualitative Data: Includes variables, measurements, or data that aren’t numerical. These are
characterised by their qualities, so by classification into a certain type of category.
Raw Data: Unprocessed measurements that are taken directly from the experiment. For example, just the
plant’s height.
Processed Data: Measured produced by applying calculations to the raw data. For example, the speed of
the plant’s growth is found by the height of the plant divided by the plant’s time spent growing.

DISPLAYING DATA - Independent always on X axis, Dependent on Y!

TABLES
● Left column - Independent Variable. Must be descriptive and have units included in brackets.
○ “Volume of Water given to Plant (mL/day)”
● Heading - Dependent Variable. Must be descriptive and have units included in brackets.
○ “Height of Plant after One Month (cm)”
● If there are several measurements/trials of the dependent variable, we can add a mean column to the
right and calculate the average of the measurements.
● Far right column - Processed data after the mean column. Must be descriptive and have units
included in brackets.
○ “Average Speed of Growth (cm/day)”
● Should take up at least 80% of the available space.
● Done in pencil and with a ruler.
● Be fully enclosed.
● Number of decimal places in our data should be consistent.
○ All 1 decimal place → Therefore has to be 14.0 and not 14

COLUMN GRAPHS
● X axis: Independent variable where we write all our categories (e.g month of the year). Must be
labelled.
● Y axis: Dependent variable (e.g daily mean temperature (oC). Ensure equal increments from one
number to the next. Must be labelled.
● Clear Title.
● Columns should be centred over their labels and don’t touch each other or the Y axis.
● Half column gap between Y axis and first column.
● Half column gap between remaining columns.
● Arrows extending each axis.
● Takes up at least 80% of available space.
● Done in pencil.

PIE GRAPHS/CHARTS
● Convert data to percentages (if required).
● Calculate the angles for each segment through this formula: y x 360/100, where y is the percentage
of the segment.
● Draw the pie graph using a protractor.
● Add labels/key and a clear title
● Ensure it takes up at least 80% of available space.
● Done in pencil.
HISTOGRAMS
● X axis: Ordered independent variable (e.g number of siblings). Labelled.
● Y axis: Frequency dependent variable. Labelled.
● Clear TItle.
● Columns are centred over their labels, not touching the Y axis
● Half column gap between Y axis and first column.
● No gap between remaining columns.
● Arrows extending each axis.
● Takes up at least 80% of the available space.
● Done in pencil.

LINE GRAPHS
● X axis: Numerical independent variable (e.g Volume of Water given to plant (mL/day). Labelled
● Y axis: Numerical dependent variable (e.g Height of Plant after one month (cm)). Ensure equal
increments from one number to the next. Labelled
● Clear title.
● Take up at least 80% of available space.
● Data points marked with an X.
● Arrows extending each axis.
● Done in pencil.
● Line of best fit (straight/curved) if trend is evident and independent variable is continuous.
○ Doesn’t have to start at the origin (0,0).
○ Ignore outliers.
○ Should have an equal number of values on either side of the line.
○ Line shouldn’t exceed past the last data point.
○ Don’t connect dots!
● Both X and Y axes should go up in equal increments but they both don’t have to be the same
increments. Both also don’t need to start at (0, 0).
○ Draw squiggly lines (zigzag) before the first x/y axis value.

Data points should be X instead of dots!

● Interpolation: Involves estimating a value within the data range. Draw dotted lines from the specified
X axis value and specified Y axis value. Where the two dotted lines meet on the line of best fit is the
unmeasured value.

● Extrapolation: Involves estimating a value outside the data range. First, extend the graph and the line
of best fit with the same scale and gradient (steepness). Then draw dotted lines from the specified X
axis value and specified Y axis value. Where the two dotted lines meet on the line of best fit is the
unmeasured value.

DIAGRAMS
● Follow scientific diagrams for materials/apparatus.
● Clear title.
● Name/Date (if needed) in top right corner.
● Scale in bottom left corner (distance - 1mm etc.)
● Centred on page.
● Takes up at least 80% of the available space or at least 1/2 page.
● Labelled with only straight, horizontal lines and no arrowheads (arrowheads only to show flow or
transformation).
● No shading/sketching/feathered lines.
● Done in pencil.
ANALYSING DATA - RELATIONSHIPS
Correlation: Measure of the relationship between the independent and dependent variables.
Linear: Where there is a consistent, proportional relationship. Line of best fit is a straight line.
Positive Correlation: Where, if the results were graphed with a line of best fit, the line would slope
upwards from left to right. If the line of best fit is also a straight line, it would also be a positive, linear
correlation
Negative Correlation: Opposite, where the line of best fit would slope downwards. Would be a negative,
linear correlation if the line of best fit is straight.
Positive Exponential: Where the line of best fit seems to become steeper and steeper and continue
rising. Starts slow then climbs faster.
Negative Exponential: Where the line of best fit seems to drop fast before flattening out. Like a face of a
cliff.
Plateau Correlation: Occurs when the points begin to flatten out and become nonlinear after a period of
linearity (line of best fit levels of after previously linear relationship).
Non-Linear Correlation: When the points seem to be scattered randomly. Unable to draw a line of best fit.

EXPERIMENTAL REPORT - STRUCTURE

AIM - To…
● Address:
○ What is the purpose of our experiment?
○ What are we trying to find out?
○ Is there a particular question we’re trying to answer?
● Often based on a question about the effect of one variable (independent variable) on another
(dependent variable).
● Aim should include both an independent variable and how we intend to measure the dependent
variable.
○ E.g “To investigate how the amount of water (independent variable) given to a plant affects its
height (dependent variable).

HYPOTHESIS - If…Then…
● Testable prediction for what will happen in the experiment. Must be able to be proved or disproved.
● Follow template - “If x is true, then y will happen.”
○ X = Predicted relationship between independent and dependent variables.
○ Y = Basis on whether to accept or reject the hypothesis based on the results.
● E.g “If there is a positive (proportional) relationship between the amount of water given to a plant and
its height, then the plant height will increase as the amount of water increases.”

MATERIALS/APPARATUS
● Lists the equipment and materials needed to undergo the experiment.
● Must state exact measurements/quantities.

METHOD
● Describes how the hypothesis will be tested.
● Should be detailed to the point where anybody could follow the method and achieve the same results.
● Ideally numbered and in 3rd person.
● Has quantities/amounts when required.
● A labelled diagram may be beneficial in showing the setting up of equipment.
RISK ASSESSMENT
● Identifies hazards in the investigation and explains why they’re hazardous.
Potential Hazard Risk Precaution

E.g Hot Equipment Hot metal and glass can cause Avoid touching hot equipment. If
severe burns. necessary, use heat proof mitts
or tongs.

RESULTS
● State what has been found/observed.
● Avoid emotive language; rather should describe the relationship between the dependent and the
independent variable.
● Use tables, graphs, diagrams.

DISCUSSION
● Answer three questions:
○ What do our results tell us? Can mention the relationship between the dependent and independent
variable (linear, non-linear, exponential).
○ Can we explain our results using current scientific knowledge, or is our data anomalous
(deviating from what is expected/normal)?
○ Are there sources of error we need to consider?
● Highlight our investigation’s limitations → What would we do differently? More repeats/trials, change
apparatus?

CONCLUSION
● Briefly summarise:
○ What we investigated (aim).
○ What we saw.
○ Whether we accept or reject our hypothesis.
● E.g “This investigation looked at the effect of water on plant height. Plant height increases as the
amount of water given to the plant increases. This result supports the hypothesis.”
● Can mention the relationship between variables, how the experiment could be further improved.
LIVING WORLD
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Penis Male organ used for urination and sexual intercourse.n and sexual
function

Urethra Tube through which urine leaves the body. It empties urine from the
bladder.

Vas Deferens Long, muscular tube that transports mature sperm to the urethra in
preparation for ejaculation.

Seminal Vesicle Pair of glands that produce the fluids that will turn into semen.

Prostate Gland Produces seminal fluid, a key component of semen which provides
energy for the sperm so it can perform vital tasks during fertilisation

Epididymis Male reproductive organ that is responsible for sperm maturation and
storage.

Testicles (Testes) Organ responsible for making sperm as well as being involved in
producing a hormone called testosterone.

Scrotum Bag of skin that holds and helps to protect the testicles.

Testosterone Main male reproductive hormone that stimulates the production of sperm
in the testes and helps in the development of secondary sex
characteristics in males (e.g. beard growth).
 Uterus Female reproductive organ responsible for
both the menstrual cycle (shedding of the
uterine lining) and where a fertilised egg
implants during pregnancy and develops until
birth.

Vagina Passageway for blood/mucosal tissue during

the period. Also receives the penis during
intercourse and holds sperm until they pass
into the uterus

Fallopian Tubes connects ovaries to uterus for egg travel

Ovaries Produce and store eggs and make hormones

in estrogen and progesterone that control
menstrual cycle and pregnancy

Cervix a passage that allows fluids to flow in and out

of the uterus

Primary Sex Characteristics: Sexual characteristics present at birth. These are the characteristics of the
sex organs (organs involved in fertilisation).
Secondary Sex Characteristics: Any physical characteristics that are different between the sexes but are
not directly involved in reproduction (Adam's apple, breasts, beard, broad hips). Develop during puberty.

SEX HORMONES
● Chemical substance, produced by a gland and carried by the blood, which plays a role in the
development of primary and secondary sex characteristics.

FERTILISATION
● Fusion of male (sperm) and female (egg) gamete to form a new
organism (zygote).
● Occurs in one of the fallopian tubes (whichever has the egg).
● Both gametes have only half the number of chromosomes each,
23, meaning that when fused the offspring will have a full set of
chromosomes, half from their mother and half from their father.
INTRO TO DNA
DNA
● Deoxyribonucleic Acid
● Double-stranded - double helix - strands are not the same but rather complement each other.
● Carries all the genetic material of an organism.
● Determines the organism’s traits.
● Stored in the nucleus.

GENE
● Sections of chromosomes within DNA that codes for a protein.
● Single unit of heredity and determines one or part of a trait.
● Made up of codons on one strand of DNA.
● Humans have about 20 000 genes.

CHROMOSOMES
● Long sections of DNA that are packaged into chromosomes with the help of histones.
○ Histones are positively-charged proteins that strongly adhere to negatively-charged DNA.
● Humans have 46 chromosomes making up their DNA.
● Allow DNA to be accurately copied.
● DNA isn’t always found in chromosomes.
○ When it isn’t dividing it’s still wrapped up around histones but it isn’t coiled into a chromosome.
■ Instead it is as a chromatin.

AMINO ACIDS/PROTEINS
● Amino acids are organic molecules that join together to form proteins.
○ Proteins are complex molecules that make up most of the structure of a cell and determine how it
functions.
● DNA provides instructions for how amino acids join together to form proteins.
● There are 20 amino acids.
STRUCTURE OF DNA
● Consists of the bases thymine (T), adenine (A), cytosine (C)
and guanine (G) which are like “rungs” of a ladder
● Thymine pairs up with adenine, and cytosine pairs with guanine -
straight lines pair, curved lines pair.
○ Thymine and adenine are “complementary base pairs”, as
are cytosine and guanine.
● Nucleotides are made up of a phosphate, sugar, and
nitrogenous base (thymine, adenine, cytosine or guanine).
○ Hence are actually the “rungs” of a ladder, but for now we
only really know about bases.
● Nucleotides are the building blocks of DNA and RNA molecules.
QUICK Q.
Find the complementary sequence for: ATAGAGGCCTAG (template/coding strand)
TATCTCCGGATC (complementary strand)
UAUCUCCGGAUC (mRNA strand - thymine is replaced by uracil)

STRUCTURE OF ANIMAL CELLS

DNA REPLICATION
● One DNA molecule (with two strands) is used to produce two new DNA molecules, each with one old
strand and one new strand.
● Strands aren’t identical but rather complement each other, and are antiparallel, meaning the strands
will always be in the opposite direction to each other.

UNRAVELLING THE DNA - STEP 1

● DNA is made up of two polynucleotide strands held together by hydrogen bonds between
complementary bases (A, T, C, G). There are two hydrogen bonds between A-T, and three between
C-G.
● An enzyme, DNA helicase, breaks the hydrogen bonds between the bases, ‘unzipping’ the double helix
into two separate strands.

BUILDING A NEW STRAND - STEP 2

● Exposed strands act as templates for a new strand.
● DNA polymerase helps bind free-floating nucleotides to the exposed strands.
○ As the DNA unzips and bases of the DNA strand are exposed, DNA polymerase pairs each base
with their complementary pair (adenine to thymine, guanine with cytosine).
■ Identical copy of the DNA strand is produced.

REPLICATION FORK
● Sugar in DNA is part of the backbone of DNA - it has carbons.
● Carbons on the sugar are numbered right after the oxygen in a
clockwise direction 1’, 2’, 3’, 4’ & 5’.
○ Also can start from the base and go clockwise.
■ 5’ carbon is outside the ring structure.
● NOTE: 5’ is read as 5 prime.
● DNA polymerase builds new nucleotides and the
new strand in the 5’ to 3’ direction, meaning it
moves along the old template strand in the 3’ to 5’
direction.
○ If the new strand starts with the 5’ to 3’
direction on the old strand, then the polymerase
can easily keep adding on new nucleotides as
the helicase is unzipping. This is called the
leading strand
○ If the new strand is in the 3’ to 5’ direction on the old strand, then it has to start building at the
end and move the start. This means that when it goes and builds the next nucleotide it has to
jump forward so that it can start at 5’. This is called the lagging strand.
FORMING THE DNA BACKBONE - STEP 3
● DNA polymerase stitches these newly joined nucleotides together so that the sugar-phosphate
backbone is formed.
○ The new strand, initially held together by weak hydrogen bonds, is reinforced by the
sugar-phosphate backbone.
■ Forms a much more stable structure.
● All the nucleotides are joined in each chain, producing two identical DNA molecules.

CELL DIVISION
CELL CYCLE
● The cell cycle has 3 main phases.
○ Interphase - Cell’s mass doubles and the
components of the cell are duplicated (i.e.
DNA).
○ Mitosis - Nucleus is the last cell component
duplicated.
○ Cytokinesis - Cytoplasm divides and the
singular cell becomes 2.
● These cycles always occur in this order, with the
cell spending the most time in interphase.
● Generation Time (T) is the time for a full cell
cycle. The amount of time varies between cells.
○ Epidermis (Skin) cells take 6 weeks to
complete a full cell cycle, whilst bone cells
can take up to 25 years.
● No DNA replication means no cell division and thus no growth.
DEFINITIONS
Centriole: Pair of minute cylindrical organelles involved in the
development of spindle fibres in cell division. Found in the cytoplasm
near the nucleus.
Spindle Fibres: Protein structure that divides/pulls the genetic material
(chromosomes) in a cell.
Centromere: Region of a chromosome to which the spi ndle fibres
attach. Join the chromatids together and are found in the middle of the
chromosome.
Chromatid: Each of the 2 threadlike strands into which a chromosome
divides vertically during cell division. Each chromatid contains a double
helix of DNA.
Cytoplasm: Fluid inside a cell that surrounds the cell’s nucleus. Where
most chemical reactions in a cell take place.
Nucleus: Structure of the cell that contains all the genetic information
(chromosomes).
Haploid Cell: Cell containing only a single set of chromosomes
(gametes/sex cells) - meiosis. In humans, cells with 23 chromosomes are haploid.
Diploid Cell: Cell containing two copies of each chromosome - mitosis. In humans, cells with 46
chromosomes are diploid.
Somatic Cell: Any cell of a living organism other than the reproductive cells - body cells.
Homologous Chromosome: Two pieces of DNA within a diploid cell that carry the same genes, one from
each parental source.
○ Also known as homologous pairs and consists of two separate chromosomes - chromosomes can
be single or double-stranded.

INTERPHASE
● Where cells spend most of their time.
● Carry out cellular function and if they are going to replicate again they will produce more organelles
and increase cytoplasm volume in preparation.
○ DNA is replicated here.
■ Single-stranded chromosomes are copied to become double-stranded - still 46 chromosomes
but now 92 chromatids.

MITOSIS (PMAT)
● After interphase, where the mother cell replicates to form two genetically identical daughter cells.
○ Cells produced are diploid as they contain two complete set of chromosomes (23 pairs)
■ Have two sets of homologous chromosomes.

PROPHASE - POLES
● Chromosomes condense and become visible as the nucleus (nuclear membrane) starts to break
down
● Centrioles move to opposite sides of the nucleus, forming poles and spindle fibres.

METAPHASE - MIDDLE
● Chromosomes line up at the equation (middle) of the cell.
○ Single file line.
● Spindle fibres attach to the centromeres of the chromosomes, pulling a chromatid from each
chromosome to opposite poles.
ANAPHASE - AWAY
● Spindle fibres contract which causes the centromere to split, separating the chromatids
(single-stranded now rather than double stranded).
○ Chromatids are pulled to opposite poles of the cell.

TELOPHASE - TWO
● Nuclear membrane reforms around each set of chromosomes.
● Chromosomes return to the state they were in before mitosis.
○ Longer, thinner, no longer visible.
● Spindle fibres disappear.
● Two nuclei form.

CYTOKINESIS
● After mitosis/meiosis has occurred.
● Separates the cytoplasm by pinching the cell membrane and moving inwards.
● Results in the cell with two separate nuclei forming two separate, genetically identical daughter cells
in mitosis, or four separate nuclei forming four separate, genetically unique haploid cells in meiosis.
● Each cell has 46 single-stranded chromosomes after mitosis or 23 in meiosis.

NOTE: The number of chromosomes isn’t directly related to how complex the organism is. For example, a
potato cell has 48 chromosomes, 2 more than humans.

MEIOSIS (PMAT X2)

● Involves the production of four, non-identical haploid cells - gametes.
○ Cells produced only have 23, single-stranded chromosomes.
■ Gametes thus only have one set of homologous chromosomes, with the offspring receiving
one set from each parent.
● As half of the genetic material comes from each parent, it creates variation, which helps
with the survival of the organism in the event of a widespread disease/change.
○ Organisms with favourable traits (caused by having different genes) are more likely to
survive and reproduce and hence pass on these favourable traits to their offspring -
survival of the fittest.
● Required for sexual reproduction and creates genetic variation in a cell.
● Only occurs in the reproductive organs (testes or ovaries in humans).
● Consists of meiosis I and meiosis II.
○ Essentially PMAT x 2.

MEIOSIS I
● Occurs after interphase and consists of prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I and telophase I.
● Currently are 46 double-stranded chromosomes.`

PROPHASE I
● Chromosomes condense.
● Homologous pairs connect - synapsis.
○ Four chromatids connected - two double-stranded chromosomes.
● Crossing over may occur between the homologous chromosomes to create genetic variation by
exchanging sections of matching DNA (swapping of genes - genes may be different to each other -
alleles).
○ Results in varying gene combinations.
● Centrioles move to opposite sides of the nucleus, forming poles and spindle fibres.
● Nucleus (nuclear membrane) breaks down.

METAPHASE I
● Homologous pairs are lined up along the metaphase plate (equator)
○ Two file lines instead of one file in mitosis.
● Spindle fibres attach to chromatids, with opposite pole spindle fibres attaching to opposite
homologs.

ANAPHASE I
● Spindle fibres contract, pulling homologous chromosomes to opposite poles.
○ Chromosomes are still double-stranded unlike in mitosis.

TELOPHASE I
● Usually occurs simultaneously with cytokinesis.
● Two nuclei and then cells form, non-identical to the mother cell.
● Each cell has a haploid set of 23 chromosomes that are double-stranded - two chromatids each.
MEIOSIS II
● Occurs after a short interphase but there is no DNA replication.
● Consists of prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II and telophase II.
● Each of the two haploid cells that resulted from meiosis I is divided into two.

PROPHASE II
● Chromosomes condense.
● Centrioles move to opposite sides of the nucleus, forming poles and spindle fibres.
● Nucleus (nuclear membrane) breaks down.
● No crossing-over occurs.

METAPHASE II
● Chromosomes line up at the equation (middle) of the cell.
○ Single file line.
● Spindle fibres attach to the centromeres of the chromosomes, pulling a chromatid from each
chromosome to opposite poles.

ANAPHASE II
● Spindle fibres contract which causes the centromere to split, separating the chromatids
(single-stranded now rather than double stranded).
○ Chromatids are pulled to opposite poles of the cell.
○ Now 23 single-stranded chromosomes - one set of homologous chromosomes.

TELOPHASE II
● Nuclear membrane reforms around each set of chromosomes.
● Chromosomes return to the state they were in before mitosis.
○ Longer, thinner, no longer visible.
● Spindle fibres disappear.
● After cytokinesis, four genetically unique haploid cells form, each with only one set of homologous
chromosomes (23 single-stranded chromosomes).
● In males, meiosis II results in 4 viable sperm cells.
● In females, meiosis II results in 1 viable ovum and 3 smaller cells (polar bodies) that degenerate
(apoptosis - enter programmed cell death).
Note: Only one cell is shown dividing here. Both daughter cells from meiosis I undergo meiosis II to
produce four daughter cells.

MITOSIS HAPPENS IN MY TOES, MEIOSIS HAPPENS IN MY HOES!

GENES
DEFINITIONS
Allele: Each of two or more alternative forms of a gene that arise by mutation and are found at the same
place on a chromosome. We obtain an allele from both our biological mother and father.
Phenotype: The set of observable/physical characteristics of an organism, resulting from the interaction
of its genotype with the environment.
Genotype: The genetic constitution of an individual organism.
Genome: The complete set of DNA in an organism.
Heterozygous: Having two different alleles of a particular gene(s) - think heterosexual (hetero =
different).
Homozygous: Having two identical alleles of a particular gene(s) - think homosexual (homo = same).
Dominant: Phenomenon of one variant of a gene on a chromosome masking/overriding the effect of a
different variant of the same gene on the other copy of the chromosome. A dominant allele is always
expressed in the phenotype.
Recessive: Heritable characteristics are controlled by genes that are expressed in offspring only when
inherited from both parents.
○ Only expressed when both alleles from the mother and father are recessive. If one or both genes are
dominant, the dominant gene masks the recessive gene.
Cross: The deliberate breeding of two different individuals that results in offspring that carry part of the
genetic material of each parent.
Heredity: Passing of genes from parents to offspring.
Inheritance: Heredity over many generations.

OVERVIEW
● Chromosomes come in pairs - homologous chromosomes.
● Depending on the version of genes (alleles) present, the offspring may have traits similar or different
to their parents.
○ If a gene is dominant, only one allele is needed to be present in order for the organism to have
that trait.
○ If a gene is recessive, then both homologous chromosomes need that allele for it to be
expressed.
● When both alleles are different they are called heterozygous, and when they are the same they are
called homozygous.
● Traits that are homozygous can either be dominant or recessive (homozygous dominant,
homozygous recessive).
○ Homozygous Dominant = Purebred.
● In genetics, letters are used to signify the dominant and recessive alleles.
○ Dominant allele is capital, lowercase allele is lowercase.
■ For example, a pea plant may have an allele for tall plants (T) and an allele for short plants (t).
● As the allele for tall plants is capitalised we know that it is the dominant allele.
○ Homozygous Dominant: TT
Homozygous Recessive: tt
Heterozygous: Tt (have the dominant allele first)
Homozygous Dominant or Heterozygous: T?
● If the pea plant had a genotype of Tt, its phenotype would be a tall pea plant.
GREGOR MENDEL (1822 - 1884)
● Austrian monk and biologist.
● As part of his gardening in the monastery where he lived, he was able to study the inheritance of
traits in pea plants.
● His findings weren’t widely accepted until after his death.

LAWS
Law of Dominance: Recessive alleles will be masked by dominant alleles.
Law of Segregation: When gametes form, alleles are separated so that each gamete carries only one
allele for each gene - the selected gene is selected randomly.
Law of Independent Assortment: The segregation of alleles for each gene occurs independently from
each other - the allele a gamete receives for one gene does not influence the allele received for another
gene.

NON-MENDELIAN (EXCEPTIONS)
Codominance: Both alleles are expressed equally - Spotted cows and multi-coloured flowers.
Incomplete Dominance: Both alleles are blended together/partially expressed - Pink flowers from white
and red parents.
Multiple Alleles: More than two alleles for a particular gene/trait - Blood type (A, B, O).
Polygenic: Two or more genes affect the trait - eye colour.

ENVIRONMENT
● An organism’s environment also has an effect on the phenotype.
○ A well-nourished/fed person is more likely to be taller than someone who doesn’t have access to
adequate nutrition, even if both people have the same genes.

PUNNETT SQUARES
● Allow us to easily visualise the way genes will be passed on from the parents to the offspring, as well
as determine the possible genotypes and phenotypes of offspring and the probabilities of each.

Father’s Genotype

Mother’s Possible Genotype for

Genotype Offspring
QUICK Q.
A hitchhiker's thumb is characterised by having a thumb that extends past the vertical and is denoted by tt.
Complete a punnett square for the crossing of a homozygous recessive mother and a homozygous
dominant father.

T T

t Tt Tt

t Tt Tt

TT = Father’s Genotype
tt = Mother’s Genotype

100% Chance for a Straight Thumb (TT or Tt)

0% Chance for a Hitchhiker's Thumb (tt)
NOTE: This is an example of monohybrid inheritance, or the inheritance of traits which are affected by
the alleles of just one gene.

SEX-LINKED INHERITANCE
● Humans have 23 homologous/matching pairs of chromosomes (46 in total).
○ One of these pairs are sex chromosomes, chromosomes that code for sexual characteristics.
■ Determine the sex of an organism (non-mendelian) - Females have 2 similar chromosomes
(XX)
Males have 2 dissimilar chromosomes
(XY)
● Sex chromosomes still contain genes that aren’t sex-specific.
● Genes for sex-linked characteristics are found on sex chromosomes (X & Y).
● The Y chromosome has fewer genes than the X chromosome and carries genes which direct the
development of male sexual features (e.g. testes).
● X-linked traits are traits that are coded for by genes on the X chromosome.
○ As males only have one X chromosome, the genes on the Y chromosome are always going to be
expressed. X recessive genes will always be expressed in males too.
■ If a male inherits a faulty allele of an X-linked trait, it will have to be expressed.
○ As females have two X chromosomes, X recessive genes will have to be homozygous (both
chromosomes have the recessive gene)
■ Females can inherit a faulty allele and be a carrier/unaffected.
● X-linked recessive diseases are therefore more likely to be displayed in offspring that are male.
○ Examples include colour blindness and haemophilia, with males having a far greater chance of
being diagnosed with the disease than females.
QUICK Q.
Complete a punnett square for sex inheritance between a male parent and female parent.

X Y

X XX XY

X XX XY

XY = Father’s Genotype
XX = Mother’s Genotype

50% Chance of a Male Offspring (XY)

50% Chance of a Female Offspring (XX)

In pea plants, round (R) is dominant to wrinkled (r). A heterozygous female is crossed with a wrinkled male.
What is the probability of having an offspring that is round and the probability of an offspring that is
homozygous?

r r

R Rr Rr

r rr rr

rr = Father’s Genotype
Rr = Mother’s Genotype

50% Chance of Round Offspring (rr)

50% Chance of Heterozygous Offspring (Rr)

PEDIGREES
● Chart that shows the presence or absence of a trait within a family across generations.
● Used to analyse the pattern of inheritance of a particular trait and predict how a trait will be passed
on in the future.

Autosomal Trait: Trait that is located on an autosome (non-sex chromosome).

Sex-Linked Trait: Trait that is located on one of the two sex chromosomes.
NOTES
● Members of the pedigree are labelled by their generation number then their sibling number. E.g I-1,
III-4 etc.
● Characteristic shows by shading isn’t always the recessive trait!
● Some pedigrees will feature different symbols so read the key/legend.

SIMPLIFIED RULES
● If neither parent has a characteristic and some of their offspring have it, then it must be recessive.
● If both parents have a characteristic and some or none of their children have it, then the trait must be
dominant.
● Dominant traits are usually present in every generation.
● If almost all affected individuals are males, then the trait is sex-linked/x-linked.
○ Males only have one X chromosome so sex-linked traits are more likely to be present in males.
● If the number of affected females is roughly the same as the number of affected males, then the trait
is autosomal - not sex-linked.

AUTOSOMAL DOMINANT
● If both parents are affected and an offspring is unaffected, the trait must be dominant where both
parents are heterozygous.
● All affected individuals must have at least one affected parent.
● If both parents are unaffected, all offspring must be unaffected - homozygous recessive.

AUTOSOMAL RECESSIVE
● If both parents are unaffected and an offspring is affected, the trait must be recessive - parents are
heterozygous carriers.
● If both parents show a trait, all offspring must also exhibit the trait - homozygous recessive.

X-LINKED DOMINANT
● If a male shows a trait, so too must all daughters he produces and his own mother.
● An unaffected mother cannot have an affected father or sons.
● X-linked dominant traits tend to be more common in females.
X-LINKED RECESSIVE
● If a female shows a trait, so too must all their sons and her father.
● An unaffected mother can have affected sons if she is a carrier - heterozygous.
● X-linked recessive traits tend to be more common in males.

QUICK Q.

Identify whether the characteristic indicated by shading is dominant or recessive. Why?

The characteristics represented through shading is recessive as there are far less shapes shaded than
unshaded/blank.

If B represents the allele for the dominant trait and b represents the allele for the recessive trait, write the
genotypes for I-1 and I-2.
I-1 = Bb (as their son has a recessive allele)
I-2 = Bb (as their son has a recessive allele)

If II-4 and her partner had another child, calculate the chance of the child having the characteristic
indicated by shading.

B b

b Bb bb

b Bb bb

Bb = I-4 Genotype
bb = I-3 Genotype

50% Chance of the Offspring Inheriting the Characteristic (bb).

MUTATIONS
● Change in the genetic material of a cell → Change in genotype and hence phenotype.
● Play a large role in introducing new alleles into populations → Genetic variation.
● May lead to genetic disorders, although some have little effect or are beneficial (e.g scorpions having
an extra stinger)
● Can be inherited (if a parent has a mutation in their DNA then the mutation can be passed on to their
offspring) or acquired (when environmental agents damage DNA, or when mistakes occur when a cell
copies its DNA in interphase).
● Mutagens are agents that cause genetic mutations.

HISTORY
● Late 1800’s and early 1900’s - Radiation was being studied by many scientists, with the negative
effects of radiation not yet known.
○ Many scientists developed illnesses through high exposure to radiation
■ Marie Curie died from Leukhemia, Roaslind Franklin of ovarian cancer,
● Events such as the bombing of Hiroshima (1945) built further evidence towards radiation causing
cancer (diseases caused by an uncontrollable division of abnormal cells in a part of the body).
● Late 1970’s - Known that certain chemicals and radiation can cause changes to the structure of DNA
and lead to cancer.

MUTAGENIC AGENTS
● Mutagens are carcinogenic - cause cancers.
● Many mutations occur in genes which regulate the cell cycle/division. If the changes in the cell cycle
results in increased cell division with no differentiation (don’t acquirer specialised
features/organelles), tumours (abnormal mass of tissue) will form.

CHEMICAL MUTAGENS
● Chemicals that cause mutations if cells are exposed for prolonged periods of time or at high
frequencies.
● Large number of chemicals used everyday have been found to be mutagenic over time → No longer
used widely.
● Cause changes in the DNA which alter the function of proteins.
○ Mutagenic chemicals have a similar structure to DNA bases → Can be mistakenly incorporated
into DNA during replication.
● Can be ingested (alcohol, tar, nitrates etc.) or be found in environmental irritants and poisons (cleaning
products, asbestos, organic solvents etc.)

BIOLOGICAL MUTAGENS
● Include viruses, bacteria, fungi → All products of organisms.
○ Bacteria helicabacter and viruses such as hepatitis B and HIV are known biololgical mutagens.
● Retroviruses like HTLV-1 insert their genetic information into chromosomes of a host cell.
○ Responsible for some cases of leukhemia and is considered oncogenic (causes tumours).
● Mutagenic microbes may directly alter the genetic material of a cell or may be an irritant and cause
inflammation.
○ Inflammation produces free radicals (oxygen molecules with uneven electrons; reactive) → Cause
DNA damage and hence reduce the efficiency of DNA repair.
■ Helibacter pyloria causes ulcers in the stomach, which causes chronic inflammation which can
lead to gastric cancers.
PHYSICAL MUTAGENS
● Mutagens in the form of a physical substance such as heat
and ionising radiation.
○ Heat often has a combined action with the previously
discussed mutagens, compounding the effect.

REPAIR
BASE-EXCISION REPAIR
● Damaged or incorrectly-paired base is removed and
replaced.

MISMATCH REPAIR
● Once DNA is replicated, DNA polymerase carries out a
check of replication to ensure its accurate.

NOTE: Geneticists don’t often call these changes in sequence “mutations” but rather as “variants”. This is
because mutations implies pathogenicity (disease) when we know that many mutations don’t cause
disease at all.

BIOTECHNOLOGY
DEFINITIONS
Biotechnology: The use of living things to create products or to do tasks for humans.
Genetic Engineering: The insertion of DNA from one organism into another.
GMO: Genetically modified organism.
Transgenic Organism: GMO with DNA inserted from another species.

OVERVIEW
● GMOs are used in human therapeutics - production of insulin, human growth hormones, vacinnes and
other areas of medicine - as well as in agriculture - “improved” crops like genetically modified (GM)
crops that are able eto produce foods at a lower costs with improved yields and nutrional value.
● Biotechnology has also enabled cloning - Dolly the sheep.
● Selective breeding is a form of biotechnology.

GMOS | PESTICIDE-PRODUCING CROP: BT

● BT bacteria naturally produces a protein harmful to insects.
● The bacterial gene is inserted to a plant as a transgene - artificially introduced into the genome of the
plant.
● As a result, BT crops express BT-toxins, killing insect pests whilst the psticide has no effect on
humans.
● Most cotton grown in Australia is known as “BT-Cotton”, whilst “BT-Corn” has also been produced in a
majority of america.
● The use of BT has reduced the amount of pesticide farmers spray on their crops - saving money - and
have stopped pesticides from killing insects that wouldn’t have eaten the crop.
● Reduced pesticide use also minimises the amount of pesticides that run off into rivers and affect
aquatic organisms.
● However, some insects have developed resistance to BT and are harming crops again.
RECOMBINANT DNA | GFP
● Green fluorescent protein (GFP) is a protein composed of 238 amino acid residues
that exhibits bright green fluorescence when exposed to UV light.
● As the genetic code is the same across all organisms, the gene from a jellyfish
can be “expressed” in a huge number of other organisms.
● These days, scientists can track how cancer cells spread, how HIV infections
progress and even which male ends up fertilising a female fruit fly’s egg through
GFP.

SOMATIC CELL NUCLEAR CLONING | DOLLY

● Cloning of animals is extremely difficult, with the first mammal
clone not achieved until the 1990’s with “Dolly” the sheep.
○ Cloning is the production of a genetically identical organism
(or an identical cell).
● The nucleus of a body cell from the organism to be cloned is
fused with a denucleated egg cell from a second organism. The
fused cell is grown in a culture, then implanted into the surrogate
mother.

● Somatic cell nuclear transfer cloning has a range of issues however, including:
○ High failure rate, with the success rate ranges from 0.1% - 3%.
○ Cloned animals that do survive tend to be much bigger at birth than their natural counterparts -
“Large Offspring Syndrome (LOS)”. Clones with LOS have abnormally large organs, which can lead
to breathing, blood flow and other problems.

GENE THERAPY
● Biotechnologys has enabled the curing of a variety of diseases like cystic fibrosis, a fatal lung disease.
○ Patients could be treated by being given a working copy of their faulty gene.
EVOLUTION
DEFINITIONS
Evolution: Process by which species adapt over time in response to their changing environment.
Natural Selection: Mechanism of evolution. Individuals which possess traits that are beneficial to their
survival are more likely to survive and reproduce, therefore passing on their traits to their offspring. This
causes the beneficial traits to increase in frequency over generations. Nature “selects” the organisms.
Characteristic: Distinctive biological traits/features of an organism.
Antibiotic Resistance: When germs (e.g bacteria, fungi) develop the ability to defeat the drugs designed
to kill them.
Macroevolution: Refers to large-scale changes that occur over extended time periods. Results in the
formation of new species/groups. An example is the meteor that led the evolution of dinosaurs to birds.
Microevolution: Refers to small-scale changes that affect just one or a few genes and happen in
populations over shorter timescales. An example is peppered moths.
Convergent Evolution: Occurs when species occupy similar niches and adapt in similar ways in response
to similar selective pressures. Traits that arise are called analagous structures (organs with similar
functions).
Divergent Evolution: Evolutionary pattern in which species sharing a common ancestry become more
distinct due to differential selection pressures which gradually leads to speciationi (new/distinct species)
over an evolutionary time period.

THEORIES
SPONTANEOUS GENERATION
● Living creatures can arise from non living matter.
● “Evidence” of such include cheese and bread wrapped in rags and left in a dark corner would
“produce” mice, and maggots appearing in decaying matter.

JEAN BAPTISTE LAMARK (1744 - 1829)

● Believed that things evolvevd in a continuously upward direction from simple to more complex forms
towards human perfection.
● Organisms would alter their behaviour in response to environmental change by modifying their organs
(developing the organs more used whilst losing the organs rarely used), forcing their offspring to
inherit these improved structures.
● As there are still simple organisms present and not just advance animals, Lamark thought they were
continuously created by spontaneous generation.
● Through this theory it was believed that giraffes developed their long necks/legs by stretching up to
reach the leaves at the taller parts of the trees.

CHARLES ROBERT DARWIN (1809 - 1882)

● “Father” of modern evolutionary studies.
● Suggested that humans and animals shared a common ancestry - shocked the religious Victorian
society of the time.
● Formulated his theory after voyaging around the world on HMS Beagle.
○ On the various islands he visited, Darwin determined that there were distinct differences between
species that were once from a common ancestor and has since been isolated geographically.
● Didn’t publish his ideas until two decades later in “On the Origin of the Species”.
○ Original planned to publish it posthumously (after his death) to avoid criticism from the Victorian
society but heard of another who was planning to publish similar ideas.
ALLFRED RUSSEL WALLACE (1823 - 1913)
● Also travelled the world and collected samples of many species.
● Led to his conclusion that living things change over long periods of time (they evolve), but wasn’t able
to explain how they evolve.
● Following becoming ill and suffering from hallucinations, he came to the conclusion that the species
evovled by adapting to their environment.
● As he knew Darwin was working on similar research, the two collaborated on a scientific paper
discussing their evidence for natural selection and evidence.
● Although Wallace’s contributions are considerable they are often forgotten too → Theory of evolution
is rather the “Darwin-Wallace” theory of evolution.

EXAMPLES OF EVOLUTION | PEPPERED MOTHS

● Widespread in Britain/Ireland - found frequently in backyards.
● Normally white with black speckles across their wings → Camouflages them well against the lichen
covered tree trunks.
● Naturally occurring genetic mutation causes some moths to have almost black wings → Aren’t as
well camouflaged so more likely to be eaten by birds/predators.
○ Fewer black forms survive to breed → Less common.
● 19th Century: Industrialisation and domestic coal fires caused pollution and soot buildup on trees.
○ Darker trunks meant white moths were less camouflaged and more likely to be eaten.
○ Led to increased abundant of black moths.
● Mid 20th Century: Stricter regulation surroundinng air polution led to cleaner trunks and lichen growth
increasing.
○ Pale-peppered moths were camouflaged whilst black forms were more noticeable.
○ Led to increased frequency of pale-peppered moths and less black moths.
● As moths live short lives, evolution by natural selection happened quite quickly.

ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE
Antibiotics are a type of medication used to treat bacterial diseases/infections. The widespread use of
antibiotics has led to a decline in their efficacy. This is due to:
● Using them on viral illneseses (e.g common cold) - germs.
● Incorrect dosages.
● Not finishing an entire course of antibiotic tables.
● Incorrect waste management, especially in agriculture (runoff exposing other areas to antibiotics).

As bacteria reproduces very quickly, change can be seen quickly. Every time they reproduce there is a
chance of a mutation occurring which has the potential to:
● Make the bacteria able to destroy/inactivate.
● Alter the cell wall so the antibiotics can’t attach.
● Alter the ability for the antibiotic to penetrate the cell membrane.
● Make the bacteria able to pump the antibiotics out of their cell so they can’t build up.

Consequently, some bacterium are resistance to all/most antibiotics. As bacteria are able to share
genetic material, there is a fear that these multi-resistant bacteria will become more and more common
across different species of bacteria. Gene transfer allows for exposed, resistance bacteria to pass the
resistant DNA to unexposed bacteria. Likewise, mutations have given some bacterium the ability to
withstand antibiotics without being exposed to them.
EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION
ANATOMY + EMBRYOLOGY
● Organisms have structures that share basic forms - bones in humans, birds, dogs, whales all share
the same overall construction.
○ These are homologus structures, evidence that they evolved from a common ancestor.
● Evolution led to changes in the shapes/sizes of bones in different species but they have the same
overall layout.

● In other cases, there are examples of structures that exist in organisms that have no apparent
function at all - appear to be residual parts from past ancestors.
○ Some snakes have pelvic bones even though they don’t have legs → Descended from reptiles that
did have legs.
■ Structures known as vestigial structures.
● Other examples include wings on flightless birds, leaves on some cacti, traces of pelvic bones in
whales, sightless eyes of cave animals.

● Convergence of form in organisms that share similar environments is another piece of evidence for
evolution.
● Species of unrelated animals living in similar regions appear to be similar not because of a common
ancestry but rather because of similar selection pressures.
○ Arctic fox and ptarmigan (bird) both have white coverings to blend in with the snow and not been
seen by prey or predators.
■ These are analogous features.

● Embryology is the study of the development of the anatomy of an organism throughout a fetus’
growth.
● Absent structures often appear in embryonic form in some groups but disappear by the time
juvenile/adult form is reached.
○ All vertebrate embryos (including humans) have gill slits at some point in their early development
that disappear in the adults of terrestrial groups but are maintained in aquative groups.
○ Great ape embryos (including humans) have tails during development that are lost by the time of
birth.

BIOGEOGRAPHY
● Geographic distribution of organisms on the planet follows patterns that exhibit both tectonic plate
movement and evolution.
● Broad groups that evolved before the breakup of Pangae were then distributed worldwide.
● Groups that evolved since the breakup appear to be unique to specific regions of the planet.
○ Flora/fauna of the Northern continents are more similar to each other than to the Southern
continents.
○ Australia has a very diverse marsupial population not found elsewhere due to being geographically
isolated before other nations.
MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
● Structure of the molecules of life descend from a common ancestor as all life has DNA and/or RNA
as their genetic material.
● There are fundamental differences between the three domains of life (bacteria, archaea, eukarya),
such as ribosomes and cell membranes being different, but are otherwise conserved within the
domain.
● Groups of organisms usually have similarities in their DNA sequences if they are closely related too,
providing further evidence for descent from a common ancestor.

All living organisms share:

● Same genetic material - DNA/RNA.
● Same or highly similar genetic codes.
● Same basic processes of gene expression - transcription and translation.
● Same molecular building blocks - amino acids, cells etc.

FOSSIL RECORDS
● Fossils provide insights into evolution over long timescales.
● Strata (layers) in which the fossils are found can be dated, allowing for fossils to be compared across
time periods or across multiple continents.

DIRECT OBSERVATION - MICROEVOLUTION

● Includes drug-resistant bacteria, peppered moths, pesticide resistance insects.
○ Worldwide effort to eradicate malaria by eliminating certain types of mosquitoes. DDT peseticide
was sprayed braodly in areas where the mosquitoes live. These mosquitoes evolved, however,
becoming resistant to DDT.