TABLE OF Contents

O-LEVEL (840) COMPUTER SYLLABUS ..................................................................................................... 6

A’LEVEL SUB ICT (S850) SYLLABUS.......................................................................................................... 7

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS ............................................................................................................. 8

COMPUTER ................................................................................................................................................. 8
FUNCTIONS OF COMPUTERS ....................................................................................................................... 8
CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN COMPUTERS ............................................................................................ 9
APPLICATION AREAS OF COMPUTERS IN OUR SOCIETY TODAY ................................................................. 9
BOOTING A COMPUTER ............................................................................................................................ 10
THE COMPUTER LABORATORY .................................................................................................................. 10
Characteristics/Elements/ components of a computer lab. ................................................................. 10
Factors considered when setting a computer laboratory. .................................................................... 11
COMPUTER AND LABORATORY CARE ....................................................................................................... 11
THE HISTORY OF COMPUTERS................................................................................................................... 11
THE MECHANICAL COMPUTERS THE MECHANICAL ERA....................................................................... 12
ELECTRONIC DIGITAL COMPUTER ............................................................................................................. 13
COMPUTER GENERATION ......................................................................................................................... 13
THE FIRST GENERATION OF COMPUTERS (1940-1959)............................................................................. 13
SPECIAL DISCOVERIES IN THE FIRST GENEARATION ............................................................................. 14
THE SECOND GENERATION OF COMPUTERS (1959-1964) .................................................................... 14
SPECIAL DISCOVERIES IN THE 2ND GENERATION...................................................................................... 14
3. THE 3RD GENERATION OF COMPUTERS (1964-1972) ....................................................................... 14
CHARACTERISTICS ................................................................................................................................. 14
4. THE 4TH GENERATION OF COMPUTERS (172-date) .......................................................................... 15
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS.............................................................................................................. 15
Classification by Type ............................................................................................................................ 15
Classification of computers by size and operational speed .................................................................. 16
SUPER COMPUTERS............................................................................................................................... 16
Characteristics of super computers ...................................................................................................... 16
MAIN FRAME ......................................................................................................................................... 16
Characteristics of Mainframe ................................................................................................................ 16
Page 1 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
 MINI COMPUTES ................................................................................................................................... 16
Characteristics of mini computers ........................................................................................................ 16
MICRO COMPURERS (PERSONAL COMPUTERS).................................................................................... 17
PORTABLE COMPUTERS ........................................................................................................................ 17
Characteristics of portable computers .................................................................................................. 17
Classification of Computers by processor type and speed ................................................................... 17
Classification of computers by purpose ................................................................................................ 17
COMPUTER SYSTEM .................................................................................................................................. 18
COMPUTER HARDWARE............................................................................................................................ 18
Hardware elements are classified into .................................................................................................. 18
1. CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)........................................................................................................ 18
Main memory ........................................................................................................................................ 18
THE RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM) ................................................................................................... 19
THE READ ONLY MEMORY (ROM) ............................................................................................................. 19
A. THE MROM ............................................................................................................................................ 19
UNITS OF STORAGE CAPACITY AND MEMORY CALCULATIONS ................................................................ 20
2. INPUT DEVICE ........................................................................................................................................ 21
Examples of input devices; .................................................................................................................... 21
A Keyboard consists of: ......................................................................................................................... 24
THE MOUSE ........................................................................................................................................... 25
SCANNER ............................................................................................................................................... 26
THE DIGITAL CAMERA: ................................................................................................................... 26
VOICE RECOGNITION EQUIPMENT ........................................................................................................ 26
BAR CODE READER ................................................................................................................................ 26
OPTICAL CHARACTER READER (OCR) .................................................................................................... 27
OPTICAL MARK READER (OMR) ............................................................................................................. 27
MAGNETIC INK CHARACTER READER (MICR) ........................................................................................ 27
LIGHT PEN. ............................................................................................................................................. 27
OUTPUT DEVICE ........................................................................................................................................ 27
OTHER OUTPUT ..................................................................................................................................... 27
Both Input–Output Devices: .................................................................................................................. 27
THE MONITOR (VDU)................................................................................................................................. 29
COMPARISON OF LCD AND CRT: ........................................................................................................... 30
LCD: ....................................................................................................................................................... 30

Page 2 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
PRINTERS: .................................................................................................................................................. 30
IMPACT PRINTERS ..................................................................................................................................... 30
DOT MATRIX PRINTERS ......................................................................................................................... 30
DAISY WHEEL PRINTERS ........................................................................................................................ 31
THERMAL PRINTER ................................................................................................................................ 31
Characteristics of Impact Printers ......................................................................................................... 31
NON-IMPACT PRINTERS ........................................................................................................................ 31
Differences between impact and non-impact printers ....................................................................... 32
PLOTTERS............................................................................................................................................... 32
SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES AND MEDIA ............................................................................................ 32
THE OPERATING SYSTEM (OS) ................................................................................................................... 34
FUNCTIONS OF AN OPERATING SYSTEM (OS) ........................................................................................... 35
CLASSIFICATION OF OPERATING SYSTEMS. .............................................................................................. 35
UTILITY SOFTWARE.................................................................................................................................... 36
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES ................................................................................................................... 36
LANGUAGE TRANSLATORS / LANGUAGE PROCESSORS ............................................................................ 37
Advantages of off-shelf packages over customized packages .............................................................. 38
INTRODUCTION TO WORD PROCESSING .................................................................................................. 39
(MICROSOFT OFFICE WORD) ..................................................................................................................... 39
An electronic word processor (word processor) ................................................................................... 39
Examples of word processors................................................................................................................ 39
Advantages of using electronic word processor ................................................................................... 39
Creating a document on a blank window ............................................................................................. 39
Protecting a document with a password. ............................................................................................. 40
Paragraph formatting. ........................................................................................................................... 41
Creating and manipulating tables ......................................................................................................... 42
THE INTERNET AND WORLD WIDE WEB (WWW) ..................................................................................... 43
THE INTERNET ........................................................................................................................................... 43
WORLD WIDE WEB (WWW) ...................................................................................................................... 43
Basic requirements for the WWW ........................................................................................................ 43
The internet service provider (ISP) ........................................................................................................ 43
Services offered by ISPs......................................................................................................................... 44
Advantages of using internet ................................................................................................................ 44
Disadvantages of using internet. ........................................................................................................... 44

Page 3 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
INTERNET TERMINOLOGIES....................................................................................................................... 45
Characteristics of server computer. ...................................................................................................... 45
Elements of an email address. .............................................................................................................. 46
FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE SPEED OF THE INTERNET ............................................................................. 47
NETTIQUETE .............................................................................................................................................. 48
Netiquette for E-mail communication .................................................................................................. 48
Netiquette for online group Discussion ................................................................................................ 48
COMPUTER MALWARE, VIRUSES AND WORMS ....................................................................................... 48
VIRUSES: .................................................................................................................................................... 49
WORMS ..................................................................................................................................................... 52
HOW VIRUSES SPREAD .............................................................................................................................. 52
HOW TO STOP THE THREAT OF VIRUSES AND OTHER MALWARE PROGRAMS ........................................ 53
DATA COMMUNICATION & NETWORKING ............................................................................................... 53
Elements of data communication ......................................................................................................... 53
DATA COMMUNICATION TOOLS. .............................................................................................................. 54
DATA TRANSMISSION MEDIA .................................................................................................................... 54
TYPES OF TRANSIMISSION MEDIA............................................................................................................. 54
Wireless data transmission media. ....................................................................................................... 55
Categories of wireless transmission media. .......................................................................................... 55
COMPUTER NETWORKS ............................................................................................................................ 55
BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR SETTING UP COMPUTER NETWORKS ........................................................... 56
Bridges come in three basic types:........................................................................................................ 57
Advantages of Computer Networks .......................................................................................................... 58
Disadvantages of Computer Networks ..................................................................................................... 59
Types Of Computer Networks ............................................................................................................... 60
TYPES OF NETWORK MODELS ................................................................................................................... 61
Peer-to-peer (P2P)................................................................................................................................. 61
Peer-to-peer (P2P)................................................................................................................................. 61
Network structure/topology (not examinable at A’ Level) ................................................... 61
TYPES OF NETWORK TOPOLOGY ............................................................................................................... 62
BUS Topology ........................................................................................................................................ 62
RING Topology ....................................................................................................................................... 62
STAR Topology ....................................................................................................................................... 63
MESH Topology ..................................................................................................................................... 64

Page 4 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
 TREE Topology ....................................................................................................................................... 64
HYBRID Topology ................................................................................................................................... 65
Features of Hybrid Topology ................................................................................................................. 65
INTRODUCTION TO DATABASE.................................................................................................................. 66
(MICROSOFT ACCESS) ................................................................................................................................ 66
Functions of a database software. ........................................................................................................ 66
Database models. .................................................................................................................................. 66
Features of a database management software. ................................................................................... 66
Guidelines for designing a good database. ........................................................................................... 67
Description of field data types. ............................................................................................................. 67
Terms used in relation to database....................................................................................................... 67
INTRODUCTION TO SPREADSHEETS (Microsoft office excel) .................................................................... 69
CELL REFERENCE. ....................................................................................................................................... 70
SYSTEM SECURITY AND ICT ETHICAL ISSUES. ............................................................................................ 78

Page 5 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
 O-LEVEL (840) COMPUTER SYLLABUS
SENIOR 1 TERM 1 – 2 TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS 1.1 Computers Today
1.2 Evolution of Computers
1.3 Uses and Functions of a Computer
1.4 Computer Care and Safety
1.5 Keyboard and Navigation
1.6 Categories of Computers
1.7 Classification of Computers
1.8 The Computer System
TERM 2 – 3 TOPIC 2: COMPUTER HARDWARE 2.1 Components of Computer
Hardware
2.2 Application of Hardware
Components
SENIOR 2 TERM 1 TOPIC 3: COMPUTER SOFTWARE 3.1 Introduction to Software
3.2 System Software
3.3 Application Software

TERM 2 TOPIC 4: WORD PROCESSING 4.1 Introduction to Word Processing

4.2 Word Processing

TERM 3 TOPIC 5: COMPUTER PRESENTATION 5.1 Introduction to Presentation

Software
5.2 Presentations

SENIOR 3 TERM 1 TOPIC 6: SYSTEM START-UP AND 6.1 Computer Booting

CONFIGURATION 6.2 System Configuration
6.3 Software Installation
6.4 Computer Troubleshooting

TOPIC 7: COMPUTER COMMUNICATION AND 7.1 Introduction to Computer

NETWORKING Communication
7.2 Computer Networks

TERM 2 TOPIC 8: SPREADSHEETS 8.1 Introduction to Spreadsheets

8.2 Spreadsheets

TERM 3 TOPIC 9: WEB DESIGNING 3.1 Introduction to Web Design

3.2Web Design
SENIOR 4 TERM 1 TOPIC 10: DATABASES 10.1 Introduction to Databases
10.2 Database Design

TERM 2 TOPIC 11: ELEMENTARY COMPUTER 11.1 Introduction to Programming

PROGRAMMING 11.2 Developing a Simple Program

TERM 2 – 3 TOPIC 12: TRENDS IN COMPUTING 12.1 Computer Integrity and Security
12.2 Computer Ethics
12.3 Computers and Society
12.4 Emerging Technologies
12.5 Systems Analysis
12.6 Computer Professions

Page 6 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
A’LEVEL SUB ICT (S850) SYLLABUS
S.5 TERM 1
Introduction to Computing  Introduction to Computers
 World of ICTs
 Implications of using ICTs (Advantages and Disadvantages)
Computer Management  Booting process
 File Management
 Common Utilities
 Print Management
Computer Laboratory Care and Maintenance  Computer Literacy
 Secure Laboratory Environment
 Servicing and Maintenance
Computer Word Processing I  Introduction to Word Processing
 Working with Word processing software

S.5 TERM 2
Computer Hardware  Input devices
 Output devices
 Storage devices
 Processor Components
Computer software  System Software
 Application software
Electronic spreadsheets I  Introduction to spreadsheets
 Working with spreadsheets
 Managing spreadsheets
 Formulas and functions
Internet and WWW  Introduction to the Internet
 Wide Web
 Internet Services
 World Wide Web

S.5 TERM 3
Computer Word Processing II  Page Layout
 Date tabulation
 Use of objects
 Document accuracy
 Mail merge, document referencing and printing
Electronic Presentation  Introduction to Electronic Presentation
 Working with Presentation software
 Developing a presentation
 Charts
 Graphical objects
 Presentation output
 Slide show

S.6 TERM 1
Data communication and Networking  Introduction to Data Communication
 Introduction to Computer networks
Electronic Publication  Introduction to Electronic Publishing
 Publishing Basics
 Document Layout
 Document Enhancement
 Outputs
 Complete publication
 Web Publishing

S6 TERM 2
Electronic Spreadsheets II  Working with Charts
 Worksheet Page Layout
 Printing a worksheet
Databases  Databases
 Introduction to Databases
 Database objects

S.6 TERM 3
System Security, ICT Ethical issues and Emerging Technologies  Computer System Security
 Privacy and ICT ethical Issues
 Emerging Technologies
 ICT industry

Page 7 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

COMPUTER
It is a programmable electro-mechanical device (machine) that can accept data, stores it,
process it, retrieves it and output information.

A computer is a general-purpose machine that performs tasks in response to instructions

given to it and stores information.

An automated electronic device operating under the control of instructions, accepts and
stores data in its own memory performs arithmetical and logical operation, and produces
output at a very high speed.

A computer is capable of storing very large amount of information and carry out data
processing extremely fast. The operating speed of a computer is measured in millions of
instructions per second (M/s). The unit of Measurement is in Megahertz (MHz) or in
Gigahertz (GHz)
Note:
Data; refers to the raw material input into the computer
Informationis referred to as the Processed Data. Memory is the storage capacity of a
computer, or scratch pad on which data or information is stored.
Examples of data include; unsorted names, numbers, figures.
Examples of information include; bank statement, payment receipt, invoices, sorted and
arranged names.

Data Processing Information

User
Feedback Storage

FUNCTIONS OF COMPUTERS
1. They are used for communication
2. Writing letters documents and drawing graphics
3. Used for storage of information for future use
4. Used for entertainment
5. for making reports and calculating
6. Used in research and education

Page 8 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN COMPUTERS
1. SPEED this is the ability of a computer to do work in a short time.
2. Accuracy this is the ability of a computer to do work without mistakes.
3. Diligence this is the ability of the computer to do worker repeatedly without getting
tired or bored.
4. Automation / programmable this is the ability of the computer to follow instructions
(Programs) and do work in the absence of the operator. (Which means the computer is
Automatic)
5. Storage this is the ability of the computer to record and safely keep information or data
for both now and future use.
6. Interactive this is the ability of a computer to respond to instructions of the user or
operator in order to process data.
7. Communication this is the ability of a computer to share information with another
computer especially in networking.
8. Versatility this is the ability of a computer to perform tasks in many different ways or
skills.

APPLICATION AREAS OF COMPUTERS IN OUR SOCIETY TODAY

1. Industry computers are used in industries to carry out process and also manage quality
control e.g. in car industry
2. Education they are used in education as teaching aids nowadays. Computers are used
for long distance learning were a student interacts with a teacher via the computer. It is
called E-learning (electronic learning
3. Police and defense computer s are used in military and police departments to analyze
and finger prints of criminals and keep information.
4. Research computers are widely used in collection data and analyzing data to produce
organized information. They are also used to analyze scientific research institutions.
5. Heath and care computers are used in hospitals to monitor patients in critical
conditions. They are also used in hospital laboratories to analyze diseases and their
medical care.
6. Leisure and home computers are used for leisure and entertainment because of
availability of computer games. They are used in homes for shopping through the internet.
7. Communication in the telephone industry, computers have played a great role in
relieving calls, determining their periods of transmission plus sending messages in case of
error. They are also used in weather forecasts to predict weather conditions and on the
internet to receive and send message using the Electronic Mail (E-Mail) and the Internet
Relay Control (IRC) tool
8. Process control computers can be used to control-bio-chemical processes in
laboratories and in manufacturing plants, car assembling plants.

Page 9 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
BOOTING A COMPUTER
Booting is a process by which a computer is started (set) or restarted (reset). There are
two basic ways of booting a computer and these include.
Cold booting: this the process in which a computer I started using the on and off
button given that it was not previously on
Procedure followed
- switch on the wall switch/socket
- switch on UPS
- switch on CPU
- switch on Monitor
- password (if any)
Warm booting:
This is the process of restarting computer which has been previously on. This is
normally done by Alt + Ctrl + Del keys at the same time.
Procedure followed.
- click on start
- select shut down/turn off/log off
- click on re-start option

Shutting down a computer

To shut down a computer system one should ensure that there is no program running
currently. The person can then follow the following procedures to shut down
 Click Start button
 Click shut down / turn off button on the start menu
 Click Switch off / turn off
OR
 Press Alt + Ctrl + Del combination keys
 Click shut down / switch off

THE COMPUTER LABORATORY

A computer laboratory is a special room set aside and prepared for safe installation and
use of computers and where computer practical and lessons are carried out.
In schools, a computer laboratory provides a safe place where teaching and learning of
ITC and computer studies and related disciplines are done.

Characteristics/Elements/ components of a computer lab.

 it should be well ventilated
 Windows should be wide enough and with bugler proofs to avoid un authorized
entry through the window.
 Windows should have curtains to regulate the amount of light from outside.
 It should have a qualified lab attendant and technician.
 The flow should be dust free and should have a carpet.
 The surrounding vegetation should be covered with green vegetation to avoid dust
from outside.
 Computers should be well spaced to allow privacy for the users.
Page 10 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
  Computers in the lab should be well connected with power stabilizers to avoid
power shock.
 The cabling system should be done well to avoid danger to the users.
 The veranda should extend away to avoid rain drops.
 There should be covers to cover the computer to protect them from dust.

Factors considered when setting a computer laboratory.

The following are the factors considered when setting a computer lab.
 Number of users.
 Number of computers to install.
 Access to stable power supply.
 Access to network.
 Security of computers and users.

COMPUTER AND LABORATORY CARE

 The Lab. should be dust free, should be air-conditioned to regulate the
temperature.
 The Micro-computers should not be exposed t direct sunlight.
 The computers should be regularly serviced at least once a year or frequently if the
environment is dusty, the service should normally include blowing dust from the
systems unit, cleaning floppy drives and disk, cleaning the keyboard including all
the keys and cleaning the monitor externally.
 Food and drinks shouldn’t be allowed near the computers
 The peripheral devices such as printers and mouse should be regularly serviced.
 In areas where the power is unstable, it is important to use stabilizers or
UPS(Uninterrupted Power Supply)
 The computer should be kept away from both magnetic and electrical materials.

THE HISTORY OF COMPUTERS

Computers were introduced due to a need for storage and quick processing of data into
information for immediate and future use. The increasing demand for such quick and
efficient methods to achieve high productivity during the industrial revolution led to the
birth of the famous Mechanical era of 1623 – 1945.
It was a period of invention of huge mechanical devices that were supported and run by
large power houses and managed by professional expertise.

A. THE ABACUS
The expansion of trade and commerce together with the need for accurate records created
a demand for tools needed for calculating. One of such a tool was the Abacus; which
appeared in many forms depending on various designs from the Chinese, Babylonians and
other kingdoms that were involved in major trade systems at the time. It basically
consisted of knots in strings, pebbles in trays and beads on a wooden frame. These were
moved up and down in order to make calculations.

Page 11 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
The early versions are said to have been developed by the Chinese and the Babylonians
between 500 -1000BC. However, the most widely used form of the abacus was made of the
beads and wires/rods. By moving the beads on the rod/wire, the user was able to perform
addition and subtraction more rapidly.

B. NAPIER’S BONES
In 1615, John Napier a Scottish mathematician invented a computing device that could
make multiplication and division easy. This device used a number of sticks made from
Ivory which were marked in a manner similar to some currently used multiplication
tables. The devices become known as Napier’s bones because of the ivory sticks that
looked like human bones. The principle of Napier’s bones was later used by William
Oustraight who in 1620 invented the first Slide Rule. The rule was used for the next 350
years by business men and scientists until it was replaced by the pocket calculator in the
1970’s.

THE MECHANICAL COMPUTERS THE MECHANICAL ERA [PERIOD] OF 1623 -

1945 Definition: The mechanical era is a period in which computers were characterized
by rotating parts such as motors, conveyor belts, mechanical relays and dials and used
punched cards to input and output data and information. The devices in this period were
manually run together with the help of other power sources. There were a number of
machines that were produced in this period; among which we have:

C. PASCAL’S ARITHMENTIC MACHINE

In 1642, a Frenchman called Blaise Pascal is given credit for having invented the first
mechanical adding and subtracting machine that used a system of gears and wheels. It had
digits from 1 - 9 arranged on wheels similar to an odometer on a motor car. His device was
known as the ArithmetiqueMachine

D. VON GOTTFRIED LEIBNITZ’S STEPPED RECKONER

In 1694, Von Leibnitz, a German mathematician improved Pascal’s arithmetique machine
from one that could only add and subtract to one that could also perform multiplication
and divisions. He renamed the machine the Stepped Reckoner.

E. THE ARITHEMOMETER
In 1620, another Frenchman called Thomas Decolommal invented a calculating machine
which he called the arithmemometer. He produced many of these machines and later
made an industry.

F. JACQUARD’S LOOM
Joseph Marie Jacquard was the first Frenchman to invent a machine that was used in the
weaving industry. It used metallic cards punched with holes for storing data (designs).
This method of storage was known as the Hole and Hole method. The machine was
automatic and could weave threads into tapestries. The patterns of design were based on
Page 12 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
pre-set instruction in the punched cards. He named his machine the LOOM and become
the first weaving device at the time

G. THE ANALYTICAL ENGINE [CHARLES BABBAGE]

In 1822-1834, Charles Babbage invented an Analytical Engine. The machine was
programmable and big as a house with six (6) steam engines for power. It used punched
cards to input and the storage mechanism of the engine; Babbage called the two main
parts of the engine ―sheer‖ and ―Mill‖. The store was where numbers were held and the
mill was manipulated into new results. In other words, the mill was the modern day
processor and the sheer was the modern day RAM or memory. He wrote a 20-paged
manual describing how the machine was to be operated. He is known as the father of all
computers because his device had all the features of the modern computer. However, he
did not complete the engine and died just before he fully used it. An American lady known
as Lovelace Ada Byron took over the project and turned the machine into an automatic
system. She changed the rectangular punched cards into circular one by creating a
sequence of holes on the card thus making the machine automatic. It could pick
instructions from any point on the punched card since it was circular. With is idea of
programming loops, she became the first world programmer and she added 50 pages to
the 20-paged manual of Babbage.

H. HERMAN HOLLERITH’S TABULATOR

Herman Hollerith invented a tabulating machine that used punched cards to store and
tabulate data. In 1890, the USA government used his machine to carry out its census. He
later started a company that could produce these tabulators and sell them over the world.
This company later combined with others to form the famous IBM (International Business
Machine) company.

ELECTRONIC DIGITAL COMPUTER

The first digital computer was made in Germany in 1941 by Zuse Conrad. It was destroyed
during the world war and it had not been known yet outside Germany.

COMPUTER GENERATION
A computer generation refers to the period when computers changed from simple
technology to advanced technology. Or a computer generation refers to the change of
technology of computers over years. There are a number of generations where computers
have changed these include

THE FIRST GENERATION OF COMPUTERS (1940-1959)

i. This existed between 1945 and 1959.
ii. They were large in size and could fill a very big room.
iii. They used large quantities of Electricity and could give off a lot of heat.
iv. The y used vacuum tubes as their primary electronic component
v. They used punched cards to input and output data
vi. They were expensive

Page 13 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
 vii. They were programmed in low level languages such as Assemble and machine
languages
viii. They could store little information because they used Magnetic drums which had
limited memory.

SPECIAL DISCOVERIES IN THE FIRST GENEARATION

Discovery of the UNIVAC (Universal Atomic Computer) Discovery of the ENIARC
(Electronic Numerical Atomic Research Computer)

THE SECOND GENERATION OF COMPUTERS (1959-1964)

Characteristics
i. They existed between the 1959 and 1964
ii. They were smaller in size compared to the first Generation computers.
iii. They used less quantities of Electricity than in the first Generation computers.
iv. In the first generation of computers they use Vacuum tubes but in the second
Generation they used transistors as their primary electronic component.
v. They entered and used magnetic tapes to input and output data
vi. They were cheap than the first generation computers
vii. They were programmed in High level Languages such as FORTRAN
(FORmaulaTRAnslation) COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language)
viii. Computers in the second generations had to increase speed and reliability

SPECIAL DISCOVERIES IN THE 2ND GENERATION

Introduction of Supper computers such as IBM 730 and LARC (Liver More Atomic
Research Computer)

3. THE 3RD GENERATION OF COMPUTERS (1964-1972)

CHARACTERISTICS
i. They existed between 1964 and 1972.
ii. They are smaller than the first and second generation. In terms of size
iii. There was introduction of Operating System such as MULTICS.(is OP which produces
information in butches i.e. every information is put first then process is done at once.
Online OS similar to Macintosh OS2) it follows processes one after the other
iv. There was introduction of Large Scale Integration (LSI) technology, it’s the kind of
technology were 100-10000 transistors are brought together onto a single chip.
v. There was introduction of Integrated Circuit (ICs), a device that brings together many
electronic components onto a single package. Electronic components are normally
transistors.
vi. They stored information on Magnetic devices called Metal Oxide Semi-conductors
(CMOS)

Page 14 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
vii. They were programmed in simple languages such as BASIC (Beginners all Purpose
Symbolic Instruction Code)
viii. There was introduction of Micro- computers. Kind of computers which used Micro-
processors

4. THE 4TH GENERATION OF COMPUTERS (172-date)

Characteristics
i. It spanned since 1972
ii. It stored information on Complementary Metal Oxide Semi-conductor (CMOS)
other storage devices included Compact Disks CDs, Zip Jazz Diskettes, 2 inch
Diskettes.
iii. Programmed in special scientific Programs such as FORmulaTRAslation
(FORTRAN) COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language C+, C++., Visual Basic,
HTML (Hyper text Mark-up Language)
iv. Introduction of Portable Computers such as Laptops
v. Introduction of Networking Technology and Operating Systems.
vi. Introduction of Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) technology, a kind of
technology that where more than 10000 transistors are brought together into a
single-chip

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Computers are classified according to size, speed, processor, purpose and Mode of
operation type or power

Classification by Type
Computers are basically categorized into two groups; that is to say:
i. Digital computers
This is the kind of computers which represent information in form of 0’s and 1’s. it
can be defined as a computer. It represents information using discrete values of 0’s
and 1’s. They use 0’s for off and 1’s for on. Examples include; Digital watches,
Digital cameras, Mobile Phones, Pocket calculators.
ii. Analog computers
This is a kind of computers which transmit the information or represent their information
in form or using physical quantities such as Temperature, Pressure, and Distance etc. they
can also be defined as Computers which represent information using continuous values on
physical quantities or measuring quantities of temperature, Pressure, distance etc.
examples include Thermometers, voltmeters, barometer, Anemometer, Analog watches

iii. Hybrid computer it is as a combination of both Digital and Analog computer

technologies. They are commonly used present like in weather stations, air
trafficking. Hybrid computers Hybrid computers are a combination of Analog and
digital technologies. In this type, some calculations are performed in digital system
of a computer while others are performed on the Analog portion of the computer.
Such computers are used for scientific applications and in industrial processes.
Examples of Hybrid include
 Satellite

Page 15 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
  The WAT 1001 mainframe computer that connects the internet to the
satellite
 Typical computers (laptop)

Classification of computers by size and operational speed

From the biggest to the smallest, we have.

SUPER COMPUTERS
These are the largest computers with faster processing power using multiple processors
and superior technology. They are used for complex work or tasks which require a lot of
computation power. They are also used in complex application such as weather
forecasting.

Characteristics of super computers

a) They are large in size
b) They have higher processing speed than the mainframes
c) They have a higher storage capacity than Mainframes

MAIN FRAME
They are large computers in terms of capacity and speed.

Characteristics of Mainframe
a) They are very large computers with a very high capacity of main storage
b) They have large data storage
c) They transfer data at high speed
d) They are operated by special qualified operators and programmers
e) They should be kept in air-conditioned huge rooms since they are sensitive to
temperature changes, humidity and dust.
f) They can accommodate more than one user ie 100-500 on one machine

MINI COMPUTES
Mini computers are widely used in real time applications such as Air-trafficking control
and Factory automation systems.

Characteristics of mini computers

a) They are physically smaller than mainframe
Page 16 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
b) They have lower speed compare to mainframe.
c) Their storage capacity is less than that of mainframe
d) They can’t support a number of concurrent users e 50- 100 users per computer
e) Minicomputer scan support a limited range of peripheral devices.

MICRO COMPURERS (PERSONAL COMPUTERS)

Personal computer systems are the smallest general manipulators that can be
programmed to process a countless number of applications.

Characteristics of Micro computers

a) Relatively cheap
b) Smaller in size than mini computers.
c) They are fast in processing data
NB: micro computers have a wide application in the computer industry due to their size
and cost.

PORTABLE COMPUTERS
These are small computers using micro processor like the Micro computers but can be
carried from place to place unlike the Desk-top PCs examples include of Laptops,
Palmtops, Notebook computers

Characteristics of portable computers

a) They are potable due to their size
b) Relatively cheap
c) Smaller in size than mini computers
d) They are fast in processing data

Classification of Computers by processor type and speed

Due to the rapid change in technology, processor power has also increased and the
computers are getting faster and faster. The higher the processors power the faster the
computer. Earlier computers had power less than 0.4MIPS [Millions of instructions Per
Second] but today 15MIPS is the minimum. People classify computers (Micro computers)
by the type of processor power they possess. Examples are show in the table below

Classification of computers by purpose

a) Special purpose computers can only do what they are programmed to do. They can’t
do other tasks outside that which they are programmed to do. E.g. watches, calculator,
pagers etc.
b) General Purpose computers are designed to carry out many tasks without
specifications. They can be turned into special purpose by use of special written program
to instruct them to do exactly that special task. E.g. desktop computers.

Page 17 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
 COMPUTER SYSTEM
A computer system is a set of three components, apparatus, materials and user to
process data.

A computer system is composed of three (3) parts:

1) Hardware,
2) Software&
3) Human ware or personal ware.

COMPUTER HARDWARE
Computer hardware is/are the parts of a computer that can be physically touched, feel and
see. Or Hardware refers to the physical parts of a computer.

A micro computer system hardware consist so a System Unit, a Monitor Keyboard

Mouse.

Hardware elements are classified into

1. CENTRALPROCESSING UNIT

2. INPUT DEVICES AND OUT PUT DEVICES

3. STRORAGE DEVICES

1. CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

The CPU is further divided into three
i. The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
The ALU is the part of the CPU which manages all the mathematical and logical operations
within the computer.
ii. Control Unit
The Control Unit Manages/ controls the incoming and outgoing of data in the CPU and the
issuing of processing instructions to the CPU.
iii. The Internal Registry/Cache Memory
This temporarily stores immediately processed data from the CPU and can also hold
temporarily data waiting to enter the processor for processing. It uses charges to store
this data and information and these charges must be renewed almost every passing
second hence the data and information in this kind of memory is always withdrawn by the
processor before the charges run out.

Main memory
Main memory is used for holding data and information required immediately by the CPU.
It is characterized by fast access to information, low capacity and high expressivity. There
are two types of main memory and these include
I. Random Access Memory
II. Read Only Memory
III. Cache memory

Page 18 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
THE RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM)RAM can be both read in order to retrieve
information or it can be written into to store information. The name means that any data
in Memory can be reached or accessed in the same amount of time. RAM is used in large
quantities in the main memory and every computer must specify its size e.g. the base RAM
size for Micro-computers is 640KB (1Kilobyte = 1024byte). RAM can be either Static or
Dynamic
CHARACTERISTICS OF RAM
I. RAM is volatile i.e. it loses its contents when power goes off
II. RAM is a primary storage device
III. RAM can be changed or moved

Since RAM is a primary storage device, it stores information as one is currently working
on the computer. A computer will be slow with little RAM.
Types of RAM:
There two types of RAM and these include:
 Static RAM (sram): The contents stored are not regularly refreshed but still volatile.
 Dynamic RAM (dram): is a type of random-access memory that stores each bit of
data in a separate capacitor within an integrated circuit. The capacitor can be either
charged or discharged; these two states are taken to represent the two values of a bit,
conventionally called 0 and 1. Since capacitors lose charge, the information
eventually fades unless the capacitor charge is refreshed periodically. Because of this
refresh requirement, it is a dynamic memory as opposed to SRAM and other static
memory. Examples of DRAM include: DDR-SDRAM (ddr1) and DDR2, Thyristor RAM
(T-RAM), Zero-capacitor (Z-RAM)

THE READ ONLY MEMORY (ROM)

ROM contains instructions which are permanently recorded in the main memory. ROM
provides permanent or semi permanent storage only. The Re-written during normal
computer operations. ROMs are used in computers for permanent storage of instructions
or programmes such as the booting programs NB booting is the starting or restarting a
computer. ROMs are usually provided by the manufacturers of software. There are four
main types of ROMs used today and these include Masked ROM, PROM, EPROM, EEPROM,
and EAPROM.

A. THE MROM
Mask Programmable Read Only Memory that can be only produced by the manufacturer.
ROM is advantageous in that it has a high bit density, it is non-volatile and it has a low cost.
Examples include phone ring tones. There are three disadvantages of ROM and these
include
i. They are expensive to produce
ii. They are time consuming
iii. One produced, it can never be altered or changed, because of the above
disadvantages other types of ROM have been introduced

B. THE PROM (Programmable read Only memory)

Page 19 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
PROM is a read only memory that can be programmed directly by the user using special
PROM programmer. PROM, still have one disadvantage i.e. once programmed, it cannot be
changed hence its expensive not practical to use. It’s sometimes called THE FUSIBLE-LINK

C. THE EPROM (Erasable Programmed Read Only Memory)

This is a kind of ROM which uses programmable and can be reprogrammed a number of
times e.g. the Mobile phone book

D. THE EEPROM (Electronically Erasable Read Only Memory)

The EEPROM can be read from and written to. It is not good for general purpose read /
write memory. EEPROMs are used in critical industries and military operations.

UNITS OF STORAGE CAPACITY AND MEMORY CALCULATIONS

The bit

The bit is the baric unit of a memory and it is got from the work binary digit.

A bit is represented either by 0 or 1 (zero or one). The zero representing availability (ON)
and the one representing unavailable (OFF).

The NibbleThis is abyte which is usually a group of 4bits.

Band widthIs the number of bytes that can be taken and processed by one instruction.

The byteOne byte consists of 8bits or 2nibbles. A single character (letter or number)
occupies one byte.
E.g. the WORD GIRLFRIEND has ten bytes or 20 nibbles or 80 bits
Example.
How many bits are in the word?
hanny.com?
No. of characters = 9, Note that no. of characters = no. of bytes, so no. of bytes
= 9, No. of bits = 9 * 8 =72 Other Binary Code Systems The computer memories
today are designed to hold more densities which include the below:
 ASCII: The American Standard Code for Information Interchange is a character-
encoding scheme originally based on the English alphabet. ASCII codes represent text
in computers, communications equipment, and other devices that use text. Most
modern character-encoding schemes are based on ASCII, though they support many
more characters than ASCII does.
 BCD: binary-coded decimal (BCD) is a digital encoding method for numbers using
decimal notation, with each decimal digit represented by its own binary sequence. In
BCD, a numeral is usually represented by four bits which, in general, represent the
decimal range 0 through 9.
 EBCDIC: Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC) is an 8-bit
character encoding used mainly on IBM mainframe and IBM midrange computer
operating systems. EBCDIC descended from the code used with punched cards and the
corresponding six bit binary-coded decimal code used with most of IBM's computer
peripherals of the late 1950s and early 1960s.

Page 20 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
2. INPUT DEVICE
These are devices/hardware components that are used to enter data into and instructions
the computer.

These are devices that are used to enter data into the computer.
Input device has two duties to perform.
1. To read the data from the medium on which it is stored
2. To change the data into a suitable and understandable form That is; translating signals
from high level languages to Low Level Languages that can be understood by the
processor.

Examples of input devices;

a) Graphics Tablets
b) Cameras
c) Video Capture
Hardware
d) Trackballs
e) Barcode reader
f) Digital camera
g) Gamepad
h) Joystick
i) Keyboard
j) Microphone
k) MIDI keyboard
l) Mouse
m) Scanner
n) Webcam
o) Touchpads
p) Pen Input
q) Microphone
r) Electronic
Whiteboard

Page 21 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
 KEYBOARD TRUCK BALL

JOY STICK GRAGHIC TABLET

JOYSTICK

Page 22 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
 FLASH DISK

MICROPHONE WEB CAM

LIGHT PEN JOY STICK

Page 23 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
 DOCUMENT READER HEADSETS

The Key board The keyboard which is typically resembles a type-writer is the most
common input device for micro-computer systems

A Keyboard consists of:

a) Function Keys (F1-F12)
A function key is a key on a computer or terminal keyboard which can be
programmed so as to cause an operating system command interpreter or application
program to perform certain actions. On some keyboards/computers, function keys
may have default actions, accessible on power-on. These are used to perform specific
functions depending on the applications packages being used e.g. most applications
use F1 for help
b) The Numeric Key Pad:
c) A numeric keypad, num pad or ten key, is the small, palm-sized, seventeen key
section of a computer keyboard, usually on the very far right. The numeric keypad
features
Digits 0 to 9, addition (+), subtraction (−), multiplication (*) and division (/) symbols, a
decimal point (.) and Num Lock and Enter keys. Laptop keyboards often do not have a
numpad, but may provide numpad input by holding a modifier key (typically labeled "Fn")
and operating keys on the standard keyboard. Numeric keypads usually operate in two
modes: when Num Lock is off, keys 8, 6, 2, 4 act like arrow keys and 7, 9, 3, 1 act like Home,
PgUp, PgDn and End; when Num Lock is on, digits keys produce corresponding digits. The
arrangement of digits on numeric keypads is different from that of telephone ―Touch-Tone‖
keypads, which have the 1-2-3 keys on top and 7-8-9 keys on the third row, instead of the
reverse used on a numeric keypad.[why?] This layout, which matches most modern
calculators and cash registers, may be confusing for those who use one of these
Page 24 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
arrangements more often. These are mainly used to enter data (numeric data) very fast into
the computer.
c) Alphanumeric Keys/Typewriter Keyboard: these are used for normal operations such
as typing text an entering numeric data.
d) The Toggle/Control keys: these include shift, tab, Caps. Lock, Alt, Ctrl, Esc. These are
used in combination with other keys or on their own to perform specific tasks. E.g. Shift + any
letter → capital of that letter (Shift +a →A, shift + 5 → 5%, ctrl +Alt + Del → Restarts computer
(worm booting). The escape key is used by most applications to exit from a program or
to;move back one step to the previous operation.
e) Navigation Keys/Movement Keys: Used to move the cursor in the four compass
directions on a workspace. They are equivalent to the Page Up and Page Down keys.
f) END/Home Keys: These move the cursor or pointer to either the end of the last typed in
statement or to beginning point of that statement respectively.
g) Application Key: The Menu key or Application key is a key found on Microsoft
Windows-oriented computer keyboards, introduced at the same time as the Windows logo
key. Its symbol is usually a small icon depicting a pointer hovering above a menu, and it is
typically found on the right side of the keyboard between the right Windows logo key and
the right Control key (or between the right Alt key and the right Control key). While the
Windows Key is present on the vast majority of keyboards intended for use with the
Windows operating system, the Menu key is frequently omitted in the interest of space,
particularly on portable and laptop keyboards.
The key's primary function is to launch a context menu with the keyboard rather than with
the usual right-mouse button. It can be used when the right-mouse button is not present on a
mouse.

THE MOUSE
A mouse is a pointing device that functions by detecting two-dimensional motion relative to
its supporting surface. Physically, a mouse consists of an object held under one of the user's
hands, with one or more buttons. The mouse is another input device commonly used on GUI
(graphical User Interface) systems. It is used to issue commands to the computer by
activating certain points on the screen. It has two or three buttons and a ball is used to move
the cursor on the screen, the buttons represents the Enter key (left button) and the Escape
key (right button). A click of either button is the same as placing the equivalent on the
keyboard.

Left Button/Enter Key

Scroll Button/Navigation button Page Up and Page down Keys
There are three basic types of mice:
Page 25 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
1. Mechanical: Has a rubber or metal ball on its underside that can roll in all directions.
Mechanical sensors within the mouse detect the direction the ball is rolling and move the
screen pointer accordingly.
2. Opt mechanical: Same as a mechanical mouse, but uses optical sensors to detect motion
of the ball.
3. Optical: Uses a laser to detect the mouse's movement. You must move the mouse along a
special mat with a grid so that the optical mechanism has a frame of reference. Optical mice
have no mechanical moving parts. They respond more quickly and precisely than mechanical
and opt mechanical mice, but they are also more expensive.
Right Button/Esc
Mice connect to PCs in one of several ways:
1. Serial mice connect directly to an RS-232C serial port or a PS/2 port. This is the simplest
type of connection.
2. PS/2 mice connect to a PS/2 port. (PS/2 = Personal System/2)
3. USB mice.(USB =Universal Serial Bus)

Cordless mice aren't physically connected at all. Instead they rely on infrared or radio
waves to communicate with the computer. Cordless mice are more expensive than both
serial and bus mice, but they do eliminate the cord, which can sometimes get in the way.

SCANNER
This is an input device used to translate hard copy data or information to soft copy data or
information to the computer. A scanner can be used to copy photographs, designs or text
from paper into the computer.

THE DIGITAL CAMERA:

This is used to import photographs directly into the computer

VOICE RECOGNITION EQUIPMENT

These are equipments or devices that import information or data using audio systems. They
include microphones.

BAR CODE READER

Each item in a shop or store is marked with a Universal Product Code (UPC) which identifies
the item. The code is in terms of bars with coded spacing and thickness. A bar code reader
(wand) is moved across the bars by the shopkeeper and the details of the price, date of
manufacture, catalog number etc are read or displayed.

Page 26 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
OPTICAL CHARACTER READER (OCR)The optical character reader can detect both a
mark on a paper and also recognize its shape and identify characters. It uses light to detect
marks on paper.

OPTICAL MARK READER (OMR)It is a device which can detect the presence or absence
of a mark on the paper. It uses the same principle of light reflection like the ORC, where light
is shone onto the paper and reflected and detected. If there is a mark on the paper, the
reflection of the light from the mark will be less compared that from a point where there isn’t
a mark.

MAGNETIC INK CHARACTER READER (MICR)MICR systems use special ink to print
characters. The characters can then be read and decoded by special Magnetic device. This
system is widely used by bands for processing cheques

LIGHT PEN. It consists of a stylus connected by a cable to the computer. The position of the
stylus is noted and a dot appears on the screen. When the stylus is brought into contact in the
screen, a light pen is the only instrument that allows th3e user to point directly to an object
on the screen. Therefore, identifying it to the system, this makes it possible to make a choice
from a menu displayed on the screen. Lines and curves may also be drawn by moving the
stylus on the screen

OUTPUT DEVICE
These are devices through which computers communicate with the users. The use of output
results from the computer.

The common outputs include

i. Monitor,
ii. Printers,
iii. Plotters
iv. Speakers

OTHER OUTPUT

1. Monitor
2. Printers (all types)
3. Plotters
4. Projector
5. LCD Projection Panels
6. Computer Output Microfilm (COM)
7. Speaker(s)

Both Input–Output Devices:

1. Modems
2. Network cards
3. Touch Screen

Page 27 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
 4. Headsets (Headset consists of Speakers and Microphone. Speaker act Output Device
and Microphone act as Input device)
5. Facsimile (FAX) (It has scanner to scan the document and also have printer to Print
the document)
6. Audio Cards / Sound Card

PRINTER

MONITOR

PROJECTOR

Headphone/ SPEAKER

Page 28 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
 DIGITAL CAMERA

THE MONITOR (VDU) The monitor is sometimes called the Visual Display Unit and is an
output device. It is a screen when the typed data appears (soft copy) and can be manipulated
into information and still the results are displayed on the screen. The monitor can be either a
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) as for most desktop computers or the Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
as in Laptops, Notebook computers and other flat panels. There are different types of
Monitors based on display resolutions and color. They are monochrome or colored.

Page 29 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
COMPARISON OF LCD AND CRT:
 High contrast ratio
 High speed response
 Full range light output level control
 Large size
 Large weight
 Geometric distortion in some CRTs
 Greater power consumption than LCD.
 Prone to moiré effect at highest resolution
 Can display natively in almost any resolution
 Intolerant of damp conditions
 Small risk of implosion (due to internal vacuum) if the picture tube glass is broken

LCD:
 Very poor contrast ratio (e.g. 20:1)
 High visible noise if used in more than 8 color mode (3 bit color depth).
 Very slow response (moving images barely viewable)
 Some suffer horizontal & vertical ghosting
 Very small size
 Very low weight
 Very low power consumption
 Lower cost than TFT LCDs.
 Zero geometric distortion

PRINTERS:
While monitors can produce softcopies (Intangible Displays), printers can produce a
permanent record (hard copy) on the output paper or any other printing media. There are
two major categories of computers’ printers i.e. Impact and Non-Impact printers.

IMPACT PRINTERS
Impact printer are printer that print whose print head strike the printing media directly in
order to form characters, examples include
i. DOT Matrix
ii. Daisy –Wheel and
iii. Direct Thermal Printers

DOT MATRIX PRINTERS

In the general sense many printers rely on a matrix of pixels, or dots, that together form the
larger image. However, the term dot matrix printer is specifically used for impact printers
that use a matrix of small pins to create precise dots. The advantage of dot-matrix over other
impact printers is that they can produce graphical images in addition to text; however the
text is generally of poorer quality than impact printers that use letterforms (type). Dot-
matrix printers can be broadly divided into two major classes:
i. Ballistic wire printers
ii. Stored energy printers
Page 30 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
Dot matrix printers can either be character-based or line-based (that is, a single horizontal
series of pixels across the page), referring to the configuration of the print head. At one time,
dot matrix printers were one of the more common types of printers used for general use -
such as for home and small office use. Such printers would have either 9 or 24 pins on the
print head. 24-pin print heads were able to print at a higher quality. Once the price of inkjet
printers dropped to the point where they were competitive with dot matrix printers, dot
matrix printers began to fall out of favor for general use.

DAISY WHEEL PRINTERS

A daisy wheel printer is a type of computer printer that produces high-quality type, and
was often referred to during the 1980s as a letter-quality printer (in contrast to high-quality
dot matrix printers, capable of so-called near letter quality (NLQ) output). There were also,
and still are, daisy wheel typewriters, based on the same principle.

THERMAL PRINTER
A thermal printer (or direct thermal printer) produces a printed image by selectively heating coated
thermo-chromic paper, or thermal paper as it is commonly known, when the paper passes over the
thermal print head. The coating turns black in the areas where it is heated, producing an image. Two-color
direct thermal printers are capable of printing both black and an additional color (often red), by applying
heat at two different temperatures.
Thermal transfer printing is a related method that uses a heat-sensitive ribbon instead of heat-
sensitive paper.

Characteristics of Impact Printers

1. They make noise while printing.
2. They have low character resolutions.
3. They are cheaper than the non-impact printers.
4. Rarely suffer paper jams.
5. They are slow especially those that use the line printing and character printing methods.

NON-IMPACT PRINTERS
These are printers whose print heads do not directly touch the print media but instead they
form characters by use of strings or jet of ink heated up within. They are less noisy compared
to the impact printers and they are commercially fast hence they are expensive. Examples
include,
i. The Laser Jet
ii. Ink Jet
iii. Bubble Jet

Laser Jet printers which are the same technology as a photocopying machine and operates at
a high speed. It changes data into a beam of laser light which becomes to be printed. Other
examples include The Ink Jet and the bubble Jet which use the spraying method to form
characters. The ink is sprayed from tiny holes of the ink cartridge on to the printing media
(paper).

Page 31 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
Differences between impact and non-impact printers
Impact Non impact
They are slow They are fast
They use an inked ribbon to print They use ink, thermal and lasser technology.
They are cheap They are expensive to buy
They produce asingle copy They produce multiple copies
They are noisy They are quiet in printing

PLOTTERS
Plotters are mainly used for printing large engineering and architectural drawings. The
largest paper size that can be used to print on is A1’s size paper. Plotters use pens to plot.

SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES AND MEDIA

Secondary storage devices/media refers to all the devices that provide an alternative storage
of data and information.
They are regarded to as secondary because they are not directly accessible to the CPU.
They provide a back up storage. The backup storage is used when there is no enough space
in the main memory for data, information and programs.
Data is written and read directly from the secondary storage device. To write data means to
copy, move to the backing storage. To read data means to copy, move to the backing storage.

FIXED STORAGE DEVICE

These are devices that cannot be removed without opening the system unit.
The hard disk is mounted inside the computer and for this is reason we refer to it as affixed
disk. Hard disk is the computer permanent storage and the hard disk can hold large amount
of data and is not affected when the computer is turned off.

Advantages of hard disks

 Hard disks store much more data than the floppy disks. The storage capacity of a hard
disk is Gigabyte ranges.
 Access to data is much faster to access than on floppy disks.
 Hard disks are more reliable than other removable devices.
NB: The hard disk is the main location where all data is stored.
Its disadvantage is that:
Hard disks are usually fixed and can’t be removed without opening the system case.

THE DISK DRIVE:

A disk drive is used to read from or write to a floppy disk or a compact disk. Compact drivers
are popularly called CD-ROM Drive. Many micro computers have only drives for reading
compact disks (CD).

Page 32 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
NB: when we need the information from the disk, the disk is inserted in the drive and the
copy of the information is loaded into main memory. The original version remains instant on
the disk.

REMOVABLE STORAGE MEDIA

These are devices that are not housed inside the system unit where data can be stored and
then removed from the computer. Data is written and read from them using drives.
 Magnetic tapes
 Floppy disks
 Flash disks

Examples of removes storage devices include.

- Magnetic tapes
- Floppy disks
- Flash disks
- Memory cards.
- Compact disks
- DVDs
ACCESS TIME.
This is the time taken to read the data from the disk to the main memory. It’s the sum of three parameters
that’s to say:
 Seck time
 Rotational / Delay Time
 Data transfer time

Page 33 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
 COMPUTER SOFTWARE
Computer software is a set of programs or a set of instruction that can change a general
purpose computer into a computer that is capable of performing special functions. Software
can also be defined as a set of rules or instruction / programs that can cause a computer
system to solve user’s problem.
Software is simply a collection of programs that instruct the computer to do work.
A program is a set of instructions that command a computer to perform a specific task

Software

System software Application software

Customized
Off shelf
Packaged
Utility software Operating ssm Programming languages
- Mergers - Stand alone - Low level (assembly
- Sorters - Networked and binary
- Backup - Single user languages)
- Screen savers - Multi user - High level (COBOL,
- antivirus Fortran, Basic)

Software is divided into two categories these include

1. System Software:
2. Application software

SYSTEM SOFTWARE.
These are programs that manage the computer’s operations itself. System software programs
are usually provided by the Manufacturer of the computer and they include.

THE OPERATING SYSTEM (OS)

An operating System is a platform on which application software can run or operate. It can
also be defined as a program (software) that manages all the computer systems that is
to say Hardware, Software, and Human ware. Operating systems are Programs developed
to manage the basic hardware systems or resources and provide a more hospitable interface
to users and their programs
NOTE
An Interface is a Place (platform) where the hardware, Human ware, and other programs
(software) interact with one another.

Page 34 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
FUNCTIONS OF AN OPERATING SYSTEM (OS)
The operating system is basically a resource manager and its Main function is to manage the
four basic categories of resources namely:
a) Memory Management
The operating system knows which part of the memory is in use and that one which is free.
Storage space is therefore provided for data and information in the memory by the Operating
system. Programs must be loaded in the memory before they are run (executed) hence the
operating system has the function of choosing where they should be stored in the memory.
Urgently needed programs are loaded in the primary memory at the booting stage while
those that will be needed later are loaded in the secondary memory.
b) Processor Management
A multi-user or multi-tasking computer system can be accessed by many users or many
programs at the same time but the CPU (processor) can only run one program at a time or
one user at a time. Therefore, the number of tasks or programs entering into the CPU for
processing must be controlled or monitored; this is done by the operating system. The
operating system uses the CU to control these processes. Note: A Multi- user system is a
system that allows many users at the same time while a Multi-tasking allows many programs
to run at the same time.
c) Input / Output Management
Programs required in the use of Input / Output devices and in a Multi-tasking system a
conflict may arise on who is to use which device, at what time and for how long. The
operating system solves this by monitoring the state of each Input an Output devices and
sends a signal if any faults are detected and to indicate which device can be used at that time.
d) File Management
The operating system monitors data and information, where it’s located in the memory. It’s
status, use late date of recording and storage, etc. these are facilities called the file system.
File systems deals with the logical organization of the information and provide a way of
sorting and sharing it through the operating system. The operating system can also provide
protection of files by use of passwords secrete codes to limit access of users to the files.
Note: A file is a collection of related information.
A folder is a collection of files.

CLASSIFICATION OF OPERATING SYSTEMS.

There are two types of operating system.
 Single User system: This is a kind of operating system which can act as an interface for
only one user. These are kinds of machines that STAND ALONE i.e. they are not connected
to any of the computers next to them. An example of a single-user system is a Microsoft
Disk Operating System (MS-DOS)
Note: An interface is a point at which groups of independent systems interact. This is a point
of interaction or communication between a computer and other devices such as Human
operator.
 Multi User Systems: This is a computer system which acts as an interface for more than
one user. Operating system can either be character based on [Command Line Interface
(CLI)] or Graphic based [Graphical User Interface (GUI)]
GUI CLI
Windows 95/98 DOS
Windows 2000 UNIX
Page 35 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
 Windows 2003 LINUX
Windows XP Macintosh
Windows NT Apple

UTILITY SOFTWARE
Utilitys/w is a program that helps to maintain and improve the efficiency of a computer
system. It is also a program that utilizes a system such as the internet to provide a specific
service. Utility software or software utilities are the software programs that function like full
application software but at a smaller scale for a particular purpose. Utility programs are
integrated / combined in most major operating systems. In view of the above, we can
therefore define UTILITY PROGRAM as any application or program that allows the user to do
cleaning or management on the computer system. Examples of Utility programs / software

a) Disk defragmenter (joins pieces)

This is a small but essential program that allows a user gather up all the pieces of files that
have been stored in a scattered array on the hard drive and joins them together in one
efficient piece.

b) Disk clean up (debugger)

This is a small but critical program that allows a user to quickly determine which file / files
that: are corrupted, no longer in use and not correctly saved on a hard disk so that they can
be eliminated to create a more efficiently operating hard drive.

c) Backup program.
This is a program which makes a copy of the whole computer system. This is done in security
of the hard drive crash.

d) Restore program
This is a program that restores data files or may be able to return data files or a computer to
its original state.

e) Drive space
This is used to compress and decompress disc drives and hard disks. This increases the
storage capacity from 50% to 100% more free space. Note: this Utility should be used with
care, since it could damage or destroy the contents of the compressed drives.

f) Scan disk
This is used to check files and folders for physical errors.

g) Inbox repair
This is used to repair damaged files.

PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES
A Programming language is a combination of symbols, word, and codes arranged in an
organization or logical order known as SYNTAX to help the user to communicate with the
processor (CPU). It can also be defined as a logical flow of instructions arranged in order to
Page 36 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
from a program in a specific language. There are basically two categories of programming
languages and these include.

a) Low Level Language

These are called Low Level Language because they are more / best understood by the
processor / machine than the user. I.e. Low Level Language is machine friendly. Low Level
Language are divided into two i.e. machine language and Assembler language

b) High Level Language

These are languages which are closely associated with the user than the machine hence they
are known as user friendly languages. Examples include BASIC, FORTRAN, COBOL, HTML, C+,
and C++

LANGUAGE TRANSLATORS / LANGUAGE PROCESSORS

Language translators / processors are used to change or decode or translate a high level
language into a low level language that can be understood by de processor. These language
processor include

a) Compliers
This is a computers program that translates / changes a program written in high level
language into machine codes. It can also be defined as a computer program that translates a
series of instructions written in one computer language known as a source language into an
output computer language known as the object or target language. NB. The complier
program changes the whole program at once into the target language.

b) Assemblers
Assemblers are programs that change Assembly programs / instruction into binary codes
that understood by the processor. Assembler normally begins from where compliers stop.

c) Interpreters
This translates line by line of a program from high level language to low level language.

d) Linkers
These are programs which combine complied programs and determine where the programs
will be located in the memory.

2. APPLICATION SOFTWARE:
These are programs designed to complete the users’ every day activities
These are programs that are written to meet the end user’s problems.

Examples of application programs and their function

Page 37 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
Ms word Word processing
Ms excel Spreadsheets
Ms access Database mgt
Ms power point For slide shows and presentations
Ms publisher Publications
VLC, vitualDj, Media player, Automix, Playing music
Photo shop Editing photos

They are basically divided into two types i.e.

a. General Purpose packages (Off-shelf Programs):

These are pre-written programs bought by the user and are immediately used (after buying)
to solve problems. They are programs that solve a wide range of problems. They are very
important for Non- specialists, homes or businesses. E.g. Word processor, Spreadsheets,
Databases, Graphical Packages such us power point and desktop publisher.

b. Special Purpose Application Program (customized Packages).

These are customized programs written by the user or a software house under contract to
perform a specific job or function. They are desired for a particular group of users such as
ATM, Hoteliers, and Estate Agents.
They are more expensive than the general purpose or off-shelf packages

Advantages of off-shelf packages over customized packages

 Off-shelf programs have a relatively low price since they are sold in large quantities
 They are appropriate for a wide range of applications.
 They are usually provided together with a documentation explaining how to use
them.
 They are easy to use and suitable for non-specialists.

Disadvantages of off-shelf packages over Customized packages

 They only give a general solution to a task at hand
 It is easy to forget the commands to use with the package if it is not frequently used.
 In case of spreadsheets and database programs, the user must in some way develop
new rules or additions to the program in order to do he/she wants to do exactly.

Page 38 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
 INTRODUCTION TO WORD PROCESSING

(MICROSOFT OFFICE WORD)

Traditionally, type writers were used to do office work such as typing documents,
reports, minutes, etc.
Today most offices use computers to do computer work. In this they use what is
called electronic word processors.

An electronic word processor (word processor)

This is application software that enables the user to create, edit, format, save and print a
document.
Word processing refers to the process of create, edit, format, save and print a document.

Examples of word processors

 Microsoft office word
 Notepad
 Word pad
 Lotus word perfect.
 Open office

Advantages of using electronic word processor

i. Documents can be stored for future use.
ii. It is easy to print multiple copies.
iii. It is easier and more efficient due to automated features like auto correct and auto
complete.
iv. It provides predefined features for generating headers, footers, endnotes, footnotes and
references.
v. They offer superior document formatting features like bolding, underlining, italics, use of
different colors.
vi. It has the ability to import and export table, graphs and text from other programs and
sources.

Creating a document on a blank window

 Click on start to open a blank window
 Go to all programs
 Select Microsoft office
 Open Microsoft office word
Or
 Once a window is displayed, start typing at the insertion point.
 The insertion point is a point where the cursor keeps on blinking.
 On typing if the current line if finished, the text / words automatically go to a new
line, this is called text wrap/ word wrap.

Page 39 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
 Saving the document
ii. click on file menu/ office button
iii. select save as
iv. create a file name
v. Select the location where to save your document.
vi. Click on save/ok
Or
i. Press control + s or F12
ii. Type file name
iii. Press enter.

Protecting a document with a password.

A password is a combination of characters and numbers that prevent un authorized users
from opening a document without the true users permission.

To insert a pass word in a document follow.

i. Click on office button/file menu.
ii. Go to save as
iii. Select tools
iv. Go to general option
v. Type the password
vi. Re type the pass word.
vii. Click ok
Deleting text.
 To delete characters from the right to left, press the cursor at the right of the word,
press the back space key on the key board.
 To delete characters to the right of the cursor, position the insertion pointer at the left
of the word, press the delete key on the key board.
Or
 High light the text to be deleted and then press the back space or delete key.

To restore the deleted text, click on undo command.

Proof reading a document

Proof reading refers to reading through the document to check whether it has typing
or grammatical errors. Microsoft office has spell checking features such as spelling
and grammar checkers. The wrongly spelt words and poor grammar are usually
underlined with a bleu/green or red line.

Spelling and Grammar checkers.

These are inbuilt features that help the user to check wrongly spelt words and poor
grammar.
The spelling and grammar checkers only recognize spellings of words whose correct
spelling is in its dictionary.
Autocorrect.
This automatically detects the wrongly spelt words or capitalized words and replaces
them with the correct ones.
Page 40 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
 Use of thesauruses
This is an editing tool that helps the user to find words or phrases with the same
meaning (synonyms) and opposites (antonyms) to the selected words.

Formatting word documents

Formatting can be defined as the act of making a document more attractive and
pleasing to the user.
The user can format paragraphs, text, pages or the entire document.
The user can for mat documents using the following features
i. Bolding; this makes the selected text appear more dark that the rest of the
text. The user can do this by selecting the text and then clicking on B in the
home tools or can use control +B
ii. Underlining; this refers to pressing a line at the bottom/base of the word (s).
Underlines can be of different types and forms. To underline a word, press ctrl
+ U or select the word and click on U in the home tools.
iii. Italics; this refers to putting the selected words in a slanting format. Use
control + I
iv. Changing font colors; in most cases the default color is black, but the user can
adjust the text color to the colors of his or her choice.
v. Font type and size; this enables the user to change the font types and size of
the words. Microsoft has a number of font types and sizes that you can use to
enhance the appearance of your documents.
vi. Superscript; this makes selected text appear slightly above others eg. CM2
vii. Subscript; this makes the selected text appear slightly below others. Eg. H2O

Paragraph formatting.
A paragraph is a block of text dealing with a single theme and starting on a new linethe
following can be done to format a paragraph
1. alignment;
This is the arrangement of text relative to the left margin.

Examples of alignment.
Left alignment; this is a default alignment that lines up the text along the left margin but the
text is un evenly aligned along the right margin.
Right alignment;this lines up the text evenly along the right margin but uneven along the
left margin.
Centre alignment;these lines up the text at the centre between the left and right margins.
Justify alignment; this arranges the text evenly along the right and left margins.

2. Drop cap
A drop cap is a letter that appears larger than the rest consuming more lines in a document.

To insert a drop cap

i. High light the letter to drop,
ii. Click on insert
iii. Select drop cap
iv. Go to drop cap options
Page 41 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
 v. Select the number of lines to drop.
vi. Click ok

3. Line spacing
This is a vertical space/ distance between lines of text. The default line spacing is
single space (1.5) but the user can adjust the line spacing to the spacing of his or her
choice.

Character spacing is the horizontal space between letters.

4. Bullets and numbers
Bullets and numbers are used to create ordered lists in a document.
5. Headers
These are lines of text that appear at the top margin of a page or selected pages.
6. Footers
These are lines of text that appear at the bottom of the page or selected pages
7. Page numbers.
These are used to organize large documents for easy references.
8. Footnotes and endnotes.
These are used in large documents to explain, comment on, or provide a reference on
a text in a document. Footnotes appear at the bottom of the page while end notes
appear at the end of the document.

Creating and manipulating tables

A table is made up of rows and columns of cell

cell Rows
cell
Columns

Page 42 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
THE INTERNET AND WORLD WIDE WEB (WWW)

THE INTERNET
Internet refers to the global interconnection of computers for the purpose of communication
and resource sharing.
Internet is the connection of computers to communicate together and share resources
globally.
Single User Switch
Computer Network

Internet

Switch
Computer network

fig 1

WORLD WIDE WEB (WWW)

This is a system of interlinked hypertext documents that can be accessed through the
internet.
With a web browser, one can view web pages that contain text, images, pictures, animation,
videos and other multimedia and can navigate through them using hyperlinks.

Basic requirements for the WWW

The following are the basic requirements needed for communication over the WWW
High memory/ processor
 Client and host computers
 Modems
 Communication software
 Telephone line
 Satellite facility

The internet service provider (ISP)

This is an organization/company that maintains the LAN attached to the WWW.
Page 43 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
Examples of ISPs in Uganda
 Mtn Uganda
 Airtel
 UTL
 Africel
 Smart telecom
 K2 telecom etc

Services offered by ISPs

i. They connect and disconnect customers to and from the service
ii. They offer customer care advise
iii. They give customer technicaladvice on software and hardware problems.
iv. They give discounts to the internet users in terms of zones, royalty programs etc

Advantages of using internet

 It offers personal connectivity for friends through face book, twitter, emails, and
telephone calls.
 It’s a tool for entertainment through on line games, videos, animations, refreshing video
clips and online animal zoos.
 It offers travel services such as e-booking and reservations for holiday makers and
tourists.
 It is a tool for financial management that offers answers to financial management
challenges e.g. Where, how and when to invest.
 It offers education and research facilities for students and researchers for knowledge
enrichment.
 It offers multimedia services eg. Videos and audio music
 It offers online banking services for online banking institutions e.g. ATMs, Big cash,
cyber cash, Millicent, western union, and credit card facilities.
 It provides news updates on climate, weather, politics and finance, sports, through
online news papers, radios, TVs and magazines.
 It offers online employment for online job seekers through online employment firms
and agents.
 It offers online medicine as diseases are diagnosed and medicine prescribed online.
 It offers courtship and marriage for people seeking lovers on line.
 It is a tool for transacting business through e-commerce and e-business. Goods are sold
and bought online.

Disadvantages of using internet.

 It leads to privacy violation as personal details are exposed to the publicseg.
Usernames and address.
 Online information may be intercepted by hackers and crackers.
 Viruses may attack and destroy online information.
 They are high initial and maintenance costs for setting internet, buying hardware and
software.
 It leads to moral degeneration. It dangerous to young people as they use internet to
access pornography.
 Internet has isolated man from man. All the businesses and activities are done online
eg meetings, conferences.
Page 44 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
  It leads to addiction.

INTERNET TERMINOLOGIES
i. Web server; this is a high speed and storage computer whose primary purpose is
to provide requested information to computers on the WWW.

Characteristics of server computer.

- It has very high memory and storage capacities
- It has a very strong processor
- It has improved network interface card.
- It has a high capacity RAM
ii. Web browser; this is a master control network program which makes it possible
for computers to share data and resources globally. Examples of web browser
include. Mozilla fire fox, web surfer, internet explorer, opera, Google chrome,
Netscape navigator.
iii. Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML);this is a programming language used to
design web pages and websites. It is a standard tagging language. It helps in the
creating and formatting of lines of text and other special headings of text, images
and other objects so that a browser can easily display them.
iv. Hyper link; this is a text or graphic designed to provide links in a website or
document. One a hyper link is clicked on it leads to a related document, file or
page.
v. Website; a website is a collection of related web pages. A website is a group of
java, html, MYSQL that are linked together by hyperlinks over the internet.
vi. Uniform resource locator (URL); this is an address used to locate a particular
website on the WWW.
Examples of URL include
- http://www.facebook.com
- http://www.twitter.com
- http://www.google.com

vii. Search engines; this is a program which allows the user to look for
specificinformation or documents of interest on the WWW.
Examples of search engines include
- Google - Gmail
- Yahoo - Messenger/msn
- Dog pile - Netiquette
- Lycos -
viii. Intranet; this is an internet that serves a single organization. It enables the
organization employees to share files and resources within their organization eg.
Printers, modems, faxes.
ix. Extranet; this is an internet that serves more than one organization. It can for
example serve a school, a nearby church or a health centre.
x. Protocol; this is a set of rules and procedures that control communication over
the internet.

Page 45 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
 Examples of protocols
Internet protocol (IP)
This is a set of rules that provide a connection of information delivery between the
computer systems. It is not a guarantee that IP delivers the data.
Transfer control protocol (TCP)
It is a set of rules that provide oriented connections. It provides a guarantee that
the sent data has been delivered and in case of an error, it is responsible for
retransmitting the data.

Other protocols that work hand in hand with the TCP/IP protocols
HTTP(hypertext transfer protocol)
It is used for sending and receiving of WebPages to and from the web server.
FTP(file transfer protocol)
This is used for transferring any kind of files to and from the web server.
SMTP(simple mail transfer protocol)
This is used for transmitting mail messages.
SLIP(serial line internet protocol) and PPP(point to point protocol)
These are used to control net work traffic over a dial up connection. They control
communication over the telephone lines.

xi. Electronic mail (email).

This is a message sent and received over the World Wide Web. In order for one to
send or receive an email, he/she must have an email account/address
Examples of email address;
Is an account that a person owns in order to send and receive the messageover the
Internet or WWW. Eg
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]

Elements of an email address.

Considering the email address below
[email protected]
Ambickeller @ gmail .com
Username Connecting sign Domain name Extension
Features of an Email Address
User Name: this is the name of the person to whom the E-mail belongs
Domain Name/Address: This is a site on to which the user is connecting. Examples include
the following:
i. Yahoo iii. Hot-Mail
ii. G-mail iv. Y-mail
Connecting Sign: This connects the user name to the domain. It is usually read as “at”
Pass word: This is a secret personal pin code used to restrict an authorized access to your E-
mail account.
Dot: This connects extension and the rest at the E-mail account.
Page 46 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
Extension: This is a short form of accompany or group that user is connected to.
Examples of extensions
i. Com-Company iv. Uk- United Kingdom
ii. Co- Company v. Ac – Academic institution
iii. Ug- Uganda vi. Org-Organization

How to create an email account/address

 Get connected to the internet.
 Enter http://yahoo.com or http://gmail.com
 Select create account
 Fill in your details like name, age, sex, DoB, Address, password etc. fill all the mandatory
fields.
 Click on “I agree” to confirm that what you have entered is collect.
 Click on submit.
 Your account will be created.

Basic features of an email:

Inbox; this lists all the messages received.
Sent box;this list all the messages that you sent.
Outbox;this lists all the messages you sent but failed to be sent.
Compose; this activates a screen onto which you type a message to be sent.
Attachment;this allows the user to attach other files and folders to the message to be sent.
To; this is where you type the email of the recipient.
Subject; this is where you write the main aim of the message.
Carbon copy CC; this enables copies of the message to be sent to third parties
acknowledging other recipients.
Blind carbon copy BCC; this enables copies of the message to be sent to third parties
without acknowledging other recipients.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE SPEED OF THE INTERNET

There are many factors that affect the speed of data transmission across the internet. They
include the following.
1. Computer woethese include viruses, worms, spy ware and other destructive programs.
These multiply over the internet Network while other a touch themselves to data packets
thereby increasing their size which makes them heavy for transmission.
2. Spam junk mail from commercial companies advertising goods is sent in bulk over the
internet system Network. This increases the internet traffic jam since data transmission is
slowed down.
3. The type of media used by the web pages being loaded i.e. txt is fastest followed by small
images, followed by large images and finally multimedia systems.
4. The speed of the computer. It affects the speed of the internet, computers with high CPU
processor power work hand in hand with the web browsers to process web pages while
those with slow CPU s take long.

Page 47 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
5. The speed of the connection between my computer and the ISP, if a modem is used,
the data transmission rate varies from 56kbps to 512kbps from cable Modem.
6. The type of Network card and its driver somewhere on your computer determine speed
at which files which will be downloaded or upgraded on the internet.
7. The speed of your ISP, determine the speed at which you will receive files from the
internet.
8. The speed of the server (web servers) that deliver web pages being loaded.
9. The speed of the outside network also affects data transmissions of the internet.
10. The location of your remote computer, affects the speed of the internet in a way that
signals weaken during transmission and this may slow down the whole process.

NETTIQUETE

Is the set of rules and customs that is considered polite when connecting on Internet.
They involve the following practices:
 It helping those seeking for answers on online.
 Signing out your account after use.
 Never to such or post pornographic material.
 Identifying yourself truly on internet
 Down loading only necessary files in order to avoid clogging the internet
 Posting polite statements on online.
 Respecting for one’s sites you reached on.
 Never search for friends that you don’t know on internet.

Netiquette for E-mail communication

1. Give the title subject of an email you are sending
2. Give the recipient of the message
3. Write your message in sentence case not all in capital letters
4. Identify yourself truly to the recipient.
5. Use proper sentence structures
6. Make sure your Email includes courteous ending/motivating

Netiquette for online group Discussion

1. Identify yourself with a true name on handle.
2. Give objective comments
3. Avoid bad language and have respect for other members
4. Keep the discussion on the topic available don’t divert the discussant in the
discussion.
NB: A Handle Is A Nickname Used On The Internet

COMPUTER MALWARE, VIRUSES AND WORMS

Definition: Malware is the term used to describe the collection of all software programs
designed to interfere in the normal operation of the computer system.
It is a combination of words MaliciousSoftware. Malware is software designed to infiltrate
or damage a computer system without the owner's informed consent. They include
Page 48 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
computer viruses, worms, Trojan horses, spyware, dishonest adware, and other
malicious and unwanted software.

VIRUSES:

Page 49 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
Page 50 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
Acomputer virusis a computer program that can copy itself and infect a computer
without permission or knowledge of the user.
The original may modify the copies or the copies may modify themselves, as occurs in a
metamorphic virus. The term comes from the term virus in biology. A computer virus
reproduces by making (possibly modified) copies of itself in the computer's memory,
storage, or over a network. This is similar to the way a biological virus works.
A virus can only spread from one computer to another when its host is taken to the
uninfected computer, for instance by a user sending it over a network or carrying it on a
removable medium such as a floppy disk, CD, USB drive or by the Internet. Additionally,

Page 51 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
viruses can spread to other computers by infecting files on a network file system or a file
system that is accessed by another computer.

Some viruses are programmed to damage the computer by damaging programs, deleting
files, or reformatting the hard disk. Others are not designed to do any damage, but simply
replicate themselves and perhaps make their presence known by presenting text, video, or
audio messages. Even these benign viruses can create problems for the computer user. They
typically take up computer memory used by legitimate programs. As a result, they often
cause erratic behavior and can result in system crashes. In addition, many viruses are bug-
ridden, and these bugs may lead to system crashes and data loss. There are many viruses
operating in the general Internet today, and new ones are created and discovered every day.
Examples of Viruses:
 Acid
 Acme (Uses email to destroy all files on the computer)
 A and A (Highly attacks Windows 95, 98 and MS.DOS)

WORMS
Viruses are sometimes confused with computer worms and Trojan.
A computer worm is a self-replicating computer program. It uses a network to send copies
of itself to other nodes (computer terminals on the network) and it may do so without any
user intervention. Unlike a virus, it does not need to attach itself to an existing program.
Worms always harm the network (if only by consuming bandwidth), whereas viruses always
infect or corrupt files on a targeted computer. Many worms have been created which are
only designed to spread, and don't attempt to alter the systems they pass through. However,
as the Morris wormand Mydoomshowed, the network traffic and other unintended effects
can often cause major disruption.
On the other hand, a Trojan horse is a program that installs malicious software while under
the guise of doing something else. A Trojan horse differs from a virus in that a Trojan horse
does not insert its code into other computer files and appears harmless until executed. The
term is derived from the classical myth of the Trojan Horse. Trojan horses may appear to be
useful or interesting programs (or at the very least harmless) to an unsuspecting user, but
are actually harmful when executed.

HOW VIRUSES SPREAD

1. Use of already infected storage devices like floppy diskettes, flash disks and other
portable devices.
2. Down loads from internet Bulletin Boards: Downloading software programs from internet
advertising boards. Such programs include free screensavers, smilesetc
3. Pirated software: Software that is not original from the manufacturer but sold by
vendors.
4. Downloading email attachments (binary files) form unknown senders. Normally this
could be Spam or hacker programs that have been encoded with virus codes in them.

5. Freeware and game programs are an excellent environment for virus developer to send
viruses to many people because games are liked by many.
Page 52 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
6. Interconnecting an infected PC on a network will also spread the virus or the worm to
the rest of the network.
7. Software updateswhen one is updating the software some applications has got viruses
which are got from the designed program.

HOW TO STOP THE THREAT OF VIRUSES AND OTHER MALWARE

PROGRAMS
1. Use of Anti-virus software such as Norton Anti-virus, Dr. Solomon Toolkit, AVG anti-virus
etc
2. Avoid external storage devices before they are scanned for malware.
3. Avoid downloads from bulletin boards and opening of email binary files/attachments form
unknown sources.
4. Always buy genuine software form original manufacturers other than vendors who have
pirated versions.

DATA COMMUNICATION & NETWORKING

Data communicationrefers to the electronic transfer of data & information that has been
digitally encoded from the source to the destination.

It is the high speed exchange of data and information from the source (sender) to the
destination (Receiver)

It is the high speed exchange of data and information between computers and any other
electronic devices through cables and wireless technology.

Elements of data communication

i. Sender; this is the device that initiates an instruction to transmit data and
instructions eg. A source computer.
ii. Receiver; this is a device that accepts data signals from the source device.
iii. Message; this is the data/content/information to be relayed/transmitted over a
transmission medium. It is usually in a digital/discrete form.
iv. Transmission medium; this is a communication channel/path over which data
signals are sent. Eg. Physical wire or wireless media like blue tooth, infra red,
micro waves etc.
v. Protocol; this is a set of rules and procedures for exchanging data and
information among computers and devices over a network.
vi. Communication device/signal converter; this is a device that converts the
data/ instructions from the sending device into a signal that can be carried by the
transmission medium to the receiver.

Page 53 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
DATA COMMUNICATION TOOLS.
Data communication tools include

i. Phones
ii. Emails
iii. Social networks
iv. Instant messaging and Skype.

Phones; Wireless phones are a most common form of communication in most countries
in the world today. Text messaging is rampant and with the advent of smart phones
which have PC enabled functions. People are now using phones to send large format
videos, pictures and multimedia. This is achieved by phone having blue tooth, hands free,
speakers and internet access.

Emails; Email is a function of the internet and many users can access it through myriad
devices like phones, computers, and Personal Digital Assistances (PDAs). Emails are used
to send messages and other multimedia from the sender to the receiver.

Social networks; Social networks enable interaction between different users who
communicate directly over the internet. Social networks include;face book, twitter,
badoo, whatsapp, palm chart, Viber, Imo, etc.

Social networks allow users to up load and download photos, pictures, and can be used
for digital record keeping. Some social networks are free to use. E.g.
http://0.facebook.com

Instant messaging and Skype; Instant messaging and Skype are often done over the
internet. Skype offers online calling, messaging, and video calling across the world.

DATA TRANSMISSION MEDIA

This is a communications channel/paths over which data signals are sent from the source
to the destination.

TYPES OF TRANSIMISSION MEDIA

i. Physical transmission media/guided

ii. Wireless/un guided media

Physical data transmission media provides restricted path/ physical path along which
data signals are propagated.

Examples of physical data transmission media include;

Page 54 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
  Twisted pair wire
 Coaxial cables
 Optical fiber cables.

Wireless data transmission media.

This is a type of transmission media that is used to transmit data from one point to another
without using any physical connections.

It is a kind of transmission media that is unguided because in most cases the signals are
scattered in the air and the user may have no control over them.

This kind of transmission is facilitated by use of antennas and receiver aerials.

An antenna can be defined as an electrical conductor or a system of conductors used for

either radiating or collecting electromagnetic energy.

Categories of wireless transmission media.

i. Satellite (broadcasting transmission); This is a micro wave relay station. It is

used to link two or more ground based microwave transmitter/receiver
earth/ground stations. Satellites are of two types ie. Passive and active satellites.
ii. Blue tooth; this is a wireless technology standard for exchanging data over short
distances. It uses a short wave length in the transmission of data. Blue tooth is
most used with phones to exchange data files over short distances.
iii. Wi-Fi (wireless fidelity); This is a wireless technology that allows an electronic
device to exchange data using radio waves over a computer network. A device that
uses Wi-Fieg a PC, video game consul, smart phone, or a digital audio player can
connect to a network through a wireless network access point.
iv. Infra Red; This is an electromagnetic radiation with a long wave length than that
of visible light. Infra red light is used in industries for scientific and medical
applications.
v. Micro wave; These are radio waves with a wave length ranging from one meter
and with a frequency of between 300mhz (0.3ghz) to 300ghz.

COMPUTER NETWORKS

A computer network or data network is a telecommunications network that allows

computers to exchange data.

In computer networks, networked computing devices pass data to each other along data
connections. The connections (network links) between nodes are established using either
cable media or wireless media. The best-known computer network is the Internet.

Network computer devices that originate, route and terminate the data are called network
nodes. Nodes can include hosts such as personal computers, phones, servers as well as
networking hardware. Two such devices are said to be networked together when one device
Page 55 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
is able to exchange information with the other device, whether or not they have a direct
connection to each other.

Computer networks support applications such as access to the World Wide Web, shared use
of application and storage servers, printers, and fax machines, and use of email and instant
messaging applications. Computer networks differ in the physical media used to transmit
their signals, the communications protocols to organize network traffic, the network's size,
topology and organizational intent

BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR SETTING UP COMPUTER NETWORKS

Networks comprise additional basic system building blocks, such as network interface
controller (NICs), repeaters, hubs, bridges, switches, routers,
modems, and firewalls.

Network interfaces; A network interface controller (NIC) is

computer hardware that provides a computer with the ability to
access the transmission media, and has the ability to process low-
level network information. For example the NIC may have a connector
for accepting a cable, or an aerial for wireless transmission and
reception, and the associated circuitry.

The NIC responds to traffic addressed to a network address for either the NIC or the
computer as a whole.

Repeaters and hubs; A repeater is an electronic device that receives a network signal,
cleans it of unnecessary noise, and regenerates it. The signal is retransmitted at a higher
power level, or to the other side of an obstruction, so that the signal can cover longer
distances without degradation. In most twisted pair Ethernet configurations, repeaters are
required for cable that runs longer than 100 meters. With fiber optics, repeaters can be tens
or even hundreds of kilometers apart.

A repeater with multiple ports is known as a hub. Repeaters work on the physical layer of the
OSI model. Repeaters require a small amount of time to regenerate the signal..

Hubs have been mostly absorbed by modern switches; but repeaters are used for long
distance links, notably undersea cabling.

Bridges; A network bridge connects and filters traffic between two network segments at
the data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model to form a single network. This breaks the
network's collision domain but maintains a unified broadcast domain. Network
segmentation breaks down a large, congested network into an aggregation of smaller, more
efficient networks.

Page 56 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
Bridges come in three basic types:

 Local bridges: Directly connect LANs

 Remote bridges: Can be used to create a wide area network (WAN) link between LANs.
Remote bridges, where the connecting link is slower than the end networks, largely have
been replaced with routers.
 Wireless bridges: Can be used to join LANs or connect remote devices to LANs.

Switches; A network switch is a device that forwards and filters OSI layer 2data grams
between ports based on the MAC addresses in the packets. A switch is distinct from a hub in
that it only forwards the frames to the physical ports involved in the communication rather
than all ports connected. It can be thought of as a multi-port bridge. It learns to associate
physical ports to MAC addresses by examining the source addresses of received frames. If an
unknown destination is targeted, the switch broadcasts to all ports but the source. Switches
normally have numerous ports, facilitating a star topology for devices, and cascading
additional switches.

Multi-layer switches are capable of routing based on layer 3 addressing or additional logical
levels. The term switch is often used loosely to include devices such as routers and bridges,
as well as devices that may distribute traffic based on load or based on application content
(e.g., a Web URL identifier).

Routers;A router is an internetworking device that forwards packets between networks by

processing the routing information included in the packet or datagram (Internet protocol
information from layer The routing information is often processed
Page 57 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
in conjunction with the routing table (or forwarding table). A router uses its routing table to
determine where to forward packets. (A destination in a routing table can include a "null"
interface, also known as the "black hole" interface because data can go into it, however, no
further processing is done for said data.)

Modems; Modems (Modulator Demodulator) are used to connect network nodes via wire
not originally designed for digital network traffic, or for wireless. To do this one or more
frequencies are modulated by the digital signal to produce an analog signal that can be
tailored to give the required properties for transmission. Modems are commonly used for
telephone lines, using a Digital Subscriber Line technology.

Firewalls; A firewall is a network device for controlling network security and access rules.
Firewalls are typically configured to reject access requests from unrecognized sources while
allowing actions from recognized ones. The vital role firewalls play in network security
grows in parallel with the constant increase in cyber attacks.

Advantages of Computer Networks

File Sharing; The major advantage of a computer network is that is allows file sharing and
remote file access. A person sitting at one workstation that is connected to a network can
easily see files present on another workstation, provided he is authorized to do so. This saves
him/her the hassle of carrying a storage device every time data needs to be transported from
one system to another. Further, a central database means that anyone on that network can
access a file and/or update it. If files are stored on a server and all of its clients share that
storage capacity, then it becomes easier to make a file available to multiple users.

Resource Sharing; Resource sharing is another important benefit of a computer network.

For example, if there are twelve employees in an organization, each having their own
computer, they will require twelve modems and twelve printers if they want to use the
resources at the same time. A computer network, on the other hand, provides a cheaper
alternative by the provision of resource sharing. All the computers can be interconnected
using a network, and just one modem and printer can efficiently provide the services to all
twelve users.

Inexpensive Set-Up; Shared resources mean reduction in hardware costs. Shared files
mean reduction in memory requirement, which indirectly means reduction in file storage
expenses. A particular software can be installed only once on the server and made available
across all connected computers at once. This saves the expense of buying and installing the

Page 58 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
same software as many times for as many users.

Flexible Handling; A user can log on to a computer anywhere on the network and access
his files. This offers flexibility to the user as to where he should be during the course of his
routine. A network also allows the network administrator to choose which user on the
network has what specific permissions to handle a file. For example, the network
administrator can allot different permissions to User A and User B for File XYZ. According to
these permissions, User A can read and modify File XYZ, but User B cannot modify the file.
The permission set for User B is read-only. This offers immense flexibility against
unwarranted access to important data.

Increased Storage Capacity; Since there is more than one computer on a network which
can easily share files, the issue of storage capacity gets resolved to a great extent. A
standalone computer might fall short of storage memory, but when many computers are on a
network, the memory of different computers can be used in such a case. One can also design
a storage server on the network in order to have a huge storage capacity.

Disadvantages of Computer Networks

Security Concerns; One of the major drawbacks of computer networks is the security
issues that are involved. If a computer is a standalone computer, physical access becomes
necessary for any kind of data theft. However, if a computer is on a network, a hacker can get
unauthorized access by using different tools. In case of big organizations, various network
security software need to be used to prevent theft of any confidential and classified data.

Virus and Malware; If even one computer on a network gets affected by a virus, there is a
possible threat for the other systems getting affected too. Viruses can spread on a network
easily, because of the inter-connectivity of workstations. Moreover, multiple systems with
common resources are the perfect breeding ground for viruses that multiply. Similarly, if
malware gets accidentally installed on the central server, all clients in the network that are
connected to that server will get affected automatically.

Lack of Robustness; If the main file server of a computer network breaks down, the entire
system becomes useless. If there is a central linking server or a bridging device in the
network, and it fails, the entire network will come to a standstill. In case of big networks, the
file server should be a powerful computer, which often makes setting up and maintaining the
system doubly expensive.

Needs An Efficient Handler; The technical skills and know-how required to operate and
administer a computer network is considerably high. Any user with just the basic skills
cannot do this job. Also, the responsibility that comes with such a job is high, since allotting
username-passwords and permissions to users in the network are also the network
administrator's duties. Similarly, network connection and configuration is also a tedious task,
and cannot be done by an average user who does not have advanced knowledge of
computers and/or networking.

Lack of Independence; Since most networks have a centralized server and dependent
Page 59 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
clients, the client users lack any freedom whatsoever. Centralized decision making can
sometimes hinder how a client user wants to use his own computer.
Computer networks have had a profound effect on the way we communicate with each other
today, and have made our life easier. From the World Wide Web to your local office LAN,
computers have become indispensable in daily life, and networks have become a norm in
most businesses. If networks are designed and configured keeping in mind its pros and cons,
they are the best piece of facility you could ever have.

Types Of Computer Networks

A local area network (LAN) is a computer network that interconnects computers within a
limited area such as a home, school, computer laboratory, or office building, using network
media. The defining characteristics of LANs, in contrast to wide area networks (WANs),
include their smaller geographic area, and non-inclusion of leased telecommunication lines

A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a computer network larger than a local area
network, covering an area of a few city blocks to the area of an entire city, possibly also
including the surrounding areas. A MAN is optimized for a larger geographical area than a
LAN, ranging from several blocks of buildings to entire cities. MANs can also depend on
communications channels of moderate-to-high data rates. A MAN might be owned and
operated by a single organization, but it usually will be used by many individuals and
organizations. MANs might also be owned and operated as public utilities. They will often
provide means for internetworking of local networks

A wide area network (WAN) is a network that covers a broad area (i.e., any
telecommunications network that links across metropolitan, regional, national or
international boundaries) using leased telecommunication lines. Business and government
entities utilize WANs to relay data among employees, clients, buyers, and suppliers from
various geographical locations. In essence, this mode of telecommunication allows a business
to effectively carry out its daily function regardless of location.

A campus network, campus area network, corporate area network or CAN is a computer
network made up of an interconnection of local area networks (LANs) within a limited
geographical area. The networking equipments (switches, routers) and transmission media
(optical fiber, copper plant, Cat5 cabling etc.) are almost entirely owned by the campus
tenant / owner: an enterprise, university, government etc.

A personal area network (PAN) is a computer network used for data transmission among
devices such as computers, telephones and personal digital assistants. PANs can be used for
communication among the personal devices themselves (intrapersonal communication), or
for connecting to a higher level network and the Internet (an uplink). A personal digital
assistant (PDA), also known as a palmtop computer, or personal data assistant, is a
mobile device that functions as a personal information manager. PDAs are largely considered
obsolete with the widespread adoption of smart phones.

Page 60 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
TYPES OF NETWORK MODELS
Peer-to-peer (P2P)

Is a LAN configuration where no particular computer is assigned the responsibility of

administering other computers on the network. Computers on the network communicate
direct with one another without a server. Peers are equally privileged, equipotent
participants in the application. They are said to form a peer-to-peer network of nodes.

Peers make a portion of their resources, such as processing power, disk storage or network
bandwidth, directly available to other network participants, without the need for central
coordination by servers or stable hosts. Peers are both suppliers and consumers of
resources, in contrast to the traditional client–server model in which the consumption and
supply of resources is divided. Emerging collaborative P2P systems are going beyond the era
of peers doing similar things while sharing resources, and are looking for diverse peers that
can bring in unique resources and capabilities to a virtual community thereby empowering it
to engage in greater tasks beyond those that can be accomplished by individual peers, yet
that are beneficial to all the peers

Client–server
model

Peer-to-peer (P2P)

The client–server model of computing is a distributed application structure that partitions

tasks or workloads between the providers of a resource or service, called servers, and
service requesters, called clients.[1] Often clients and servers communicate over a computer
network on separate hardware, but both client and server may reside in the same system. A
server host runs one or more server programs which share their resources with clients. A
client does not share any of its resources, but requests a server's content or service function.
Clients therefore initiate communication sessions with servers which await incoming
requests.

Examples of computer applications that use the client–server model are Email, network
printing, and the World Wide Web.

Network structure/topology (not examinable at A’ Level)

Network topology is the layout or organizational hierarchy of interconnected nodes of a

computer network. Different network topologies can affect throughput, but reliability is
often more critical. With many technologies, such as bus networks, a single failure can cause

Page 61 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
the network to fail entirely. In general the more interconnections there are, the more robust
the network is; but the more expensive it is to install.

TYPES OF NETWORK TOPOLOGY

Network Topology is the schematic description of a network arrangement, connecting

various nodes (sender and receiver) through lines of connection.

BUS Topology
Bus topology is a network type in where every computer and network device is connected to
single cable.

Features of Bus Topology

1. It transmits data only in one direction.
2. Every device is connected to a single cable

Advantages of Bus Topology

1. It is cost effective.
2. Cable required is least compared to other network topology.
3. Used in small networks.
4. It is easy to understand.
5. Easy to expand joining two cables together.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

1. Cables fails then whole network fails.
2. If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the network
decreases.
3. Cable has a limited length.
4. It is slower than the ring topology.

RING Topology
It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is connected to another
computer, with the last one connected to the first. Exactly two neighbors for each device.

Page 62 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
Features of Ring Topology
1. A number of repeaters are used and the transmission is unidirectional.
2. Date is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit.

Advantages of Ring Topology

1. Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nodes, as only
the nodes having tokens can transmit data.
2. Cheap to install and expand

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

1. Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.
2. Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.
3. Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.

STAR Topology
In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub through a cable. This
hub is the central node and all others nodes are connected to the central node.

Features of Star Topology

1. Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.
2. Acts as a repeater for data flow.
3. Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fiber or coaxial cable.

Advantages of Star Topology

1. Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.
2. Hub can be upgraded easily.
3. Easy to troubleshoot.
4. Easy to setup and modify.
5. Only that node is affected which has failed rest of the nodes can work smoothly.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

1. Cost of installation is high.
2. Expensive to use.
3. If the hub is affected then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes depend
on the hub.
4. Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity

Page 63 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
MESH Topology
It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. Traffic is carried only between
two devices or nodes to which it is connected. Mesh has n (n-2)/2 physical channels to link
the devices.

Types of Mesh Topology

1. Partial Mesh Topology:In this topology some of the systems are connected in the
same fashion as mesh topology but some devices are only connected to two or three
devices.
2. Full Mesh Topology:Each and every nodes or devices are connected to each other.

Features of Mesh Topology

1. Fully connected.
2. Robust.
3. Not flexible.

Advantages of Mesh Topology

1. Each connection can carry its own data load.
2. It is robust.
3. Fault is diagnosed easily.
4. Provides security and privacy.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

1. Installation and configuration is difficult.
2. Cabling cost is more.
3. Bulk wiring is required.

TREE Topology
It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy. It is also called
hierarchical topology. It should at least have three levels to the hierarchy.

Features of Tree Topology

1. Ideal if workstations are located in groups.

Page 64 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
 2. Used in Wide Area Network.

Advantages of Tree Topology

1. Extension of bus and star topologies.
2. Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
3. Easily managed and maintained.
4. Error detection is easily done.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

1. Heavily cabled.
2. Costly.
3. If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
4. Central hub fails, network fails.

HYBRID Topology
It is two different types of topologies which is a mixture of two or more topologies. For
example if in an office in one department ring topology is used and in another star topology
is used, connecting these topologies will result in Hybrid Topology (ring topology and star
topology).

Features of Hybrid Topology

1. It is a combination of two or topologies
2. Inherits the advantages and disadvantages of the topologies included

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

1. Reliable as Error detecting and trouble shooting is easy.
2. Effective.
3. Scalable as size can be increased easily.
4. Flexible.

Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

1. Complex in design.
2. Costly.

Note: the physical layout of the nodes in a network may not necessarily reflect the network
topology. As an example, with FDDI, the network topology is a ring (actually two counter-
rotating rings), but the physical topology is often a star, because all neighboring connections
can be routed via a central physical location

Page 65 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
 INTRODUCTION TO DATABASE
(MICROSOFT ACCESS)
A database is a collection of structured and related data items organized so as to provide a
consistent and controlled access to items.

A database management software on the other hand is a software that facilitates the
creation, organization and maintenance of a database.

Examples of database mgt software.

- Ms access
- MySQL
- Lotus approach
- Fox pro database

Functions of a database software.

It allows the user to create or add a record.

Allows the user to update and modify the existing records

It acts as an interface between the database and other application programs

It ensures security for the data

It keeps statistical data in the database.

Database models.
i. Flat files.
In a flat file model a database holds only one set of data and this is not different
from a manual file e.g.A students assessment report may consist of performance
cards for every students in a class.
ii. Hierarchical mode;
Data items are arranged in a hierarchical tree form.
iii. Rational database mode
This is where related items are stored together in a structure called a ration/table.
iv. Network mode.
This is the type of organization that links are used to express relationships
between data items forming a network of items.

Features of a database management software.

Most database software contains a collection of features that provide the user with
the means of manipulating data in a database.
These features include;
Tables
Queries
Reports
Forms

Page 66 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
 Tables; this is a database structure that is used to hold related records. Tables are
organized in rows and columns with each row representing a record while each
column represents a field in each record.
Queries;this is a statement used to extract, change, analyze or request a specific
data from one or more tables.
Forms;this is a graphical representation (interface) that enables the user to view
and enter data in a table.
Report;this provides the user with the means to specify output and what is to be
printed as a report.

Guidelines for designing a good database.

 Carefully study the user requirements in order to determine the input, output
and the relationships required.
 Design a draft database on the paper to determine the number of fields or
tables required.
 Divide the information into separate fields, records and tables to allow
flexibility in manipulating the table.
 Give important fields first priority when constructing a table structure.

Description of field data types.

When designing a database, the type of data to be entered must be clearly defined
for the purpose of storage and manipulation.

i. Text;this data type includes letters of alphabet, spaces and punctuation

marks. This database does not support any calculations. It can be used
where the user wants to enter only words involving no numbers.
ii. Number; these are fields made up of numeric numbers 0-9 that are
manipulated mathematically.
iii. Memo; this is data type made up of alphanumeric data (both numbers and
letters).
iv. Date/time;this is used to identify the field using either date or time. This is
because date and time value can be manipulated in a database.
v. Currency;this is a data type used especially when dealing with money eg.
Fees balances, salary etc.
vi. Auto Number;this is an automatically generated number. It is used especially
on user id number and index numbers that are automatically generated.
vii. Yes/no;this a logical data type entered in afield that requires the user to
answer whether the condition is true or false, yes or no. it can be entered
in a field that requires one to about sex, female or male.
viii. OLE object.(Object linking and embedding); this is use in field where the
user wants to insert a drawing, a graphic or a picture.

Terms used in relation to database.

Format; this determines how information will appear when printed. Eg. You can
format a number to currency, percentage, of general number.

Decimal places; this is used on field with numbers and currency; the user can
format the decimal places to the number of decimal places of his or her choice.
Page 67 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
 Caption; this is a more descriptive name for a field or table.

Default values; these are values that automatically appear in the data sheet. Eg.
Date and time appear on sheets automatically.

Validation rule;this is a logical expression that restricts the values to be entered

in a field. E.g. if you want to enter numbers that vary between 0 and 100, type >=0
and <=100.

Validation text; this is a message that appears once a validation rule is violated.

Require; this determines that an entry must be made in a field before you
proceed to the next field.

Allow zero length;this allows the user to proceed without making any entry in a
field set to zero length.

Index. This facilitates the organization of records for easy search. A primary key
is an example of an index.

Primary key; this is an index that uniquely identifies each record sorted in a
table. A primary key controls the user from entering a null or double entries in a
table.

Page 68 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
INTRODUCTION TO SPREADSHEETS (Microsoft office excel)

Page 69 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
CELL REFERENCE.
Types of cell reference

i. Relative reference; this is where the cell reference of a formula is automatically

updated when the formula is copied to a new cell.
ii. Absolute cell reference; this is where the cell reference of the formula remains the
same even when the formula is copied to another cell/location. This happens when
the formula is preceeded by a US dollar sign eg =$a$1:$a$5
iii. Mixed cell referencing; this is a combination of an absolute and rekative cell
reference.

Page 70 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
Page 71 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
Page 72 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
Page 73 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
Page 74 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
Page 75 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
Page 76 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
Page 77 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
 SYSTEM SECURITY AND ICT ETHICAL ISSUES.

Page 78 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
 Data protection measures

Page 79 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
 No secret database.

Right of individual access

Right of consent

Right to correct

Assurance of reliability and proper use

Noise

Page 80 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
Page 81 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
 ICT – Information and Communication
Acronyms Technology
ALU - Arithmetic Logic Unit IP – Internet Protocol
ASCII - American Standard Code for TCP-Transfer Control Protocol
Information Interchange IRC– Internet Relay Chat
BIOS - Basic Input Output System ISDN – Integrated Services Digital
BPS - Bits Per Second Network
CAD/M - Computer Aided Design/ ISP – Internet Service Provider
Manufacturing JPEG – Joint Photographic Experts Group
CAL – Computer Aided Learning Kb – Kilobyte
CAT 5 - 'Category 5' cable KH – KiloHertz
CD - Compact Disc LAN - Local area network
CD-R - Compact Disc Recordable LCD – Liquid Crystal Display
CD-ROM - Compact Disc Read Only LED – Light Emitting Diode
Memory LIFO - Last in First Out
CD-RW - Compact Disc Re-Writable MAN – Metropolitan Area Network
CPU – Central Processing Unit MICR – Magnetic Ink Character
CRT - Cathode Ray Tube Recognition
DBMS - Data Base Management System MP3 – MPEG Layer 3
DDR - Double Data Rate NIC – Network Interface Card
DFD – Data Flow Diagrams NOS- Network Operating System
DOS – Disc Operating System OCR – Optical Character Recognition
DSL - Digital Subscriber Line OMR- Optical Mark Reader /Recognition
DTP - Desktop publishing OOPL- Object Oriented Programming
DVD - Digital Versatile Disc Language
EFT - Electronic Funds Transfer OSI – Open Systems Interconnection
EULA - End User Licence Agreement PCI – Peripheral Component Interconnect
FAQ - Frequently Asked Questions PDA- Personal Data Assistant
FIFO - First in First Out POS - Point of Sale
FNF - First Normal Form PPM – Pages per Minute
FTP – File Transfer Protocol RAM - Random Accesses Memory
Gb – Gigabyte ROM - Read Only Memory.
GIF – Graphic Interchange Format SCSI – Small Computer Systems Interface
GIGO- Garbage In Garbage Out SQL – Structured Query Language
GPS – Global Positioning System TCP – Transmission Control Protocol
GUI – Graphical User Interface UPS- Uninterrupted Power Supply
GW – Gateway LCD-liquid crystal Display
HCI – Human Computer Interaction CRT-Cathode Ray Tube
HTML – Hyper Text Mark-up Language VDU-Visual Display Unit
HTTP – Hyper Text Transfer Protocol PPP-Point to Point Protocol
IC – Integrated Circuit
HDD-Hard Disk
PC-personal Computer
Page 82 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
URL-Uniform Resource Locator
CU-Control Unit
CAI-Computer Aided Instruction
ENIAC-Electronic Numeric Integrator
Calculator
UNIVAC-UniversalAutomatic
Computer
LEO-Lyris Electronic Machine
IBM-International Business Machine
ATM-Automatic Teller Machine
CCT-Close Circuit Television
SLIP-Serial Line Internet Protocol
PPP-Point To Point Protocol

BASIC-Beginners All Symbolic

Instruction Code
EBCDIC:-Extended Binary Coded Decimal
Interchange Code (EBCDIC)
BCD: Binary-Coded Decimal (BCD)
ENIARC - Electronic Numerical
Atomic Research Co

CMOS- Complementary Menta Oxide

Sem-conduct

Page 83 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613
Page 84 of 84
©Ambic Kbtm& family +256 (0) 702137613