Professional Education 8:

Assessment and Evaluation of Learning

Basic Concepts
• Test - an instrument designed to measure any characteristic, quality, ability, skill or knowledge
• Measurement - a process of quantifying the degree to which someone or something
possesses a given trait (i.e. quality, characteristics, feature)
• Assessment - a process of gathering and organizing quantitative or qualitative data into an
interpretable form to have a basis for judgment or decision-making
• Evaluation - a process of systematic collection and analysis of both qualitative and
quantitative data in order to make some judgment or decision; involves judgment about
the desirability of changes in students

Shift of Educational Focus from Content to Learning Outcomes

The Motivation for OBE is... A call for a QUALITY and ACCOUNTABILITY in
EDUCATION

OUTCOMES- BASED EDUCATION (OBE) and ASSESSMENT

● Education based on outcome. (Immediate or deferred outcome)

Immediate Outcome
● Are competencies/ skills upon completion of a lesson, a subject, a grade/ year, a
course or a program itself. Examples are ability to communicate in writing, reading,
speaking and solve mathematical problems.

Deferred Outcome
● Refer to the ability to apply cognitive, psychomotor and affective skills/ competencies
in the various aspects of the professional and workplace practice. Examples are success
in professional practice or occupation as evidence of skill in career planning, health and
wellness and continuing education.

OBE, Spady’s Version

● Spady Spouses transformational OBE. Transformational OBE is concerned with long-
term, cross- curricular outcomes that are related directly to student’s future life roles
such as being a productive worker or a responsible citizen or a parent.
● For Spady, the outcomes he refers to are the deferred outcomes.

Outcome- Based Teaching and Learning (OBTL), Biggs Version

Bigg and Tang (2007) make use of the term outcome- based teaching- learning (OBTL)
which in essence is OBE applied in the teaching- leaning process.

Learning Outcomes- outcomes which are specific than institutional outcomes, program
outcomes and course outcomes.
 - Statements that teachers need to expect among students to demonstrate after they
have taught.

Outcomes in Different Levels

Institutional Outcomes- graduate attributes that graduates of the institution are
expected to demonstrate after graduation.
Program Outcomes – outcomes that graduate of the program are expected to
demonstrate at the end of the program.
Course Outcomes – are the particular subject outcomes
Learning Outcomes- are the most specific outcomes that the teacher is concerned with
in his/ her specific lessons.

Principles of OBE
1. Clarity of focus- outcomes which students are expected to demonstrate at the end of the
program is clear.
2. Designing Down- basing the details of your instructional design on the outcomes, the focus
of instruction.
3. High Expectations – not all learners can learn the same thing in the same way and in the
same amount of time but all are capable of mastery and meaningful learning.
4. Expanded Opportunities – Most learners can achieve high standards if they are given
appropriate opportunities.

Constructive Alignment
● The assessment tasks and the specific criteria as bases of judgment of student’s
performance are aligned to the intended learning outcomes.

Program Outcomes for Teacher Education

a. Articulate the rootedness of education in philosophical, socio-cultural, historical,
psychological, and political contexts.
b. Demonstrate mastery of subject matter/discipline.
c. Develop innovative curricula, instructional plans, teaching approaches, and resources
for diverse learners.
d. Facilitate learning using a wide range of teaching

Learning Outcomes: Sources and Characteristics

●Learner- centered;
●Aligned with the institutional, program and course outcomes;
●Based on local, national and international trends;
●Very well understood by both learner and students;
●Include a spectrum of thinking (Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives)

6 Levels in the Cognitive Domain (Bloom’s Taxonomy)

●Remembering- To recall, recognise, or identify concepts
●Understanding- To comprehend meaning
●Applying- Use or apply knowledge
●Analyzing- Interpret elements
●Evaluating - Assess effectiveness of whole concepts
●Creating- develop new concepts or approaches

5 Levels in the Affective Domain (Bloom’s Taxonomy)

●Receiving- Open to experience or idea, willing to hear
●Responding- Get involved in or participate actively
●Valuing- Attach values and express personal opinions
●Organizing- Develop value system
●Internalising - Adopt belief system or philosophy

5 Levels in the Affective Psychomotor Domain (Bloom’s Taxonomy)

●Imitation- To observe and replicate
●Manipulation- Reproduce activity from memory
●Precision- Demonstrate activity independently
●Articulation- Integrate and adapt expertise
●Naturalisation- Automated, unconscious mastery activity

Marzano’s New Taxonomy

●Marzano’s model of thinking skills incorporates a wider range of factors that
affect how learners think and provides a research- based theory to help teachers
improve their learners’ thinking.

3 systems :
Cognitive System – processes all the necessary information and the knowledge which
consists of information, mental procedures and physical procedures.
Metacognitive System – sets goal and keeps track of how well these goals are being
achieved
Self- System – decides whether to continue the current behavior or engage in a new
learning activity.

Determining the Progress Towards the Attainment of Learning Outcomes

Purposes of Assessment
• Assessment for learning (Ex. placement, formative, diagnostic)
• Assessment of learning (Ex. summative)
• Assessment as learning (training teachers on how to assess)

Assessment
Traditional Assessment
● refers to pen and paper mode of assessing any quality, ability, skill or knowledge (Ex.
standardized and teacher- made tests) When teacher makes use of traditional assessment, he/
she uses pen- and- paper test.
● Pen- and Paper Test can be in the form of selected- response test or constructed-
response test
● When a teacher makes use of a non- traditional or authentic assessment, he/ she uses non-
paper-and pencil test like a performance test which is done through direct demonstration of a
skill in a process or procedure or through a presentation of a product.

Alternative Assessment
Performance-based Assessment - a mode of assessment that requires the students to
perform a significant task that is relevant to a task outside the school (Ex. practical test,
oral and aural tests, projects)
Portfolio Assessment - a process of gathering multiple indicators of student progress
to support course goals in dynamic, ongoing and collaborative process

Diagnostic assessment
● is pre- instruction assessment.
● Used to determine learner’s misconceptions to guide the teacher on how to go about
instruction.
● Done through a pre- test.

Formative assessment
● is assessment during instruction.
● Used to find out if students can follow the lesson or not.
● Teacher adjusts instruction to ensure that students learn the basic knowledge and skills to
attain the intended learning outcome.

Summative Assessment
● Assessment at the end of the instruction.
● It is the basis of grading.

Norm- referenced assessment

● Compares performance of learners with the performance of other learners

Criterion- referenced Assessment

● Compares learners’ performance to established criteria or standard of success.

Contextualized Assessment
● Focuses on student’s application of knowledge, skills and values in the context of work related
to specialization
Decontextualized Assessment
● Focuses on student’s knowledge and skills which are not necessarily connected to work
context.

Authentic Assessment
● refers to the use of assessment methods that simulate true-to-life situations.
● a form of assessment in which students are asked to perform real- world tasks that
demonstrate meaningful application of essential knowledge and skills

Non- Test assessment of Learning

● An alternative assessment in the sense that it diverts from the paper- and- pen test
● Formative assessment which is an ongoing process to give feedback to students to increase
their competence.
Examples of Non- Test assessment
Portfolio – a purposeful collection of student’s works that exhibit the student’s efforts,
progress, and achievements in one or more areas of the curriculum.
Teacher Observation- The teacher observes the students while they work to make
certain the students understand the assignment and are on task.
Example: Cooperative Learning
Slates or Hand Signals- means of signaling answers to the teacher
Example: Review Questions _ write answers and hold up slate
Daily Assignments – The student completes the work assigned om a daily basis to be
completed at school or home.
Example: Worksheet or research
Journal- Student’s write daily on assigned or personal topiocs.
Example: What do you remember in yesterday’s lesson.
Games – Teachers utilize fun activities to have students practice and review concepts.
Example: Science Trivia
Projects- After students are taught the basics of triangles, such as types, congruence,
proofs and similarity, each student is asked to create a poster, drawing, or personal
adornment such as fingernail design, piece of jewelry, or tattoo that uses at least two
different triangular shapes.
Debates- The students taking opposing positions on a topic and defend their position.
Example: The pros and cons of environmental legislations.
Checklist- The teacher will make a list of objectives that students need to master and
then check off the skill as the student masters it.
Cartooning- Students will use drawings to depict situation and ideas.
Example: environmental issues
 Models – The students produce a miniature replica of a given topic.
Example planetarium
Notes- Students will write a summary of the lesson. Example: Outline of the day’s
lesson
Panel Discussion- A group of students verbally present information.
Example: A discussion presenting both pros and cons of the environmental issues.
Demonstration - Students present a visual enactment of a particular skill or activity.
Example: proving that air has weight

Transversal Competencies
● are competencies that are transferable between jobs. People use to call them
experience, soft skills, emotional intelligence and employability skills.

Principles of High Quality Assessment

A. Clear and appropriate learning targets G. Practicality and efficiency
B. Appropriate methods H. Assessment should be a
C. Balance continuous process
D. Validity I. Authenticity
E. Reliability J. Communication
F. Fairness K. Positive consequences
L. Ethics
Assessment is of high quality when:
● It is in accordance with contemporary view or active learning and motivation
● It involves learners in the assessment process beginning with the setting of goals, monitoring
of their own learning and in building self- confidence because learners are intrinsically
motivated to learn.
● It is not just students’ meaningless reproduction of knowledge learned but linking information
to other bits of information meaningfully, critically and creatively to apply what they learn to
real- world situations.
● It is valid. It assesses what is supposed and intended to assess.
● It is reliable meaning the test procedures consistent scores.
● It is fair like when learners are assed on something they were taught and is not against
subgroups of students.

Some current trends in assessment are:

● Using not only objective tests that measure simple recall but a combination of objective tests
and performance- based with emphasis on the latter assessing higher- level cognitive skills.
● Integrated rather than isolated skills using multiple assessment methods from multiple choice
test to essay, an interview, a project, a portfolio to self- evaluation.
● Setting high performance and challenging standards including world- class standards for
interpreting results.
● involving students in all aspects of assessment from the setting of expected targets to
checking on their progress in the course of the teaching- learning process and in determining
the extent to which they realized expected targets.
● Making standards and criteria known to all students and even parents rather than be
secretive about them to provide a clear picture of a desired performance.
● Using computers as part of assessment

Characteristics of 21st Century Assessment

● Responsive ● Multiple Methods
● Flexible ● Communicated
● Integrated ● Technically Sound
● Informative ● Systematic

Performance-based Assessment
• A process of gathering information about student’s learning through actual
demonstration of essential and observable skills and creation of products that are
grounded in real world contexts and constraints

Types of Performance-based Task

• Demonstration-type - requires no product (Ex. cooking demonstrations, entertaining
tourists)
• Creation-type - requires tangible products (Ex. project plan, Research paper, Project
flyers

Criteria in Selection a Task

GOAL- Provide a statement of the task
- Establish the goal of the task; state the problem, challenge or obstacle in the task.
ROLE- Define the role of the students in the task.
- State the job of the students for the task.
AUDIENCE – Identify the target audience within the context of the scenario.
SITUATION – Explain the situation. What’s the context? What is the challenge?
PRODUCT – Clarify what the students will create and how they will create it.
STANDARDS and CRITERIA – identify the specific standards for success; Give rubric to the
students to develop them with the students.

How to assess performance?

• Identify the competency that has to be demonstrated by the students with or without a
product.
• Describe the task to be performed by the students either individually or as a group, the
resources needed, time allotment and other requirements to be able to assess the
focused competency.
Criteria in Selecting a Performance Task
A. Generalizability E. Feasibility
B. Authenticity F. Scorability
C. Multiple foci G. Fairness
D. Teachability
• Develop a scoring rubric reflecting the criteria, levels of performance and the scores.
Portfolio Assessment
• A purposeful, ongoing, dynamic, and collaborative process of gathering multiple
indicators of the learner’s growth and development
• Also performance-based but more
authentic than any other performance-based task

Principles of Portfolio Assessment

• Content principle – should reflect important subject matter
• Learning principle – should enable students to become more active learners
• Equity principle – should allow students to demonstrate their learning styles and
intelligence

Types of Portfolios
Portfolios come in three types
• Working portfolio – a collection of a student’s day-to-day works which reflect his/her
learning
• Show portfolio – a collection of a student’s best works
• Documentary portfolio – a combination of a working and a show portfolio
• Assessment Portfolio – is intended to document what a student has learned based
on intended learning outcomes.

Essential Elements of a Portfolio

o Cover letter
o Table of Contents
o Entries
o Dates Entries
o Drafts
o Reflections

What a Portfolio includes?

• Artifacts– are documents or products that are produced as a result of academic classroom
work.
• Reproductions – are documentations of a student’s work outside the classroom.
• Attestations – are the teacher’s or other responsible person’s documentation to attest to the
student progress.
• Productions – are the documents that the student himself/ herself prepares.

Steps in Portfolio Development

1. Set Goals 5. Reflect
2. Collect Evidences 6. Evaluate
3. Select 7. Exhibit
4. Organize
e- Portfolio
● Student- Centered e- portfolios – serve the formative purpose of assessment for
learning.
● School- Centered e- portfolios – administered by the school for summative
assessment purposes.
● Assessment e- portfolios – are meant to support assessment of institutional/ school
outcomes and are therefore intended for the school as a whole.
● Learning e- portfolios – are meant for learners to help them examine and reflect on
their own learning.
● Career/ transfer e- portfolios – are meant to provide students with a tool for
showcasing their achievements to employers of transfer institutions.

A measuring instrument used in rating performance-based tasks

Offers a set of guidelines or descriptions in scoring different levels of performance or qualities of
products

Rubrics
• A measuring instrument used in rating performance-based tasks
• Offers a set of guidelines or descriptions in scoring different levels of performance or
qualities of products of learning

Similarity of Rubric with Other Scoring Instrument

A rubric is a modified checklist and rating scale.

Types of Rubrics
• Holistic Rubric - Describes the overall quality of a performance or product; there is only
one rating given to the entire work or performance
• Analytic Rubric - Describes the quality of a performance or product in terms of the
identified dimensions and/or criteria which are rated independently to give a better
picture of the quality of work or performance

Parts of a Scoring Rubric

- Criteria
- Descriptions of the level of performance
Important Elements of a Rubric
Whether holistic or analytic, the rubric should have the following information
• Competency to be tested – this should be a behavior that requires either a
demonstration or creation of products of learning
• Performance task – the task should be authentic, feasible, and has multiple foci
• Evaluative criteria and their indicators – these should be made clear using
observable traits
• Performance levels – these levels could vary in number from 3 or more
• Qualitative and quantitative descriptions of each performance level – these
descriptions should be observable to be measurable

Tests
Purposes/Uses of Tests
• Instructional (Ex. grouping learners for instruction within a class, identifying learners
who need corrective and enrichment experiences, assigning grades)
• Guidance (Ex. preparing information/data to guide conferences with parents about their
children, determining interests in types of occupations not previously considered or
known by the students)
• Administrative (Ex. determining emphasis to be given to the different learning areas in
the curriculum, determining appropriateness of the school curriculum for students of
different levels of ability)

Types of Tests
According to:
What it measures Educational Test Psychological Test
(Purpose) • Aims to measure the • Aims to measure Students
results of instruction intelligence or mental ability in a
• Administered after the large degree without reference to
instructional process what the student has learned
Example: Achievement Test • Intangible aspects of an
individual
• Administered before the
instructional process
Examples: Aptitude Test,
Personality Test, Intelligence
Test
How it is interpreted Norm-Referenced Test Criterion-Referenced Test
(Interpretation) • Result is interpreted by • Result is interpreted by
comparing one student with other comparing a student against a set
students of criteria
• Some will really pass • All or none may pass
• There is competition for a limited • There is NO competition for a
percentage of high score. limited percentage of high score.
• Describes student’s
 • Describes student’s mastery of the course objective
performance compared to others
The scope of the Survey Mastery Test
test (Scope and • Covers a broad range of • Covers a specific learning
Content) objectives objective
• Measures general achievement • Measures fundamental skills
in certain subjects And abilities
• Is constructed by • Is typically constructed by the
trained professional teacher
Level of difficulty of Power Speed
the test and time • Consists of items of increasing • Consists of items with the same
allotment (Time level of difficulty but taken with level of difficulty but taken with
Limit and Level of ample time time limit
Difficulty) • Measures a student’s ability to • Measures student’s speed and
answer more and more difficult accuracy in responding
items
Manner of Individual Group
administration • Given to one student at a time • Given to many individuals at the
• Mostly given orally or requires same time
actual demonstration of skill • Usually a pencil and paper test
• Many opportunities for clinical • Lack of insights about the
observation examinee
• Chance to follow-up examinee’s • Same amount of time needed to
response in order to clarify gather information from each
student (i.e. efficient)
Language mode Verbal Non-Verbal
• Words are used by • Pictures or symbols
students in attaching are used by students
meaning to or in attaching meaning
responding to test to or in responding to
items test items
Who constructed the Standardized Informal
test and who can • Made by an expert ; tried out, so • Made by the classroom teacher
take it (Construction) it can be used to a wider group ; not tried out
• Covers a broad range of content • Covers a narrow range of
covered in a subject area content
• Uses mainly multiple choice • Various types of items are used
• Items written are screened and • Teacher picks or writes items as
the best items are chosen for the needed for the test
final instrument • Scored by a teacher
• Can be scored by a machine • Interpretation of results is
• Interpretation of results is usually criterion-referenced
usually norm-referenced
 Degree of influence Objective Subjective
of the rater on the • Scorer’s personal biases do not • Affected by scorer’s personal
outcome (Effect affect scoring bias, opinion, or judgment
of Biases) • Worded so that only one answer • Several answers are possible
satisfies the requirement of the • Possible disagreement on
statement what is the correct answer
• Little or no disagreement on
what is the correct answer
Format Selective Test Supply Test
• There are choices for the • There are no choices for
answer. the answer.
• Can be answered quickly • Preparation Of items is relatively
• Prone to guessing Easy because only a few
• Time consuming to construct questions are needed
Examples: • Lessen the chance of students
• Multiple choice Guessing the correct answer
• True-False or Alternative • Bluffing is a problem
Response • Time consuming to score
• Matching Type Examples:
• Short Answer
Essay Test • Completion Test
Examples:
• Restricted Response
• Extended Response

Assessment of Affective and Other Non-Cognitive Learning Outcomes

Affective/Non-Cognitive Learning Sample Behavior

Outcome
Social attitudes Concern for the welfare of others, sensitivity to social
issues, desire to work toward social improvement
Scientific attitude Open-mindedness, risk taking and responsibility,
resourcefulness, persistence, humility, curiosity
Academic self-concept Self-perception as a learner in particular subjects (Math,
etc.)
Interests Feeling toward various educational, mechanical,
aesthetic, social, recreational, vocational activities
Appreciations Feelings of satisfaction and enjoyment expressed toward
nature, music, art, literature, vocational activities
Adjustments Relationship to peers, reaction to praise and criticism,
emotional, social stability, acceptability
Stages in the Development and Validation of an Assessment Instrument
Phase I: Phase II: Phase III: Phase IV:
Planning Stage Item Writing Stage Try Out Stage Evaluation Stage
1. Specify the 1. Write test items 1. Conduct First 1. Administration of
objectives/skills and based on the Table Trial Run (50 to 100 the final form of
content area to be Of Specifications students) the test
measured 2. Consult with 2. Score 2. Establish test
3. Perform First
2. Prepare the Table experts (subject validity
Item Analysis
of Specifications teacher, test expert) 3. Establish test
4. Perform First
3. Decide on the for validation Option Analysis reliability
item format (Short (content) and editing 5. Revise the test
answer, etc) items based on the
results of the item
analysis
6. Conduct Second
Trial Run/Field Testing
7. Perform Second Item
Analysis
8. Perform Second
Option Analysis
9. Write the final form
of the test

The smaller the

Difficulty Index is, the
more difficult the
item.
The larger the
Discrimination Index
is, the more
discriminating the
item.

Interpreting the Difficulty and Discrimination Indices

Difficulty Index Interpretation Discrimination Interpretation
Index
0.00 – 0.20 Very difficult item -1.00 – -0.60 Questionable item
0.21 – 0.40 Difficult item -0.59 – -0.20 Not discriminating
item
0.41 – 0.60 Moderately difficult -0.21 – 0.20 Moderately
item discriminating item
0.61 – 0.80 Easy item 0.21 – 0.60 Discriminating item
0.81 – above Very easy item 0.61 – 1.00 Very discriminating
item
General Suggestions in Test Writing
1. Use your test specifications as guide to item writing.
2. Write most items than needed.
3. Write the test items well in advance of the testing date.
4. Write each test item so that the task to be performed is clearly defined.
5. Write each test item in appropriate reading level.
6. Write each test item so that it does not provide help in answering other items in the test.
7. Write each test item so that the answer is one that would be agreed upon by the experts.
8. Write each test item so that it is in the proper level of difficulty.
9. Whenever a test is revised, recheck its relevance.

Suggestions for Writing Selective Type Tests

1. Multiple Choice
a) The stem of the item should be meaningful by itself and should present a definite problem.
b) The item should include as much of the item and should be free of irrelevant material.
c) Use a negatively stated item stem only when significant learning outcomes required it.
d) Highlight negative words in the stem for emphasis.
e) All the alternatives should be grammatically consistent with the stem of the item.
f) An item should only have one correct or clearly best answer.
g) Items used to measure understanding should contain novelty, but beware of too much. h)
All distracters should be plausible.
i) Verbal associations between the stem and the correct answer should be avoided.
j) The relative length of the alternatives should not provide a clue to the answer.
k) The alternatives should be arranged logically.
l) The correct answer should appear in each of the alternative positions and approximately
equal number of times but in random order.
m) Use of special alternatives such as “none of the above” or “all of the above” should be done
sparingly.
n) Do not use multiple-choice items when other types are more appropriate.
o) Always have the stem and alternatives on the same page.
p) Break any of these rules when you have a good reason for doing so.

2. Alternative Response
a) Avoid broad statements.
b) Avoid trivial statements.
c) Avoid the use of negative statements, especially double negatives.
d) Avoid long and complex sentences.
e) Avoid including two ideas in one statement unless cause-effect relationships are being
measured.
f) If opinion is used, attribute it to some source unless the ability to identify opinion is being
specifically measured.
g) True statements and false statements should be approximately equal in length.
h) The number of true statements and false statements should be approximately equal.
i) Start with false statement since it is a common observation that the first statement in this type
is always positive.

3. Matching Type
a) Use only homogeneous material in a single matching exercise.
b) Include an unequal number of responses and premises, and instruct the students that
responses may be used once, more than once, or not at all.
c) Keep the list of items to be matched brief, and place the shorter responses at the right.
d) Arrange the list of responses in logical order.
e) Indicate in the directions the basis for matching the responses and premises.
f) Place all the items for one matching exercise on the same page.

Suggestions for Writing Supply Type Tests

1. Word the item(s) so that the required answer is both brief and specific.
2. Do not take statements directly from textbooks as a basis for short answer items.
3. A direct question is generally more desirable than an incomplete statement.
4. If the item is to be expressed in numerical units, indicate the type of answer wanted.
5. Blanks for answers should be equal in length.
6. Answers should be written before the item number for easy checking.
7. When completion items are to be used, do not have too many blanks. Blanks should be within
or at the end of the sentence and not at the beginning.

Suggestions for Writing Essay Type Tests

1. Restrict the use of essay questions to those learning outcomes that cannot be satisfactorily
measured by objective items.
2. Avoid the use of optional questions.
3. Indicate the approximate time limit or the number of points for each question.
4. Prepare the scoring guide (rubric) for the essay questions.

Criteria to Consider when Constructing Good Test Items

Validity is the degree to which the test measures what it intended to measure. It is the
usefulness of the test for a given purpose.
Types of Validity
• Face Validity – done by examining the physical appearance of the test
• Content Validity – done through a careful and critical examination of the objectives of the test
so that it reflects the curricular objectives
• Criterion-related Validity – established statistically such that a set of scores revealed by a
test is correlated with the scores obtained in another external predictor or measure
◦ Concurrent Validity – describes the present status of the individual by correlating the
sets of scores obtained from measures given concurrently
◦ Predictive Validity – describes the future performance of an individual by correlating
the sets of scores obtained from two measures given at a longer time interval
• Construct Validity – established statistically by comparing psychological traits of factors that
influence scores in a test (e.g. verbal, numerical, spatial)
 ◦ Convergent Validity – established if the instrument defines a similar trait other than
what it intended to measure (e.g. Critical Thinking Test may be correlated with Creative
Thinking Test)
◦ Divergent Validity – established if an instrument can describe only the intended trait
and no other traits (e.g. Critical Thinking Test may not be correlated with Reading
Comprehension Test)

Factors Influencing the Validity of Tests

A. Appropriateness of test E. Construction of test items
B. Directions F. Length of the test
C. Reading vocabulary and sentence structures G. Arrangement of items
D. Difficulty of items H. Patterns of answers

Reliability refers to the consistency of scores obtained by the same person when retested
using the same instrument or one that is parallel to it.

Types of Reliability Measure

Reliability Measure Method Procedure
Measure of stability Test-Retest Give a test twice to the same
group with time interval
between tests from several
minutes to several years
Measure of equivalence Equivalent/Parallel Forms Give parallel forms of tests
with close time intervals
between forms
Measure of stability and Test-Retest with Equivalent Give parallel forms of tests
equivalence Forms with increased time intervals
between forms
Measure of internal Split Half Give a test once. Score
consistency equivalent halves of the
test (e.g. odd- and even
numbered items

Give the test once then

Kuder-Richardson correlate the proportion
/percentage of the students
passing and not passing a
given item

Factors Affecting Reliability

A. Length of the test E. Scorability
B. Difficulty of the test F. Economy
C. Objectivity G. Adequacy
D. Administrability H. Authenticity
Assessment in the Affective Domain
Categories of Soft Skills
1. Social Skills
• Provides peers with positive feedback
• Offers help or assistance to peers
• Initiates interactions with peers
• Participates in discussion with peers
• Has sense of humor, shares amusement with peers.
• Has friends
• Can carry out leadership activities
• Engages in appropriate Social Behavior
2. Self- Management
• Controls displays of temper when angry
• Accept legitimate rules
• Compromises with others to avoid conflict
• Responds in socially appropriate ways to criticism from others
• Handles testing and social provocations
• Cooperates with others
• Maintains attention to tasks
• Is respectful to teachers and staffs
3. Academic Soft Skills
• Works independently
• Completes assigned tasks
• Listens to and carries out teacher directions
• Produces work of acceptable quality for ability level
• Brings requires materials to school
• Arrives at school on time and without due absences
• Ask for assistance as needed, ask questions
• Uses appropriate study skills
4. Approaches to Learning
• Enjoys school
• Takes on challenging tasks
• Has confidence in abilities
• Works Hard
• Is enthusiastic and adventurous
• Is involved with extra- curricular activities

Data and Data Measures

Measures of Central Location
Any measure indicating the center of a set of data, arranged in an increasing or decreasing
order of magnitude, is called a measure of central location or a measure of central
tendency.
• The arithmetic mean is the sum of the data values divided by the total number of values.
• The median of a set of numbers arranged in order of magnitude is the middle value or the
arithmetic mean of the two middle values.
• The mode is defined to be the value that occurs most often in a data set. The mode may not
exist, and even if it does exist, it may not be unique.

Interpretation of Measures of Central Tendency

• The mean (or median or mode) is the point on the scale around which scores tend to group
• It is the average or typical score which represents a given group of subjects
• Given two or more values of central tendency, one can define who performed poor, good,
better, or best

Measures of Variability
A measure of variation or dispersion describes how large the differences between the
individual scores.
• The larger the measure of variability, the more spread the scores, and the group is said to be
heterogeneous.
• The smaller the measure of variability, the less spread the scores, and the group is said to be
homogenous.

Range, Standard Deviation, Quartile Deviation

• The range of a set of data is the difference between the largest and smallest number in the
set.

Interpretation of Standard Deviation and Quartile Deviation

• Standard Deviation
◦ The computed value indicates how spread the scores are. One SD below and above the mean
includes around 68.26% of the cases. Measuring off two SD units on each side of the mean
includes (between the two points) approximately 95% of the cases. And for three SD units,
99% of the cases are covered between the two points.
◦ Helps in determining how many students performed about the mean or average, above
average or below average
• Quartile Deviation
◦ In a normal distribution, getting the median and adding and subtracting 1 QD on each side
includes approximately 50% of the cases. In a large sample, four (4) QDs on each side of
the median include practically all the cases.

Standard Scores
• The standard score or z-score for a value is obtained by subtracting the mean from the value
and dividing the result by the standard deviation. It represents the number of standard
deviations a data value falls above or below the mean.
Stanines
• Standard scores that tell the location of a raw score in a specific segment in a normal
distribution
which is divided into 9 segments, numbered from a low of 1 through a high of 9
• Scores falling within the boundaries of these segments are assigned one of these 9 numbers
(standard nine)
t-Score
• Tells the location of a score in a normal distribution having a mean of 50 and a standard
deviation of 10

Measures of Shape
Skewness – deviation from normality in the shape of a distribution
 • Positively skewed – most scores are low, there are extremely high scores, and the
mean is greater than the mode
• Negatively skewed - most scores are high, there are extremely low scores, and the
mean is lower than the mode

Kurtosis – the peakedness or flatness of the distribution

• Mesokurtic – moderate peakedness
• Leptokurtic – more peaked or steeper than a normal distribution
• Platykurtic – flatter than a normal distribution

Other Shapes
• Bimodal – curves with two peaks or mode
• Polymodal – curve with three or mode modes
• Rectangular – there is no mode