N.W.F.P.

University of Engineering and

T h l
Technology P
Peshawar
h

Lecture 08: Compression Members

By: Prof Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan

[email protected]

1
 Compression Members
• Structural elements that are subjected to axial
compressive forces only are called columns.
• Columns are subjected
j to axial loads through
g
the centroid.
• Th
The stress
t iin the
th column
l cross-section
ti can be
b
calculated as
P
f =
A

where, f is assumed to be uniform over the

entire cross-section
CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 2
 Compression Members
• This ideal state is never reached. The stress-
state will be non-uniform due to:
• Accidental eccentricityy of loadingg with
respect to the centroid
• Member out-of –straightness (crookedness),
(crookedness)
or
• Residual
R id l stresses
t in
i the
th memberb cross-
section due to fabrication processes

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 3

 Compression Members
• Sometime they may carry bending moments as
well about one or both axis of cross-section.
• The bendingg action mayy produce
p tension in part
p
of the cross-section
• Despite of tensile stresses or forces that may
produce, columns are generally referred as
“C
“Compressioni Members”
M b ” because
b compression
i
stresses normally dominate their behavior.

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 4

 Compression Members
y In addition to most common type of
compressioni members
b ((vertical
ti l MMembers
b
in structure),compression may include the
z Arch ribs
z Rigid frame members inclined or otherwise
z Compression elements in trusses

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 5

 Compression Members

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 Compression Members

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 7

 Compression Members

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 8

 Compression Members

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 9

 Compression Members

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 10

 Compression Members

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 11

 Compression Members Vs
T
Tension
i M
Members
b
Slenderness Ratio
y The longer the column, for the same x-section,
the greater becomes its tendency to buckle and
smaller becomes its load carrying capacity.
y Th
The tendency
t d off column
l to
t buckle
b kl isi usually
ll
measured by its slenderness ratio

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 12

 Compression Members Vs
T
Tension
i M
Members
b
Effect of material Imperfections
p and Flaws
y Slight imperfections in tension members are can
b safely
be f l di
disregarded
d d as ththey are off littl
little
consequence.
y On the other hand slight defects in columns are
of g
great significance.
g
y A column that is slightly bent at the time it is put
i place
in l may hhave significant
i ifi tb
bending
di resulting
lti
from the load and initial lateral deflection.

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 13

 Compression Members Vs
T
Tension
i M
Members
b

y Tension in members causes lengthening of

members.
y Compression beside compression forces
causes buckling of member
member.

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 14

 Compression Members Vs
T
Tension
i M
Members
b

y Presence of holes in bolted connection reduce

Gross area in tension members.
y Presence of bolts also contribute in taking load
An = Ag

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 15

 WHY column more critical
than tension member?

y A column is more critical than a beam

or tension member because minor
imperfections in materials and
dimensions mean a great deal
deal.

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 16

 WHY column more critical
than tension member?

y The bending of tension members

probably will not be serious as the
tensile loads tends to straighten those
members, but bending of compression
members is serious because
compressive loads will tend to magnify
the bending in those members.

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 17

Compression Member Failure

y There are three basic types of column failures.

y One
One, a compressive material failure( very short
and fat).
y Two, a buckling failure,(very long and skinny).
y Three
Three, a combination of both compressive and
buckling failures.(length and width of a column is
in between a short and fat and long and skinny
column).

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 18

Compression Member Failure

y There are three basic types of column failures.

y One
One, a compressive material failure( very short
and fat).
y Two, a buckling failure,(very long and skinny).
y Three
Three, a combination of both compressive and
buckling failures.(length and width of a column is
in between a short and fat and long and skinny
column).

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 19

Compression Member Failure
y Flexural Buckling g ((also called Euler Buckling)
g)
is the primary type of buckling.members
are subjected to bending or flexure when
they become unstable

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 20

Compression Member Failure
y Local Buckling This occurs when some
part or parts of x-section of a column are so
thin that they buckle locally in compression
before other modes of buckling can occur

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 21

Compression Member Failure

y Torsional
T i B kli These
l Buckling Th columns
l ffailil b
by
twisting(torsion) or combined effect of
torsional and flexural buckling.

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 22

 Sections used for
Compression Member
y In theory numerous shapes can be used
for columns to resist given loads
loads.
y However,
However from practical point of view
view,
the number of possible solutions is
severely limited by section availability
availability,
connection problems, and type of
structure in which the section is to be
used.
CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 23
 Sections used for
Compression Member

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 24

 Sections used for
Compression Member

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 25

 Sections used for
Compression Member

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 26

 Sections used for
Compression Member

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 27

 Column Buckling
y Buckling
B kli
y Elastic Buckling
y Inelastic Buckling

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 28

 Column Buckling
y Buckling
B kli iis a mode d off ffailure
il generally
ll
resulting from structural instability due
to compressive action on the structural
member or element involved.
y Examples of commonly seen and used
tools are provided.

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 29

 Buckling
g
Example

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 30

 Buckling
g
Example

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 31

 Buckling
g
Example

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 32

 Buckling
g
Example

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 33

 Buckling
g

y Example (a) is temporary or elastic

buckling.
y Example
E ample (b(b,c,d)
c d) are examples
e amples of plastic
buckling.

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 34

 Column Buckling
y Steel column buckling

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 35

 Mechanism of Buckling
g
y Let us consider Fig 1, 2, 3 and study them
carefully.
y In fig1 some axial load P is applied to the column
column.
y The column is then given a small deflecion by
giving a small force F.
y If the fprce P is suficiently small
small, when the force F
is removed, the column will go back to its original
straight position
position.

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 36

 Mechanism of Buckling
g
Fig 1

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 37

 Mechanism of Buckling
g

y The column will go back to its original straight

position.
iti JJustt as th
the ball
b ll returns
t to
t the
th b
bottom
tt
of the container.
y Gravity tends to restore the ball to its original
position while in columns elasticity of column
itself acts as a restoring force.
y This
Thi action
ti constitutes
tit t stable
t bl equilibrium.
ilib i

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 38

 Mechanism of Buckling
g
y The same procedure can be repeated
with increased load untill some critical
value
l iis reached.
h d

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 39

 Mechanism of Buckling
g
Fig 2

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 40

 Mechanism of Buckling
g

y The amount of deflection depends on

amount of force F.
y The col
column
mn can be in eq
equilibrium
ilibri m in an
infinite number of bent position.

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 41

 Mechanism of Buckling
g
Figg 3

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 42

 Mechanism of Buckling
g

y The elastic restoring force was not

enough to prevent small disturbance
growing
g g into an excessivelyy large
g
deflection.
y Depending on magnitude of load P,
column either remain in bent p position,, or
will completely collapse or fracture.

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 43

 Mechanism of Buckling
g
Conclusions

y This type of behavior indicates that for axial

loads greater than Pcr the straight position of
column
l iis one off unstable
t bl equilibrium
ilib i i th
in thatt a
small disturbance will tend to grow into an
excessive deformation.
deformation
y Buckling is unique from our other structural
elements considerations in that it results from
f
state of unstable equilibrium.

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 44

 Mechanism of Buckling
g
Conclusions

y Buckling of long columns is not caused by

failure of material of which column is
p
composed but by
y determination of what was
stable state of equilibrium to an unstable one.

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 45

 Mechanism of Buckling
g
Conclusions

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 46

 Compression member
B kli
Buckling
y Buckling occurs when a straight, homogeneous,
centrally loaded column subjected to axial
compression suddenly undergoes bending.
y Buckling is identified as a failure limit-state for
columns.
l P
(a) Pcr (b)

P
Pcr

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 47

 Compression member
B kli
Buckling

y The value of P at which a straight

column becomes unstable is called the
Critical Load.
y When column bends at critical load, it is
said to have buckled.
y Therefore,
Therefore critical load is also called the
buckling load.

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 48

 Elastic Buckling of
C l
Columns
y The
Th critical
iti l b
buckling
kli lloadd Pcr for
f columns
l
is theoretically given by

y Tendency
T d off compression
i members
b tto
buckling is governed by L/r

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 49

 Elastic Buckling of
C l
Columns

The intersection point P, of the two curves represents the

maximum theoretical value of slenderness of a column compressed
to the yield strength. This maximum slenderness (sometimes called
Euler slenderness)
CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 50
 Elastic Buckling of
C l
Columns

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 51

 Inelastic Buckling of
C l
Columns
y In elastic buckling, it was assumed that a column
made of a metal whose stress-strain curve is
linear until a yield plateau reached.
y For a column with intermediate length, when
buckling occurs after the stress in the column
exceeds the pproportional
p limit of the column
material and before the stress reaches the
ultimate strength. This kind of situation is called
i l ti b
inelastic buckling.
kli

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 52

 Inelastic Buckling of
C l
Columns
Tangent-Modulus
Tangent Modulus Theory

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 53

 Inelastic Buckling of
C l
Columns
Tangent-Modulus
Tangent Modulus Theory: Drawbacks
y Engesser’s Conclusion was challenged with the
b i th
basis thatt b
buckling
kli b begins
i with
ith no iincrease iin
load.
y The tangent-modulus theory oversimplifies
the inelastic buckling by using only one
tangent modulus. In reality, the tangent
modulus depends on the stress, which is a
function of the bending moment that varies
with the displacement w.
CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 54
 Inelastic Buckling of
C l
Columns
Tangent-Modulus
Tangent Modulus Theory: Drawbacks
y The tangent-modulus theory tends
to underestimate the strength of
the column,, since it uses the
tangent modulus once the stress
on the concave side exceeds the
proportional limit while the convex
side is still below the elastic limit.
limit

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 55

 Inelastic Buckling of
C l
Columns
Reduced Modulus Theory
y Engesser presented a second solution
to the inelastic-buckling, in which the
bending g stiffness of the x-section is
expressed in terms of double modulus
Er to compensate for the
underestimation given by the
tangent modulus theory.
tangent-modulus theory

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 56

 Inelastic Buckling of
C l
Columns
Reduced Modulus Theory

y For a column with rectangular

g cross section,
the reduced modulus is defined by:

The corresponding critical stress is

is,

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 57

 Inelastic Buckling of
C l
Columns
Reduced Modulus Theory: Drawbacks

y The reduced-modulus theory tends

to overestimate the strength of the
column, since it is based on stiffness
reversal on the convex side of the
column.

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 58

 Inelastic Buckling of
C l
Columns
Reduced Modulus Theory: Drawbacks

y The reduced-modulus theory

oversimplifies the inelastic buckling
by using only one tangent modulus.
In reality, the tangent modulus
depends on the stress which is a
function of the bending moment that
varies with the displacement w.

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 59

 Inelastic Buckling of
C l
Columns
Shanley’s
Shanley s Theory
y The critical load of inelastic buckling is in
f t a function
fact f ti off the
th transverse
t
displacement w
y Practically there are manufacturing
defects in mass production and
geometric inaccuracies in assembly.
y Thi
This iis th
the reason why
h many design
d i
formulas are based on the overly-
conservative
ti ttangent-modulus
t d l th
theory.
CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 60
 Inelastic Buckling of
C l
Columns
Shanley’s
Shanley s Theory

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 61

Factors effecting Buckling

1. End Connections
2. Eccentricity of loads/Crookedness
3. Residual stresses

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 62

Factors effecting Buckling
1. End Connections

y Rotation of ends of columns in building

frames is usually limited by beams
connectingg to them.

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 63

Factors effecting Buckling
1. End Connections: Effective length

y KL is called effective length of column and K

effective length factor.
factor
CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 64
Factors effecting Buckling
1. End Connections: Effective length

„ A column with fixed ends can support four times as much load as
a column with pinned ends
„ This benefit decrease with decreasing L/r until Fcr finally
b
becomes virtually
i t ll independent
i d d t off K
CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 65
Factors effecting Buckling
2. Effect of initial crookedness

y The initial out-of-straightness is also termed "initial

crookedness" or "initial curvature".
y It causes a secondary bending moment as soon
as any compression load is applied,
applied which in turn
leads to further bending deflection and a growth in
p
the amplitude of the lever arm of the external end
compression forces.

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 66

Factors effecting Buckling
2. Effect of initial crookedness

y A stable deflected shape is possible as

long
g as the external moment,, i.e. the
product of the load and the lateral
deflection, does not exceed the internal
moment resistance of any section
section.

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 67

Factors effecting Buckling
2. Effect of initial crookedness

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 68

Factors effecting Buckling
2. Effect of initial crookedness

y When straight column buckles, it

assumes a stable, bent equilibrium, but
with slightly
g y larger
g load.
y In Crooked column deflection increases
from beginning of loading and column is
in unstable condition when it reaches to
maximum load.

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 69

Factors effecting Buckling
3. Effect of Residual Stresses

y In tension members Residual stresses causes

the section to yield at a stress lower than the
yield point of the material.
y As a result, the elongation for a given load is
greater than would be calculated form elastic
properties.

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 70

Factors effecting Buckling
3. Effect of Residual Stresses

y Complete
p yyielding
g of x-section did not occur until
applied strain equals the yield strain of base
material.
y The residual stresses does not affect the load
corresponding to full yield of x-section.
x section.

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 71

Factors effecting Buckling
3. Effect of Residual Stresses

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 72

Factors effecting Buckling
3. Effect of Residual Stresses

y If the maximum stress σn

reaches the yield stress fy,
yielding begins to occur in
the cross-section. The
effective area able to resist
the axial load is, therefore,
reduced.

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 73

Factors effecting Buckling
3. Effect of Residual Stresses
Tests carried on W shapes

y Effect of residual stresses in causing

weak axis buckling at loads smaller
than those for strong axis buckling.
y This suggest two column formulas
for the steel W.

Structural Stability Research

Council (SSRC) proposed a single
formula to simplify the deign
procedure

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 74

Factors effecting Buckling
3. Effect of Residual Stresses: SSRC Formula

Design procedure be simplified by using Parabola

beginning with a vertex at Fcr=Fy where L/r and
terminating at Fcr=Fy/2 where it intersects and tangent to
E l Hyperbola.
Euler H b l
CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 75
Factors effecting Buckling
Combined Effect of Crookedness & Residual Stresses

y An initial out-of-straightness
out of straightness eo, produces a
bending moment giving a maximum bending
stress sB
y If smax is greater than the yield stress the final
di t ib ti will
distribution ill b
be partt plastic
l ti and
d partt off th
the
member will have yielded in compression.

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 76

Factors effecting Buckling
Combined Effect of Crookedness & Residual Stresses

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 77

 Code Requirements
ASD Formula
⎧ ⎡ ⎛ ⎞ ⎤
2
⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎜ KL ⎥ ⎪
⎪ ⎢ 1⎜ r ⎟ ⎥ ⎪
⎪ Fy 1 −
⎢ 2 ⎜ Cc ⎟ ⎥ ⎪
⎪ ⎢ ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ ⎪
⎪ ⎢ ⎜ ⎪
⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦ KL
⎪ KKKKKKKKKKKK ≤ Cc ⎪
⎪ ⎪
3
KL ⎛ KL ⎞ r
⎪ +5 3 r− ⎜
1 r⎟ ⎪
⎪ 3 8 Cc ⎜
8 Cc ⎟ ⎪
⎪ ⎝ ⎠ ⎪
⎪ ⎪
Fa = ⎨ ⎬
⎪ ⎪
⎪ 12π 2
E 149000 KL
= ≥ Cc ⎪
( ) ( )
KKKKKKKKKKKKK
⎪ 23 KL 2
KL
2
r ⎪
⎪ r r ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪⎩ ⎪⎭

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 78

 Code Requirements
LRFD Specifications
y The design strength of columns for the flexural
buckling limit state is equal to φcPn
y Where,
Wh φc = 0.85
0 85 (Resistance factor for compression members)

Pn = Ag Fcr
For λc ≤ 1.5 Fcr = 0.658 ( λ2c
)F
y

⎡ 0.877 ⎤
For λc > 1.5 Fcr = ⎢ 2 ⎥ Fy
⎢⎣ λ c ⎥⎦

K L Fy
Where λc =
Where, rπ E
CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 79
 Code Requirements
LRFD Specifications

10
1.0
(
Fcr = 0.658λ c
2
)Fy

Fcr/Fy
⎡ 0.877 ⎤
0.39 Fcr = ⎢ 2 ⎥ Fy
⎢⎣ λ c ⎥⎦

K L Fy 15
1.5
λc =
rπ E

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 80

 Local Buckling

y If the column
col mn section is made of thin
(slender) plate elements, then failure
can occur due to local buckling
g of
the flanges or the webs in
compression well before the
calculated buckling strength of the
whole member is reached.
y When thin plates are used to carry
compressive stresses they are
particularly susceptible to buckling
about
b t ththeir
i weakk axis
i d
due smallll
moment of Inertia.

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 81

 Local Buckling

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 82

 Local Buckling

Flange Buckling

Laterally buckled beams

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 83

 Local Buckling

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 84

 Local Buckling

y If local
l lb kli off the
buckling h iindividual
di id l plate
l elements
l
occurs, then the column may not be able to
develop its buckling strength
strength.
y Therefore, the local buckling limit state must be
prevented from controlling the column strength.

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 85

 Local Buckling

y Local buckling depends on the slenderness

(width to thickness b/t ratio) of the plate element
(width-to-
and the yield stress (Fy) of the material.
y Each plate element must be stocky enough, i.e.,
have a b/t ratio that prevents local buckling from
governing
i th the column
l strength.
t th

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 86

 Local Buckling
y The critical stress for rectangular plates with
various
i ttypes off edge
d supports,t and d with
ith
loads in the plane of the plate distributed
along
l th
the edges
d iin various
i ways iis given
i b
by

„ K= Constant depends on
„ How edges
d are supportedd
„ Ratio of plate length to plate width
„ Nature
N t off lloading
di
CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 87
 Local Buckling
y The coefficient k has a minimum value of 4 for
a/b=1 2 3 etc.
a/b=1,2,3 etc
y The error in using k =4 decreases with increasing a/b
and for a/b= 10 or more
more, it is extremely small
small.

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 88

 Local Buckling

y Critical
C iti l stresses
t ffor plate
l t bbuckling
kli can b
be
evaluated by determination of equivalent
slenderness ratio for which a column will
buckle at same stress, using

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 89

 Local Buckling

y The AISC specification provides the

slenderness
l d (b/t) lilimits
it th
thatt th
the iindividual
di id l
plate elements must satisfy so that local
buckling does not control.
y Consult
C lt ttable
bl 44-4
4 off Gaylord
G l d

CE-409: Lecture 08 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 90

Thanks