Stephen Smale

Stephen Smale (born July 15, 1930) is an American

mathematician, known for his research in topology, Stephen Smale
dynamical systems and mathematical economics. He
was awarded the Fields Medal in 1966[2] and spent
more than three decades on the mathematics faculty of
the University of California, Berkeley (1960–1961 and
1964–1995), where he currently is Professor Emeritus,
with research interests in algorithms, numerical
analysis and global analysis.[3]
Smale in 2008
Born Stephen Smale
Education and career July 15, 1930
Flint, Michigan, U.S.
Smale was born in Flint, Michigan and entered the
Nationality American
University of Michigan in 1948.[4][5] Initially, he was a
good student, placing into an honors calculus sequence Education University of Michigan (BS, PhD)
taught by Bob Thrall and earning himself A's. Known for Generalized Poincaré conjecture
However, his sophomore and junior years were marred Handle decomposition
with mediocre grades, mostly Bs, Cs and even an F in h-cobordism theorem
nuclear physics. Smale obtained his Bachelor of Homoclinic orbit
Science degree in 1952. Despite his grades, with some Horseshoe map
luck, Smale was accepted as a graduate student at the Smale conjecture
University of Michigan's mathematics department. Yet Smale's problems
again, Smale performed poorly in his first years, Morse–Smale system
earning a C average as a graduate student. When the Morse–Smale diffeomorphism
department chair, Hildebrandt, threatened to kick Palais–Smale compactness
Smale out, he began to take his studies more condition
seriously.[6] Smale finally earned his PhD in 1957, Blum–Shub–Smale machine
under Raoul Bott, beginning his career as an instructor Smale–Williams attractor
at the University of Chicago. Morse–Palais lemma
Regular homotopy
Early in his career, Smale was involved in controversy Sard's theorem
over remarks he made regarding his work habits while Sphere eversion
proving the higher-dimensional Poincaré conjecture. Structural stability
He said that his best work had been done "on the Whitehead torsion
beaches of Rio."[7][8] He has been politically active in Diffeomorphism
various movements in the past, such as the Free Awards Wolf Prize (2007)
Speech movement and member of the Fair Play for National Medal of Science
Cuba Committee.[9] In 1966, having travelled to (1996)
Moscow under an NSF grant to accept the Fields Chauvenet Prize (1988)[1]
Medal, he held a press conference there to denounce Fields Medal (1966)
the American position in Vietnam, Soviet intervention
in Hungary and Soviet maltreatment of intellectuals. Oswald Veblen Prize in
After his return to the US, he was unable to renew the Geometry (1966)
grant.[10] At one time he was subpoenaed[11] by the Sloan Fellowship (1960)
House Un-American Activities Committee. Scientific career
Fields Mathematics
In 1960, Smale received a Sloan Research Fellowship
and was appointed to the Berkeley mathematics Institutions Toyota Technological Institute at
faculty, moving to a professorship at Columbia the Chicago
following year. In 1964 he returned to a professorship City University of Hong Kong
at Berkeley, where he has spent the main part of his University of Chicago
career. He became a professor emeritus at Berkeley in Columbia University
1995 and took up a post as professor at the City University of California, Berkeley
University of Hong Kong. He also amassed over the Thesis Regular Curves on Riemannian
years one of the finest private mineral collections in Manifolds (https://www.proquest.
existence. Many of Smale's mineral specimens can be com/docview/301954268?pq-ori
seen in the book The Smale Collection: Beauty in gsite=gscholar&fromopenview=tr
Natural Crystals.[12] ue) (1957)
Doctoral Raoul Bott
From 2003 to 2012, Smale was a professor at the
advisor
Toyota Technological Institute at Chicago;[13] starting
Doctoral Rufus Bowen
August 1, 2009, he became a Distinguished University
students César Camacho
Professor at the City University of Hong Kong.[14]
Robert L. Devaney
In 1988, Smale was the recipient of the Chauvenet John Guckenheimer
Prize[1] of the MAA. In 2007, Smale was awarded the Morris Hirsch
Wolf Prize in mathematics.[15] Nancy Kopell
Jacob Palis
Themistocles M. Rassias
Research James Renegar
Siavash Shahshahani
Smale proved that the oriented diffeomorphism group Mike Shub
of the two-dimensional sphere has the same homotopy
type as the special orthogonal group of 3 × 3 matrices.[16] Smale's theorem has been reproved and
extended a few times, notably to higher dimensions in the form of the Smale conjecture,[17] as well as to
other topological types.[18]

In another early work, he studied the immersions of the two-dimensional sphere into Euclidean space.[19]
By relating immersion theory to the algebraic topology of Stiefel manifolds, he was able to fully clarify
when two immersions can be deformed into one another through a family of immersions. Directly from
his results it followed that the standard immersion of the sphere into three-dimensional space can be
deformed (through immersions) into its negation, which is now known as sphere eversion. He also
extended his results to higher-dimensional spheres,[20] and his doctoral student Morris Hirsch extended
his work to immersions of general smooth manifolds.[21] Along with John Nash's work on isometric
immersions, the Hirsch–Smale immersion theory was highly influential in Mikhael Gromov's early work
on development of the h-principle, which abstracted and applied their ideas to contexts other than that of
immersions.[22]
In the study of dynamical systems, Smale introduced what is now known as a Morse–Smale system.[23]
For these dynamical systems, Smale was able to prove Morse inequalities relating the cohomology of the
underlying space to the dimensions of the (un)stable manifolds. Part of the significance of these results is
from Smale's theorem asserting that the gradient flow of any Morse function can be arbitrarily well
approximated by a Morse–Smale system without closed orbits.[24] Using these tools, Smale was able to
construct self-indexing Morse functions, where the value of the function equals its Morse index at any
critical point.[25] Using these self-indexing Morse functions as a key tool, Smale resolved the generalized
Poincaré conjecture in every dimension greater than four.[26] Building on these works, he also established
the more powerful h-cobordism theorem the following year, together with the full classification of
simply-connected smooth five-dimensional manifolds.[27][25]

Smale also introduced the horseshoe map, inspiring much subsequent research. He also outlined a
research program carried out by many others. Smale is also known for injecting Morse theory into
mathematical economics, as well as recent explorations of various theories of computation.

In 1998 he compiled a list of 18 problems in mathematics to be solved in the 21st century, known as
Smale's problems.[28] This list was compiled in the spirit of Hilbert's famous list of problems produced in
1900. In fact, Smale's list contains some of the original Hilbert problems, including the Riemann
hypothesis and the second half of Hilbert's sixteenth problem, both of which are still unsolved. Other
famous problems on his list include the Poincaré conjecture (now a theorem, proved by Grigori
Perelman), the P = NP problem, and the Navier–Stokes equations, all of which have been designated
Millennium Prize Problems by the Clay Mathematics Institute.

Books
Smale, Steve (1980). The mathematics of time: essays on dynamical systems, economic
processes, and related topics. New York-Berlin: Springer-Verlag. doi:10.1007/978-1-4613-
8101-3 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4613-8101-3). ISBN 0-387-90519-7. MR 0607330
(https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=0607330). Zbl 0451.58001 (https://zbm
ath.org/?format=complete&q=an:0451.58001).
Blum, Lenore; Cucker, Felipe; Shub, Michael; Smale, Steve (1998). Complexity and real
computation. With a foreword by Richard M. Karp. New York: Springer-Verlag.
doi:10.1007/978-1-4612-0701-6 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4612-0701-6). ISBN 0-
387-98281-7. MR 1479636 (https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=1479636).
S2CID 12510680 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:12510680). Zbl 0948.68068 (htt
ps://zbmath.org/?format=complete&q=an:0948.68068).
Hirsch, Morris W.; Smale, Stephen; Devaney, Robert L. (2013). Differential equations,
dynamical systems, and an introduction to chaos (Third edition of 1974 original ed.).
Amsterdam: Academic Press. doi:10.1016/C2009-0-61160-0 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2FC2
009-0-61160-0). ISBN 978-0-12-382010-5. MR 3293130 (https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathsc
inet-getitem?mr=3293130). Zbl 1239.37001 (https://zbmath.org/?format=complete&q=an:12
39.37001).
Cucker, F.; Wong, R., eds. (2000). The collected papers of Stephen Smale. In three
volumes. Singapore: Singapore University Press. doi:10.1142/4424 (https://doi.org/10.114
2%2F4424). ISBN 981-02-4307-3. MR 1781696 (https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-geti
 tem?mr=1781696). Zbl 0995.01005 (https://zbmath.org/?format=complete&q=an:0995.0100
5).

Important publications
Smale, Stephen (1959a). "A classification of immersions of the two-sphere" (https://doi.org/1
0.1090%2FS0002-9947-1959-0104227-9). Transactions of the American Mathematical
Society. 90 (2): 281–290. doi:10.1090/S0002-9947-1959-0104227-9 (https://doi.org/10.109
0%2FS0002-9947-1959-0104227-9). MR 0104227 (https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-g
etitem?mr=0104227). Zbl 0089.18102 (https://zbmath.org/?format=complete&q=an:0089.18
102).
Smale, Stephen (1959b). "The classification of immersions of spheres in Euclidean spaces".
Annals of Mathematics. Second Series. 69 (2): 327–344. doi:10.2307/1970186 (https://doi.o
rg/10.2307%2F1970186). JSTOR 1970186 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/1970186).
MR 0105117 (https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=0105117). Zbl 0089.18201
(https://zbmath.org/?format=complete&q=an:0089.18201).
Smale, Stephen (1959c). "Diffeomorphisms of the 2-sphere" (https://doi.org/10.1090%2FS0
002-9939-1959-0112149-8). Proceedings of the American Mathematical Society. 10 (4):
621–626. doi:10.1090/S0002-9939-1959-0112149-8 (https://doi.org/10.1090%2FS0002-993
9-1959-0112149-8). MR 0112149 (https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=0112
149). Zbl 0118.39103 (https://zbmath.org/?format=complete&q=an:0118.39103).
Smale, Stephen (1960). "Morse inequalities for a dynamical system" (https://doi.org/10.109
0%2FS0002-9904-1960-10386-2). Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society. 66 (1):
43–49. doi:10.1090/S0002-9904-1960-10386-2 (https://doi.org/10.1090%2FS0002-9904-19
60-10386-2). MR 0117745 (https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=0117745).
Zbl 0100.29701 (https://zbmath.org/?format=complete&q=an:0100.29701).
Smale, Stephen (1961a). "On gradient dynamical systems". Annals of Mathematics. Second
Series. 74 (1): 199–206. doi:10.2307/1970311 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1970311).
JSTOR 1970311 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/1970311). MR 0133139 (https://mathscinet.am
s.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=0133139). Zbl 0136.43702 (https://zbmath.org/?format=compl
ete&q=an:0136.43702).
Smale, Stephen (1961b). "Generalized Poincaré's conjecture in dimensions greater than
four". Annals of Mathematics. Second Series. 74 (2): 391–406. doi:10.2307/1970239 (http
s://doi.org/10.2307%2F1970239). JSTOR 1970239 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/1970239).
MR 0137124 (https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=0137124). Zbl 0099.39202
(https://zbmath.org/?format=complete&q=an:0099.39202).
Smale, S. (1962a). "On the structure of manifolds". American Journal of Mathematics. 84
(3): 387–399. doi:10.2307/2372978 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2372978). JSTOR 2372978
(https://www.jstor.org/stable/2372978). MR 0153022 (https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-
getitem?mr=0153022). Zbl 0109.41103 (https://zbmath.org/?format=complete&q=an:0109.4
1103).
Smale, Stephen (1962b). "On the structure of 5-manifolds". Annals of Mathematics. Second
Series. 75 (1): 38–46. doi:10.2307/1970417 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1970417).
JSTOR 1970417 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/1970417). MR 0141133 (https://mathscinet.am
s.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=0141133). Zbl 0101.16103 (https://zbmath.org/?format=compl
ete&q=an:0101.16103).
Smale, S. (1965). "An infinite dimensional version of Sard's theorem". Amer. J. Math. 87 (4):
861–866. doi:10.2307/2373250 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2373250). JSTOR 2373250 (htt
ps://www.jstor.org/stable/2373250).
Smale, Stephen (1967). "Differentiable dynamical systems" (https://doi.org/10.1090%2FS00
02-9904-1967-11798-1). Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society. 73 (6): 747–817.
 doi:10.1090/S0002-9904-1967-11798-1 (https://doi.org/10.1090%2FS0002-9904-1967-1179
8-1). MR 0228014 (https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=0228014).
Blum, Lenore; Shub, Mike; Smale, Steve (1989). "On a theory of computation and
complexity over the real numbers: NP-completeness, recursive functions and universal
machines" (https://doi.org/10.1090%2FS0273-0979-1989-15750-9). Bull. Amer. Math. Soc.
New Series. 21 (1): 1–46. doi:10.1090/S0273-0979-1989-15750-9 (https://doi.org/10.1090%
2FS0273-0979-1989-15750-9).
Shub, Michael; Smale, Stephen (1993). "Complexity of Bézout's Theorem I: Geometric
Aspects". Journal of the American Mathematical Society. 6 (2). Providence, Rhode Island:
American Mathematical Society: 459–501. doi:10.2307/2152805 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2
F2152805). JSTOR 2152805 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/2152805).
Smale, Steve (1998). "Mathematical problems for the next century". The Mathematical
Intelligencer. 20 (2): 7–15. doi:10.1007/BF03025291 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF030252
91). MR 1631413 (https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=1631413).
S2CID 1331144 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1331144). Zbl 0947.01011 (http
s://zbmath.org/?format=complete&q=an:0947.01011).
Smale, Steve (2000). "Mathematical problems for the next century". In Arnold, V.; Atiyah, M.;
Lax, P.; Mazur, B. (eds.). Mathematics: frontiers and perspectives. Providence, RI: American
Mathematical Society. pp. 271–294. ISBN 0-8218-2070-2. MR 1754783 (https://mathscinet.
ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=1754783). Zbl 1031.00005 (https://zbmath.org/?format=co
mplete&q=an:1031.00005).
Cucker, Felipe; Smale, Steve (2002). "On the mathematical foundations of learning" (http://
math.bu.edu/people/mkon/ma717/cuckersmale.pdf) (PDF). Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. New
Series. 39 (1): 1–49. doi:10.1090/S0273-0979-01-00923-5 (https://doi.org/10.1090%2FS027
3-0979-01-00923-5).
Cucker, Felipe; Smale, Steve (2007). "Emergent behavior in flocks". IEEE Trans. Autom.
Control. 52 (5): 852–862. doi:10.1109/TAC.2007.895842 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2FTAC.2
007.895842). S2CID 206590734 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:206590734).*

See also
5-manifold
Axiom A
Geometric mechanics
Homotopy principle
Mean value problem

References
1. Smale, Steve (1985). "On the Efficiency of Algorithms in Analysis" (http://www.maa.org/progr
ams/maa-awards/writing-awards/on-the-efficiency-of-algorithms-in-analysis). Bulletin of the
American Mathematical Society. New Series. 13 (2): 87–121. doi:10.1090/S0273-0979-
1985-15391-1 (https://doi.org/10.1090%2FS0273-0979-1985-15391-1).
2. "How Math Got Its 'Nobel' " (https://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/10/opinion/sunday/how-math-
got-its-nobel-.html?_r=0). The New York Times. 8 August 2014. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
3. "Stephen Smale" (https://math.berkeley.edu/people/faculty/stephen-smale). University of
California, Berkeley. Retrieved 27 November 2021.
4. William L. Hosch, ed. (2010). The Britannica Guide to Geometry (https://books.google.com/
books?id=HcmcAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA225). Britannica Educational Publishing. p. 225.
ISBN 9781615302178.
 5. Batterson, Steve (2000). Steven Smale: The Mathematician Who Broke the Dimension
Barrier (https://books.google.com/books?id=C1cLnAm7gcwC&pg=PA11). American
Mathematical Soc. p. 11. ISBN 9780821826966.
6. Video (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LmpPUjOeMGI) on YouTube
7. He discovered the famous Smale horseshoe map on a beach in Leme, Rio de Janeiro. See:
S. Smale (1996), Chaos: Finding a Horseshoe on the Beaches of Rio (http://math.berkeley.e
du/~smale/biblio/chaos.ps).
8. CS Aravinda (2018). "ICM 2018: On the beaches of Rio de Janeiro" (https://bhavana.org.in/i
cm-2018-beaches-rio-de-janeiro). Bhāvanā. 2 (3). Retrieved 8 October 2022.
9. Schrecker, Ellen (2021). The Lost Promise: American Universities in the 1960s. University of
Chicago Press. p. 121.
10. Andrew Jamison (5 October 1967). "Math Professors Question Denial Of Smale Grant" (http
s://www.thecrimson.com/article/1967/10/5/math-professors-question-denial-of-smale/). The
Harvard Crimson. Retrieved 13 February 2022.
11. Greenberg, D. S. (1966-10-07). "The Smale Case: NSF and Berkeley Pass Through a Case
of Jitters". Science. 154 (3745). American Association for the Advancement of Science
(AAAS): 130–133. Bibcode:1966Sci...154..130G (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1966Sc
i...154..130G). doi:10.1126/science.154.3745.130 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.154.3
745.130). ISSN 0036-8075 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0036-8075). PMID 17740098 (h
ttps://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17740098).
12. "Lithographie LTD" (http://www.lithographie.org/bookshop/the_smale_collection.htm).
www.lithographie.org.
13. "Faculty Alumni" (https://www.ttic.edu/faculty-alumni/). ttic.edu.
14. Stephen Smale Vita. (http://ttic.uchicago.edu/~smale/vita.html) Accessed November 18,
2009.
15. "The Hebrew University of Jerusalem - Division of Marketing & Communication" (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20160303194235/http://www.huji.ac.il/cgi-bin/dovrut/dovrut_search_eng_
dev.pl?mesge116895485932688760). www.huji.ac.il. Archived from the original (http://www.
huji.ac.il/cgi-bin/dovrut/dovrut_search_eng_dev.pl?mesge116895485932688760) on 2016-
03-03. Retrieved 2007-02-04.
16. Smale 1959c.
17. Hatcher, Allen E. (1983). "A proof of the Smale conjecture, Diff(S3) ≃ O(4)". Annals of
Mathematics. Second Series. 117 (3): 553–607. doi:10.2307/2007035 (https://doi.org/10.23
07%2F2007035). JSTOR 2007035 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/2007035). MR 0701256 (htt
ps://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=0701256). Zbl 0531.57028 (https://zbmath.
org/?format=complete&q=an:0531.57028).
18. Earle, Clifford J.; Eells, James (1969). "A fibre bundle description of Teichmüller theory" (http
s://doi.org/10.4310%2Fjdg%2F1214428816). Journal of Differential Geometry. 3 (1–2): 19–
43. doi:10.4310/jdg/1214428816 (https://doi.org/10.4310%2Fjdg%2F1214428816).
MR 0276999 (https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=0276999). Zbl 0185.32901
(https://zbmath.org/?format=complete&q=an:0185.32901).
19. Smale 1959a.
20. Smale 1959b.
21. Hirsch, Morris W. (1959). "Immersions of manifolds" (https://doi.org/10.1090%2FS0002-994
7-1959-0119214-4). Transactions of the American Mathematical Society. 93 (2): 242–276.
doi:10.1090/S0002-9947-1959-0119214-4 (https://doi.org/10.1090%2FS0002-9947-1959-01
19214-4). MR 0119214 (https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=0119214).
Zbl 0113.17202 (https://zbmath.org/?format=complete&q=an:0113.17202).
22. Gromov, Mikhael (1986). Partial differential relations. Ergebnisse der Mathematik und ihrer
Grenzgebiete, 3. Folge. Vol. 9. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. doi:10.1007/978-3-662-02267-2 (http
s://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-662-02267-2). ISBN 3-540-12177-3. MR 0864505 (https://mat
hscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=0864505). Zbl 0651.53001 (https://zbmath.org/?for
mat=complete&q=an:0651.53001).
23. Smale 1960.
24. Smale 1961a.
25. Milnor, John (1965). Lectures on the h-cobordism theorem. Notes by L. Siebenmann and J.
Sondow. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. doi:10.1515/9781400878055 (https://do
i.org/10.1515%2F9781400878055). ISBN 9781400878055. MR 0190942 (https://mathscine
t.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=0190942). Zbl 0161.20302 (https://zbmath.org/?format=c
omplete&q=an:0161.20302).
26. Smale 1961b.
27. Smale 1962a; Smale 1962b.
28. Smale 1998; Smale 2000.

External links
"Stephen Smale" (https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=rKyTmpkAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao
=). Google Scholar.
Stephen Smale (https://mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=5086) at the Mathematics Genealogy
Project
O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Stephen Smale" (https://mathshistory.st-andrew
s.ac.uk/Biographies/Smale.html), MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St
Andrews
Weisstein, Eric W. "Smale's Problems" (https://mathworld.wolfram.com/SmalesProblems.ht
ml). MathWorld.
Robion Kirby, Stephen Smale: The Mathematician Who Broke the Dimension Barrier (http://
www.ams.org/notices/200011/rev-kirby.pdf), a book review of a biography in the Notices of
the AMS.

Personal websites at universities

Steven Smale (http://www.ee.cityu.edu.hk/~cccn/smale.htm) at the City University of Hong

Kong
Stephen Smale (http://ttic.uchicago.edu/~smale/vita.html) at the University of Chicago
Steve Smale (http://math.berkeley.edu/~smale/) at the University of California, Berkeley

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