Learning Theories

Any changes in the behaviour of an individual due to practice and experience

which are relatively permanent can be termed as learning. It is a key process
in human behaviour because it allows us to adapt to the changing conditions of
the world. The psychology behind learning is centred on a variety of topics
related to how people learn and interact with their environments. Learning is a
continuous process, and it starts when a person is born and continues till
death. When learning occurs, the brain goes through physical changes, which
in turn cause changes in an individual’s behaviour. The different theories of
learning in psychology give a better understanding of what it means.

Some Theories of Learning

During the 19th century, psychologists started questioning how individuals

learn and what are the different ways in which learning can be enhanced. They
proposed multiple theories to study learning. The 5 widely accepted theories
of learning are –

 Cognitive learning theory

Cognitive learning theory focuses on the way people think. Mental processes
(all the covert or internal activities of the mind such as thinking, remembering,
feeling etc.) are the key to understanding how an individual learns. The
cognitive theory emphasizes that people can be influenced by both internal
and external elements and this will, in turn, impact the way in which they
learn.

 Constructivism learning theory

Constructivism learning theory is centred around the notion that individuals

create their own learning based on their previous experiences. Individuals take
what they’re being presented and add it to their pre-existing knowledge and
experiences, thereby, creating a reality that’s unique to them. A learner needs
to be engaged and put in effort in order to learn, it won’t happen passively. In
simple terms, people use their previous knowledge as a foundation and keep
building on that foundation as they learn.
 Humanism learning theory

Humanism is centred around the idea of self-actualization. According to

Abraham Maslow, every action of a person is motivated by a certain
physiological and psychological hierarchy of needs, with self-actualization
being at the top of the pyramid. It is a transient period, where all the needs of
an individual are met and that they’ve reached their full potential. We all are
striving to attain this. Learning environments will either move a person
towards fulfilling needs or away from fulfilling needs. Humanistic theory
focuses on the idea that learners bring out the best in themselves, and that
they’re much more driven by their feelings than rewards and punishments.

 Connectivism learning theory

Connectivism is comparatively the most recent learning theory. It is centered

around the idea that people evolve and learn from the connections they form
during their life. This includes connections with other people or connections
with themselves, their obligations and duties in their lives. Any individual’s
goals, hobbies, and his relationships with other people significantly influence
learning.

 Behaviourism learning theory

Behaviourism learning theory is based on the idea that how a person behaves
is based on their interaction with their surroundings. It emphasizes that
behaviours are influenced and learned from external forces rather than
internal forces. Positive reinforcement is the key element of behaviourism–
classical conditioning observed in Pavlov’s dog experiments showed that
behaviours are motivated by the rewards that can be achieved on the
completion of a task.

Classical conditioning theory

Ivan P. Pavlov was the first person to have studied this theory. He was
conducting a study regarding the physiology of digestion. While conducting the
study he noticed that dogs, on whom the experiment was being conducted,
started secreting saliva as soon as they saw the empty plate in which food was
served. Pavlov devised an experiment to understand this reflexive response in
detail.
In the first part of the experiment, Pavlov placed a dog in a box and harnessed
it. The dog was left inside for some time. This process was repeated quite a
number of times on different days. Simultaneously, a simple surgery was
conducted on the dog and to connect one end of a tube to its jaw and another
end was put inside a measuring flask.

In the latter part of the experiment, the dog was kept hungry and placed in a
harness

with one end of the tube inside the dog’s jaw and the other end in the glass
jar. A bell rang and immediately thereafter food was served to the dog. Pavlov
allowed the dog to eat it. This continued for the next few days and every time
the food was presented, it was preceded by the sound of a bell. After many
such trials, a test trial was conducted in which everything was the same as
before except no food was given to the dog. The dog still salivated to the
sound of the bell, expecting food because he had started associating the sound
of the bell with food. This association resulted in the acquisition of a new
response by the dog, i.e. salivation to the sound of the bell. This is termed
conditioning. Here, food is the unconditioned stimulus and salivation is the
unconditioned response. After conditioning, the bell becomes the conditioned
stimulus and salivation is the conditioned response. This is known as classical
conditioning. It can be defined as learning that elicits an involuntary reflex-like
response to a stimulus other than the original stimulus that naturally produces
that response.

Conclusion

Learning is any relatively permanent change in the behaviour brought about by

experience. The 5 main theories of learning are-Cognitive learning theory,
Constructivism, Humanism, Connectivism and Behaviourism

Classical conditioning is defined as learning that elicits an involuntary reflex-

like response to a stimulus other than the original stimulus that naturally
produces that response.
Organizational Behavior Modification (OB Mod) is a systematic application of
behavioral principles to improve individual and organizational performance. It
focuses on manipulating the antecedents and consequences to change
employee behavior in the workplace. Organizational Behavior Modification
seeks to increase productivity and efficiency and enhance organizational
performance by understanding the basic variables influencing behavior.
In this article, we will delve into the key steps in Organizational Behavior
Modification along with some criticism it faces.
Key Takeaways:
 OB Mod is based on the principles of behaviorism, particularly operant
conditioning by B.F. Skinner.
 It involves identifying, measuring, and modifying behaviors within an
organization to improve performance and productivity.
 The OB Mod sets clear objectives and goals for behavior modification.
 OB Mod helps in building a culture of continuous improvement and
accountability.
 It utilizes interventions such as reinforcement and punishment to shape
behaviors.
What is Organizational Behavior Modification?
Organisational Behaviour Modification (OB Mod) is a systematic approach to
improving employee performance and productivity by applying principles of
behavioral psychology. The concept, grounded in principles of psychology,
specifically behaviourism, focuses on using rewards and punishments to
reinforce desired behaviours and reduce undesired ones. Through the
identification of target behaviors, setting exact objectives, and using
appropriate interventions, OBM aims to improve job satisfaction,
productivity, and overall organizational performance.
Steps in Organizational Behavior Modification
1. Identify Critical Behaviors: The first step is to identify the specific
behaviors that are critical to the performance and success of the
organization. These behaviors should be observable, measurable, and directly
related to the organization’s goals. For example, in a sales organization,
critical behaviors might include the number of customer calls made or the
quality of customer interactions.
2. Measure the Baseline Frequency: Once the critical behaviors have been
identified, the next step is to measure how often these behaviors currently
occur. This baseline measurement provides a reference point against which
future changes in behavior can be compared. Techniques such as
observation, self-reporting, and performance data analysis can be used to
gather this information.
3. Analyze the Antecedents and Consequences: Behavior is influenced by
its antecedents (what happens before the behavior) and
its consequences (what happens after the behavior). In this step, the
antecedents and consequences associated with the critical behaviors are
analyzed to understand what triggers the behaviors and what reinforces or
discourages them. This analysis helps in designing interventions that can
modify the behavior.
4. Develop and Implement an Intervention Strategy: Based on the analysis of
antecedents and consequences, an intervention strategy is developed to
modify the critical behaviors. This strategy typically involves changing the
antecedents to make the desired behavior more likely, and altering the
consequences to reinforce the desired behavior and discourage undesired
behavior. Common interventions include positive
reinforcement (e.g., rewards), negative reinforcement (e.g., removal of an
unpleasant consequence), punishment (e.g., reprimands),
and extinction (e.g., removing the reinforcement that maintains an undesired
behavior).
5. Evaluate and Monitor the Results: After implementing the intervention, it
is crucial to evaluate its effectiveness. This involves measuring the frequency
of the critical behaviors again and comparing them to the baseline
measurements. Continuous monitoring helps in assessing whether the
intervention is producing the desired change in behavior and whether further
adjustments are needed.
6. Maintain and Generalize the Behavior Change: The final step is to ensure
that the behavior change is maintained over time and generalized to other
relevant situations. This may involve providing ongoing reinforcement,
gradually reducing the frequency of reinforcement to ensure the behavior
persists without constant rewards, and applying the same principles to other
behaviors or settings within the organization.
Contributions in Organizational Behavior Modification
1. Foundational Theories and Models
 B.F. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning: Skinner’s work laid the groundwork
for OBM by explaining how behavior can be shaped by its consequences
through reinforcement and punishment.
 Aubrey Daniels: Often considered the father of OBM, Daniels extended
Skinner’s principles to the workplace, emphasizing the use of positive
reinforcement to enhance employee performance.
2. Behavioral Analysis and Measurement
 Behavioral Observation and Feedback: OBM emphasizes systematic
observation and measurement of behavior. Techniques like baseline
measurement, monitoring, and feedback mechanisms are crucial.
 Performance Management : It incorporates setting clear performance
expectations, measuring outcomes, and providing feedback, which has
been shown to significantly improve job performance.
3. Reinforcement Strategies
 Positive Reinforcement: Using rewards to increase desirable behavior is a
cornerstone of OBM. Studies show that positive reinforcement is more
effective in sustaining long-term behavioral change than punishment.
 Token Economies: Implementing token systems where employees earn
tokens for desired behaviors, which can later be exchanged for rewards,
has been used to motivate and reinforce positive behavior.
4. Applications and Interventions
 Behavioral Safety Programs: OBM has been effectively applied in
industrial safety, reducing accident rates by reinforcing safe behaviors.
 Employee Productivity: Techniques such as goal setting, performance
feedback, and reinforcement have been used to enhance productivity and
efficiency in various organizational settings.
5. Research and Case Studies
 Luthans and Kreitner’s Studies: Their research demonstrated that OBM
interventions could lead to significant improvements in performance and
reduction in absenteeism.
 Meta-Analyses: Comprehensive reviews of OBM interventions across
different industries show consistent positive impacts on performance,
demonstrating the robustness of OBM principles.
6. Integration with Other Management Practices
 Combining OBM with TQM: Integrating OBM with Total Quality
Management (TQM) principles has shown to enhance both quality and
 performance by focusing on continuous improvement and reinforcement
of quality-related behaviors.
 Leadership and OBM: Effective leaders use OBM techniques to reinforce
desirable behaviors, build a positive organizational culture, and drive
performance.
7. Technological Advances
 Digital Feedback Systems: Modern technology allows for real-time
monitoring and feedback, making OBM interventions more efficient and
timely.
 Behavioral Analytics: Advanced data analytics help in identifying patterns
in behavior and tailoring reinforcement strategies accordingly.
Criticisms of Organizational Behavior Modification
1. Reductionism: OB Mod tends to reduce complex human behaviors and
motivations to simple cause-and-effect relationships. Critics argue that it
overlooks the complexity of human nature, including intrinsic motivations,
emotions, and cognitive processes. By focusing primarily on observable
behavior, OB Mod might neglect the underlying psychological factors that
influence employee actions.
2. Ethical Concerns: The use of reinforcement and punishment to control
behavior can raise ethical questions. Critics contend that OB Mod can be
manipulative, treating employees more like programmable entities rather
than autonomous individuals with free will. This can lead to a paternalistic
approach where management makes decisions for employees rather than
involving them in the decision-making process.
3. Intrinsic Motivation: OB Mod often relies on external rewards to shape
behavior, which can undermine intrinsic motivation. Over-reliance on
extrinsic rewards may lead to a scenario where employees perform tasks only
for the rewards, rather than finding personal satisfaction or intrinsic value in
their work. This can reduce overall job satisfaction and long-term motivation.
4. Sustainability of Behavior Change: The sustainability of behavior change
achieved through OB Mod is questioned by some critics. If the reinforcement
or punishment is removed or altered, the behavior might revert to its original
state. This dependency on continuous reinforcement can make the behavior
change less durable and more difficult to maintain over time.
5. Individual Differences: OB Mod can be criticized for not adequately
accounting for individual differences among employees. What serves as a
positive reinforcement for one person might not be effective for another. A
one-size-fits-all approach can fail to address the diverse needs and
preferences of a varied workforce.
6. Overemphasis on Short-term Gains: The focus on immediate and
observable behavior change might lead to short-term thinking. Managers
might prioritize quick fixes over long-term development and growth of
employees, potentially neglecting the broader developmental needs of their
workforce.
7. Creativity and Innovation: By emphasizing compliance and adherence to
desired behaviors, OB Mod may stifle creativity and innovation. Employees
might be less likely to take risks or think outside the box if they are primarily
focused on meeting the specific behaviors that are rewarded or avoiding
those that are punished.
8. Implementation Challenges: Implementing OB Mod can be resource-
intensive and complex. It requires continuous monitoring, assessment, and
adjustment of reinforcement strategies. This can be challenging for
organizations to sustain, especially if they lack the necessary expertise or
resources.
Example of Organizational Behavior Modification
1. Walmart:
Walmart, one of the largest retail corporations in the world, utilizes OB Mod
to improve employee performance and enhance customer service. It does so
by implementing positive reinforcement, behavioral feedback, training
programs, and incentive programs.
 Positive Reinforcement: Walmart rewards employees for meeting
performance targets and demonstrating positive behaviors such as
excellent customer service and teamwork. This can include bonuses,
recognition programs, and opportunities for career advancement.
 Behavioral Feedback: Managers at Walmart provide regular feedback to
employees, highlighting what behaviors are working well and which need
improvement. This continuous feedback loop helps employees adjust their
behaviors to meet organizational standards.
 Training Programs: Walmart invests in extensive training programs that
reinforce desired behaviors, such as effective communication, problem-
solving, and customer service skills. These programs often include role-
playing scenarios where employees can practice and receive immediate
feedback.
 Incentive Programs: Walmart has implemented various incentive
programs to motivate employees. For example, the company’s “Associate
of the Month” program recognizes and rewards employees who
demonstrate exceptional performance and adherence to company values.
Outcome:
 Increased employee engagement and motivation.
 Improved customer satisfaction due to better service.
 Enhanced overall performance and productivity at the store level.

2. The Boeing Company:

Boeing, a leading aerospace company, applies OB Mod principles to improve
workplace safety and ensure compliance with industry regulations. It has
implemented safety rewards program, behavioral observations, training and
education programs, and peer recognition.
 Safety Rewards Program: Boeing has established a safety rewards
program that provides incentives for employees who follow safety
protocols and contribute to a safer work environment. Rewards can
include financial bonuses, extra time off, and public recognition.
 Behavioral Observations: Managers and safety officers at Boeing conduct
regular behavioral observations to identify both safe and unsafe practices.
Employees are given immediate feedback and coaching to reinforce safe
behaviors and correct unsafe ones.
 Training and Education: Boeing emphasizes ongoing training and
education to keep employees updated on the latest safety standards and
procedures. This includes mandatory safety training sessions and
workshops that incorporate interactive and hands-on learning techniques.
 Peer Recognition: Employees at Boeing are encouraged to recognize their
peers for safe behaviors through a peer recognition program. This helps to
build a culture of safety and mutual accountability among the workforce.
Outcome:
 Reduction in workplace accidents and incidents.
 Enhanced compliance with safety regulations.
 Stronger safety culture within the organization, leading to overall
improved performance and employee well-being.