Farming System and Sustainable Agriculture

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200
Farming system
and Sustainable
Agriculture
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Index
S.No. Topic Name Page

No.
1. Introduction to sustainable Agriculture 1
2. Factors affecting ecological balance and sustanability of 8
agricultural resources
3. Rise in Wate table, water logging, Salanization & Alkalization 14
and Sea Waterinundation & its Effects on Agriculture
4. Groundwater development 22
5. Environmental Pollution 25
6. Fertilizer as a source of Pollution and control measures 31
7. Pesticides as a source of Pollution and control Measures 35
8. Management of Natural Resources (Soil, Water, Vegetation 43
and Energy)
9. Conjunctive Use of Water 50
11. Wastelands and Their Management 52
12. Organic Farming 55
13. Farming Systems-I 63
14. Study of Allied Enterprises-I (Dairying and Sheep & Goat 73
Rearing)
15. Study of Allied Enterprises-II (Poultry Farming, Fisheries and 79
Apiculture)
16. Study of Allied Enterprises-III (Sericulture and Agroforestry 84
Systems)
17. Bio-Diversity 89
Lecture -1
INTRODUCTION TO SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE

1.1 Introduction
Modern agriculture begins on the research station, where researchers have
access to all i.e., necessary inputs of fertilizers, pesticides, and labour at all the
appropriate times. For high productivity per hectare, farmers, need access to the
whole package – modern seeds, water, labour, capital or credit, fertilizers and
pesticides.
1.2 Adverse effects of modern high- input agriculture
• Overuse of natural resources, causing depletion of groundwater, and loss of
forests, wild habitats, and of their capacity to absorb water, causing waterlogging
and increased salinity:
• Contamination of the atmosphere by ammonia, nitrous oxide, methane and the
products of burning, which play a role in ozone depletion, global warming and
atmospheric pollution:
• Contamination of food and fodder by residues of pesticides,nitrates and antibiotics.
• Contamination of water by pesticides, nitrates, soil and livestock water, causing
harm to wildlife, disruption of ecosystems and possible health problems in
drinking water.
• Build up of resistance to pesticides in pests and diseases including herbicide
resistance in weeds
• Damage of farm and natural resources by pesticides, causing harm to farm workers
and public, disruption of ecosystems and harm to wildlife.
• Erosion of genetic diversity – the tendency in agriculture to standardize and
specialize by focusing on modern varieties, causing the displacement of traditional
varieties and breeds:
• New health hazards for workers in the agrochemical and food- processing
Farming system & Sustainable Agriculture 1

industries
Almost at the same time the realization of prime importance of staple food
production for achieving food security for future generations has brought the
concept of “Sustainable Agriculture” to the forefront and began to take shape in the
following three points.
1. The interrelatedness of all the farming systems including the farmer and
the family.
2. The importance of many biological balances in the system.
3. The need to maximize desired biological relationships in the system and
minimize the use of materials and practices that disrupt these relations.
1.3 Definition of Sustainable Agriculture
Sustainable Agriculture refers to a range of strategies for addressing many
problems that effect agriculture. Such problems include loss of soil productivity
from excessive soil erosion and associated plant nutrient losses, surface and
ground water pollution from pesticides, fertilizers and sediments, impending
shortages of nonrenewable resources, and low farm income from depressed
commodity prices and high production costs. Furthermore, “Sustainable” implies a
time dimension and the capacity of a farming system to endure indefinitely.
(Lockertz, 1988)
The successful management of resources for agriculture to satisfy changing human
needs while maintaining or enhancing the (Natural resource- base and avoiding
environmental degradation)
(TAC-CGIAR, 1988)
A sustainable Agriculture is a system of agriculture that is committed to maintain
and preserve the agriculture base of soil, water , and atmosphere ensuring future
generations the capacity to feed themselves with an adequate supply of safe
and wholesome food’
(Gracet, 1990)
‘A Sustainable Agriculture system is one that can indefinitely meet demands for
food and fibre at socially acceptable, economic and environment cost’
(Crosson, 1992)
A broad and commonly accepted definition of sustainableAgriculture is as
follows:
Sustainable Agriculture refers to an agricultural production and distribution system

that:
• Achieves the integration of natural biological cycles and controls
• Protects and renews soil fertility and the natural resource base
• Reduces the use of nonrenewable resources and purchased( external or off-farm)
production inputs
• Optimizes the management and use of on- farm inputs
• Provides on adequate and dependable farm income
• Promotes opportunity in family farming and farm communities,and
• Minimizes adverse impacts on health, safety, wildlife, waterquality and the
environment
1.4 Current concept of sustainable agriculture
Productive and Conserves

Profitable Resources and Enhances health
protects the and safety
environment
Low input
methods
andskilled
manageme
Farming system & Sustainable Agriculture nt 3
1. Reduceduse of synthetic
2. chemical inputs
3. Biological pest control
4. Soil and water conservation practices
5. Use of animal and green manures
6. Biotechnology
7. Crop rotations
8. Use of Organic wastes
9. Crop- livestock diversification
10. Mechanical cultivation
11. Naturally occurring processes
1.5 Goals of sustainable Agriculture

A sustainable Agriculture, therefore, is any system of food or fiberproduction that
systematically pursues the following goals:
• A more thorough incorporation of natural processes such as nutrient cycling
nitrogen fixation and pest-predator relationships into agricultural production
processes:
• A reduction in the use of those off-farm, external and nonrenewable inputs with
the greatest potential to damage the environment or harm the health of farmers and
consumers, and more targeted use of the remaining inputs used with a view to
minimize variable costs:
• The full participation of farmers and rural people in all processes of problem
analysis and technology development, adoption and extension.
• A more equitable access to predictive resources and opportunities, and progress
towards more socially just forms of Agriculture:
• A greater productive use of the biological and genetic potential of plant and animal
species:
• A greater productive use of local knowledge and practices, including innovation in
approaches not yet fully understood by scientists or widely adopted by farmers:
• An increase in self-reliance among farmers and rural people
1.6 Elements of sustainability
(a) Soil conservation- Many soil conservation methods, includingcontour
cultivates contour bunding, graded bunding, vegetative barriers, strip cropping
cover cropping, reduced tillage etc help prevent loss ofsoil due to wind and
water erosion
(b) Crop diversity- Growing a greater variety of crops on a farm can help reduce
risks from extremes in weather, market conditions or crop pests. Increased
diversity crops and other plants, such as trees and shrubs, also can contribute to
soil conservation, wildlife habitat andincreased populations of beneficial insects
(c) Nutrient management- Proper management of nitrogen and other plant nutrients
con improve the soil and protect environment. Increased use of farm nutrient
sources such as manure and leguminous cover crops,also reduces purchased
fertilizer costs.
(d) Integrated pest management (IPM)- IPM is a sustainable approach to
managing pests by combining biological, cultural, physical and chemical tools in
way that minimizes economic, health and environmental risks.
(e) Cover crops- Growing plant such as sun hemp, horse gram, pillipesara in the off
season after harvesting a grain or vegetable crop canprovide several benefits,
including weed suppression, erosion control,and improved soil nutrients and
soil quality .
(f) Rotational grazing- New management- intensive grazing systemstake animals
out barn into the pasture to provide high-quality forage andreduced feed cost.
(g) Water quality & water conservation- Water conservation and protection have
important part of Agricultural stewardship. Many practices have been develop
conserve Viz., deep ploughing, mulching, micro irrigation techniques etc..,
protect quality of drinking and surface water .
(h) Agro forestry- Trees and other woody perennials are oftenunderutilized on
covers a range of practices Viz., olvi-silvicuture,silive-pastoral, agri-silvi-pagri-
horticulture, horti/silvipastoral, alleycropping, tree farming , lay farm that help
conserve, soil and water.
(i) Marketing- Farmers across the country are finding that improvedmarketing
-----way to enhance profitability, direct marketing of agricultural product from
farmers to consumers is becoming much morecommon, including through Rythu
bazaar rod side stands .
1.7 Status of sustainable Agriculture in India
Current research programmes towards sustainable agriculture are as follows:
1. Resistant crop varieties to soil, climatic and biotic stresses
2. Multiple cropping system for irrigated areas and tree-based farming system rainfall
area.
3. Integrated nutrient management
(a) Combined use of organic and inorganic sources ofnutrients
(b) Use of green manures (Sesbania, Crotalaria etc)
(c) Inclusion of pulse crops in crop sequence
(d) Use of bio fertilizers
4. Integrated pest management
(a) Microbial control
(b) Use of botanicals
(c) Use of predators
5. Soil and water conservation
(a) Watershed management
(b) Use of organics as mulch and manure
(c) Use of bio-fencing like vettiver
6. Agroforestry systems in dry lands/ sloppy areas and erosion proneareas
7. Farm implements to save energy in agriculture
8. Input use efficiency
(a) Water technology
(b) Fertilizer technology

9. Plant genetic resource collection and conservation.

Lecture-.2
FACTORS AFFECTING ECOLOGICAL BALANCE AND

SUSTANABILITY OF AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES
2.1 Introduction
The total food grain demand of India by 2020 is estimated at 294 million tones as against the
present 224 million tonnes (2010-11), which has to come from the almost static net cultivated area
of about 142 million ha.
Major factors affecting the ecological balance and sustainability of agricultural resources
are:
a) Land/soil related problems
• Soil degradatiom
• Deforestation
• Accelerated soil erosion
• Siltation of reserves
• Wind erosion
b) Irrigation related problems
• Rise in groundwater table & water logging
• Soil salinization & alkalization
• Over- exploitation of groundwater
c) Indiscriminate use of agro-chemicals
• Fertilizer pollution
• Pesticide pollution
d) Environmental pollution
• Greenhouse effect
• Depletion emissions
• Methane emission

• Eutrophication
e) Erosion of genetic biodiversity
2.2 Land/soil related problems
2.2.1 Soil degradation
Soil degradation refers to decline tin the productive capacity of land due to decline
in soil quality caused through processed induced mainly by human activities. It is a
global problem. The Global Assessment of the Status of Human-induced soil
Degradation (GLASOD) was the first worldwide comparative analysis focusing
specifically on soil degradation.
Soil degradation
Physical Chemical Biological
Compaction & Crusting Fertility imbalance Decline in OM
Desertification Elemental Reduction in macro &

micro fauna
Erosion and depletion Acidification Salinisation Toxicant

and accumulation
alkalization
Water Wind
Fig 2.2 Soil degradation through different processes
The most common direct causesinclude:
• Deforestation of fragile lands
• Over cutting and grazing of vegetation
• Extension of cultivation on to lands of low capability/potential
• Improper crop rotations
• Unbalanced fertilizer use
• Non-adoption of soil conservation practices
• Inadequacies in planning and management of irrigation resources
• Overdraft of groundwater in excess of capacity to recharge
Wind Erosion Water erosion
2.2.2 Deforestation
Deforestation, refers to the transfer of forest land to non-forest uses and
includes all land where the forest cover has been stripped off and the land
converted to such uses as permanent cultivation, shifting cultivation, human
settlements, mining, reservoirs etc. Deforestation continues to threaten and erode
the area under forest cover in several countries of the World.
They include:
(i) The combined effects of poverty, skewed land distribution, and rising
population pressure
(ii) Increased demand for tropical timber and Agricultural products, and
(iii) International debt obligations, which can lead developing countries to
accelerate the pace of forest exploitation in order to earn needed foreign
exchange
India has established an organization called the National Afforestation and
Ecodevelopment Board (NAEB) in 1992 to take up afforestation programmes and
bring back the productivity from the degraded forestlands.
WHAT IS DEFORESTATION?
Deforestation is the process of clearing large areas offorest across the earth
and involves the cutting down, burning, and damaging of forests.
2.2.3 Accelerated Soil erosion
Agricultural productivity depends largely on the topsoil (up to 20 cm

thickness), as it serves many functions such as – support for rooting, supply of
plant nutrients, storage and release of soil moisture etc. The loss of the topsoil
usually instigated by the activities of man, termed as accelerated soil erosion, is the
most serious form of land degradation.
2.2.4 Siltataion of Reservoirs
Siltation of reservoirs is the major off-site effect of soil erosion by water.
The process of deposition of soil particles carried by water is called sedimentation
or siltation. Sedimentation or siltation is both a serious and growing problem, but
its severity varies from one reservoir to another. Usually, every reservoir is
provided with certain storage capacity to accommodate for the natural
sedimentation rate, which capacity is called its dead storage. Sediment
accumulation is not controlled in most of the reservoirs, and they are irreversibly
getting filled with sediment and constitute the most non-sustainable water resource
system in India today.
(I) Cropland
• Long slopes farmed without terraces or run-off diversions
• Crop rows planted up and down on moderate or steep slopes
• No crop residues on soil surface after seeding a new crop
• No crop cover between harvest and establishment of new cropcanopy
• Poor crop stands or poor quality of vegetation
(II) Other sources
• Gullies
• Residential or commercial constructions
• Road or railway tract construction
• Poorly managed range, wastelands or wooded lands
• Un-stabilized road or railway tract banks
• Surface mining areas, etc
Some engineering and agronomic measures suggested for prevention of salutation
reservoirs are given below:

a). Engineering Measures
• Provision of scour sluices in the body of dam and whose opening from to time
clear of the sediments
• Construction of small impounding tanks in the valley upstream to break up water
flow rate and shared silt load before the flow reaches final storage
b). Agronomic Measures
• Cover crops
• Afforestation
• Pastures
• Contour cultivation
• Contour bunding
• Live bunding
• Grassed waterways
2.3. Effects- Social, economic and crop production
Although India has successfully achieved self-sufficiency in food grain
production, the problem of resource degradation poses a serious threat and
challenge to our ability to do so in future.
Reduced
returns / unit
area
Population
growth
Poverty
Fig.2.8 Vicious circle of natural resource degradation

***

Lecture- 3
RISE IN WATE TABLE, WATER LOGGING, SALANIZATION &

ALKALIZATION AND SEA WATERINUNDATION
& ITS EFFECTS ON AGRICULTURE
3.1 Waterlogging
Presence of excess water in or near the root zone or standing water above
the soil surface for any substantial period of time known as water logging. Water
logging is said to occur when the water table rises to within the root zone of crops.
The water table which is considered harmful would depend upon the type of crop,
soil type and water quality. The actual depth of water table, when it starts affecting
the crop yield adversely, may from zero for rice to about 1.5m for other crops.
3.2 Table 3.2. Norms for characterization of Water logging
Depth of water table (m) Nomenclature
< 2.0 Waterlogged
2.0-3.0 Potentially
waterlogged
> 3.0 Safe
Ministry of agriculture estimates indicate that about 11.6 million ha,
representing 3.5% of the geographical area of India, has been suffering from
physical deterioration caused by waterlogging (Kanwar,2000).
The National Commission on Agriculture (1976) estimated the area
affected by waterlogging in Andhra Pradesh at 3.39 million ha.
3.3 Salinization & Alkalization
The most well understood problem is of salinization and alkalization of soils,
which is reported to extend to 10.1 million ha in India. The problem is increasing
at an alarming rate in the canal-irrigated areas through increase in water table, poor
water management practices and lack of drainage. The rate of increase of the
problem is fast in the black soil regions of heavy texture, with serious drainage
problem. The vast irrigation development without drainage, adequate field
channels and water management technology has seriously reduced the
effectiveness of irrigation system and aggravated the problem of salinity,
alkalinity andwaterlogging.
Saline soils, also known as solanchalk, are characterized by pH of the saturated
soil paste < 8.2, exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) < 15 and electrical
conductivity (EC) of the saturated paste > 4.0 dS/m. Excessive amounts of soluble
salts, mainly Cl and SO4 of Na, Ca and Mg limit optimal crop growth due to direct
toxic effects of salts and increased osmotic stress which physiologically inhibits
the availability of soil water. Parent material, brackish groundwater, seepage from
canals and form irrigation systems, injudicious on-farm water use, high cropping
intensities and replacement of low water requiring crops of high-water demand
gradually result in higher water table and associated secondary salinization of
soils.
Alkali soils, also known as sodic or solonetz soils are characterized byan ESP >
15 and PH of > 8.2. The EC of these soils is variable but is normally less than 4
dS/m in the surface soil and a hard CaCo3 kankar pan in the subsoil. These soils
are highly dispersed and have poor water and air permeability affecting plant
growth. The groundwater quality is generally good but in some cases it may
contain high residual sodium carbonate (RSC).
3.4 Prevention, control and reclamation measures
Salinity, alkalinity and water logging in canal command areas can be
controlled by adopting suitable measures to reduce the recharge to and increase the
discharge from the problem area.
a) Control of surface drainage into the area – Surface runoff entering the
problem area accelerates water logging, salinity & alkalinity. Diversion
coursed may be provided to divert runoff from the problemare.
b) Provision of an efficient surface-drainage system- An efficient surface-
drainage system should be provided by constructing open ditches and field
drains to drain away the storm flow and excess irrigation water. Proper land
grading and maintenance of surface slopes improves drainage of farmland.
Pools, ponds and marshes should be connected to watercourses. Where
permissible for considerations of quality, drain water may be utilized for
irrigation. This will providehigher gradients for subsurface drainage.
c) Improving subsurface drainage- Waterlogged agricultural lands can be
relieved of excess ground water by providing underground drains or collecting
excess ground water in surface for disposal into water.
d) Conjunctive use- Pumping from wells serves the dual purpose of lowering the
water table and salinity and releasing additional quantities of water for use
conjunctively with surface water.
e) Planning and adoption of rational agricultural practices- Selection and
rotation of crops, depending on their water requirements, are important
agricultural practices helpful in ameliorating water logging, salinity &
alkalinity conditions. Certain crops like rice require more water, while certain
others like wheat, millets and cotton require much less. Likewise certain crops
are tolerant and sensitive to salinity. Proper crop/variety selection assumes
significance under adverse conditions. If crops with high water requirements
are always sown and canal water is used for irrigation continuously, the
chances are high that the area will become waterlogged and buildup salinity
takes place sooner than one realizes. When such crops are to be raised, they
should not be raised on highly permeable soils. Alfalfa and eucalyptus,
because of theirhigh intake of water, have ameliorative characteristics.
f) Lining of canals and water courses- Seepage from canals, distributaries and
field channels should be prevented or minimized by lining or spreading
impervious layers.
g) Adopting judicious water-management practices-Planning and controlling
use of water to avoid excessive and wasteful applications is important
measure that involves no extra expenditure. Excessive application of water is
as detrimental to crop growth as inadequate application, a maxim many
farmers are unaware of any need to be educated about.

h) Adoption of water use efficient application methods like sprinkler and
drip systems in high value crops
i) Reclamation of saline and alkaline soils-
• For saline soils with efflorescence of salts at the surface: Scraping of the
surface salts and flushing with water to wash away the excess salts
• For saline soils with high concentration of soluble salts into great depth but
with deep water table: Impounding rain or irrigation water for leaching salts to
a safe limit and subsurface drains coupled with flushing to remove salts both
by surface & subsurface drainage
• For saline soils with high concentration of soluble salts into great depth but
with high water table: Lowering of water table either by pumping or
subsurface drainage
• For alkali soils: Treating the soils with chemical amendments like gypsum &
sulphur, addition of organic material viz., FYM, crop residues, green manuring
etc, leaching the products of reaction after amendments are added, deep
ploughing to break the hard pan for improving drainage.
3.5 Seawater inundation and Sand casting
Natural calamities, like cyclones and floods, affect nations all over the world.
Because of the large geographical size of the country. India often faces natural
calamities like floods, cyclones and droughts, occurring fairly frequently in
different parts of the country. At times, the same area is subjected to cyclones &
floods in successive seasons or years.
Cyclonic storm arising from Bay of Bengal often cross the east-coast plains of
Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil nadu during October- January resulting in
widespread damages to standing crops besides other losses. The cyclones cause and
ingression of sea water/ tidal waves. The latter cause the problem of soil salinity
and sand casting of varyingdepths in lower reaches.

Cyclone damage Flood damage
3.5.1 Nature of damages caused by cyclones to agriculturalcrops

1. Mortality of plants
2. Suppression of tillering in rice
3. Complete or partial lodging in rice, cotton, sugarcane,vegetables, tobacco etc
4. Uprooting of plants in coconut, banana, sugarcane,orchards and field crops
5. Yellowing and shedding of leaves
6. Excessive vegetative growth in cotton
7. Increased virulence of pests and diseases. For Example, sheath blight, bacterial leaf
blight, brown plant hopper in rice, pod borers, die-back, fruit rot in vegetables like
chillies and tomato, helicoverpa incidence and rotting of bolls in cotton and
wiltingof plants.
8. Shattering of grains/pods where the crop is in ripening ormaturity phase
9. Nutritional disorders and toxicities
10. Wetting of harvested rice sheaves in the field
11. Soil salinity build up and soil erosion in varying degreesdepending upon the land
topography.
12. Water logging of cultivated lands

13. Sand casting in land areas due to tidal waves lashing the coast
14. Difficulty in threshing, cleaning and drying of agriculturalProduce
3.5.2 Economic consequences of cyclones
1. Land degradation and loss of soil productivity
2. Considerable expenditure on land reclamation
3. Reduction in total agricultural production
4. Damage to the ecosystem
5. Disruption of roads, transport, communicationand human settlements
6. Reduction in aquaculture activity
3.5.3 Mitigation options

a) Rice
1. If the crop is caught in cyclone or tidal waves at maturity stage, drain the paddies
and thresh the rice sheaves immediately. Use of threshers/mechanical dryers to
quick threshing, cleaning and drying of grain need to be explored.
2. Reclaim the salinated fields, by flooding with good quality irrigation water
leaching the salts and draining the fields followed by puddling. Apply SSP @ 100
kg/ha to hasten the decomposition of stubbles for preparing the field in time for
second crop. Raise nurseries on non-saline soil.
3. In fodder nurseries situations due to complete failure of rice crop raise fodder
crops like pillipesera, cowpea, sun hemp etc., in marginal lands unfit for rice
cultivation.
4. In area where rice cultivation is not possible, raise alternate crops like
groundnut, maize, rabi redgram, blackgram, rabi castor etc.
5. Control rodents through community approach
b) Cotton and chillles
1. Carryout the earthing up by carefully lifting the lodgedplants
2. Raise coriander or Chickpea or Black gram or sunnhemp in fields where the
cotton crop is completely damaged due to uprooting
3. Spray 2% urea on cotton plants having foliage
c) Banana
1. Remove the damaged plants by leaving two suckers
2. Fertilize the plants for four months @ 80 g urea and 80gmuriate of potash/plant.
3. Cover the bunches on damaged plants with leaves and harvestthem within 15
to 20 days
d) Coconut
1. Cut and remove the twisted leaves
2. Provide support to hanging bunches
3. Apply a booster fertilizer dose @ 0.5 kg Diammonium phosphate, 0.5 kg Urea
and 1.5 kg muriate of potash per plant to bearingpalm trees
e) Acid lime
1. Uplift the fallen trees and carryout the earthing up
2. Remove the damaged branches and apply Bordeaux paste
Sand casting
Deposition of sand particles on the agricultural fields due tonatural
calamities is termed as sand casting
1. Where sand casting is about 15 cm, incorporate the same into the soil by
ploughing with wooden or mould board or disc plough. This may be followed by
normal cultivation.
2. Where the sand casting is between 15 to 60 cm, sand may be removed using
bulldozers. This may be followed by normal cultivation.

3. Where sand casting is more than 60 cm, no reclamation or removal of sand is
suggested, since this would be costly and difficult to dump the sand so
removed in the nearby fields: in such cases, plant horticultural crops like
cashew nut, coconutand casuarinas etc, in situ,

Lecture No.4
GROUNDWATER DEVELOPMENT
4.1 Introduction
Groundwater is a significant source of water supply for roughly half of the
country’s net irrigated area. Groundwater irrigation (using dug wells, bore wells,
and dug- cum-bore wells) began to expand rapidly with the advent of HYV
technology in the second half of the 1960s. according to estimates ( Dains &
Power 1987) 70-80% of the value of the irrigated agricultural production in the
country may depend on groundwater irrigation.
4.2 Groundwater resources availability in India
The groundwater resource has two components viz., in- storage and replenishable.
The in-storage fresh groundwater resources i.e.(aquifer zones below the zone of
water table fluctuation) of the country have been estimatedas 10812 billion m3
(1081.2 Mha-m).
4.3 Groundwater development scenario
Over the past five decades, Government policies of subsidizing credit and
rural energy supplies, liberal funding from Institutional Finance Agencies
improvement in availability of electric power and diesel, good quality seeds,
fertilizers etc., have encouraged rapid development of groundwater resources.
Over exploitation of groundwater
In many arid and hard rock areas, overdraft and associated quality problems
are increasingly emerging. In 231 blocks (out of total 4272) in various states in
the country, besides 6 Mandals in and12 Taluqs in Gujarat, situation of overdraft
exists, i.e., the stage of groundwater development has exceeded the annual
replenishable resource. In addition, in 107 blocks all over the country besides 24
Mandals in Andhra Pradesh 14 Taluqs in Gujarat and 34 watersheds in
Maharashtra, the stage of groundwater development has exceeded 85% of the
annual replenishable resource.
The overdraft of groundwater has resulted in:

• Failure of shallow wells,
• Shortage of water supplies
• Deepening of wells
• Increased pumping lights and pumping costs
• Increased energy requirements
• Sea water ingress in coastal areas
• Increased inland salinity in groundwater
• Land subsidence due to compression of the aquifers
Although groundwater is a renewable resource, it in not inexhaustible. If
groundwater supplies are to be maintained perennially, the recharge must balance
discharge. However, all that recharged is not necessarily recoverable. The
groundwater withdrawal must be limited to safe yield, which is defined as the
amount of water that can be withdrawn annually from a groundwater basin without
producing an undesired result. While the permissive sustained yield is the
maximum rate at which water can be economically and legally withdrawn
perennially from a specified source, without bringing about some undesired
result. It is always less than natural recharge and in limited by physical or other
constraints.
The areas which suffer from non- availability of groundwater due to perennial
overdraft are known as dark areas. For example, widespread declines have been
reported from several places in India viz., Mehasana and Ahmedabad in Gujarat,
Rangareddy and Chittoor in Andhra Pradesh and Coimbatore in Tamilnadu State.
Many waters supply wells in Ahmedabad and Rangareddy have ceased functioning
due to persistent decline in water levels to the extent of nearly 30-300m.
4.4 Artificial recharge of groundwater
Artificial recharge may be defined as the process by which infiltration of
surface water into groundwater systems in increased by altering natural conditions
of replenishment. Artificial recharge implies diverting of excess surface water
resources (which otherwise would go as runoff and unexploited) to the needs

areas and providefor infiltration into the groundwater zones.
Several methods of artificial recharge are in vogue, thechoice being dictated by
local conditions:
• Spreading methods
• Recharge through pits
• Recharge by irrigation and agricultural practices
• Percolation thanks
• Recharge through well
• Other methods of artificial recharge include high blasting of rocks to cause
intensive fracture system in the near impervious zones, into water could be
disposed of by infiltration and deep percolation.
***

Lecture No.5
ENVIRONEMTNTAL POLLUTIION
5.1 Introduction
The major environmental problem today is global warming or climatic
change due to accumulation of several gases like carbon dioxide, and nitrous
oxide, Chlorofluorocarbons, along with water vapour in the atmosphere causing
greenhouse effect and depletion of ozone layer in stratosphere affecting the several
aspects of humanity on planet earth.
5.2 Greenhouse effect
The earth receives energy from the sun, which warms the earth’s surface, as
this energy passes through the atmosphere, a certain percentage (about 30) gets
scattered. Some part of this energy is reflected back into the atmosphere from the
land and ocean surface. The rest (70%) actually remains behind to heat the earth.
In order to establish a balance, therefore, the earth must radiate some energy
back into the atmosphere. As the earth is much cooler than the sun, it does not emit
energy as visible light. It emits thorough infrared or thermal radiation. However,
certain gases in the atmosphere form a sort of blanket around the earth and absorb
some of this energy emitted back into the atmosphere. Without this blanket effect,
the earth would be around 30oC colder than it normally is. These gases like carbon
dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide, along with water vapor, comprise less than
one per cent of the atmosphere. They are called “greenhouse gases”, as the
working principle is same as that which occurs in a greenhouse. Just as the glass of
the greenhouse prevents the radiation of excess energy, this “gas blanket” absorbs
some of the energy emitted by the earth and keeps temperature levels intact. This
effect was first recognized by a French Scientist, Jean Baptiste Fourier, who
pointed out the similarity in what happens in the atmosphere and in a
greenhouse. Hence the term the “greenhouse” effect. The greenhouse effect is
essentially a positive, life-giving process that maintains the earth’s temperature at
levels tolerable by itslife forms.

This gas blanket has been in place ever since the creation of the earth. Since
the industrial revolution, human activities have been releasing more and more of
these greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. This leads to the blanket becoming
thicker and upsets the
“natural greenhouse effect”. Activities that generate greenhouse gases are called
‘source’ and those that remove them are known as ‘sinks’. A balance between
‘sources’ and ‘sinks’ maintains the levels of these. Humankind upsets this balance
when new sources that interfere with the natural sinks are introduced.
Carbon dioxideis released when we burn such fuels as coal, oil, and natural
gas. In addition, when we destroy forests, the carbon stored in the tree
escapes as carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Increasing agriculture activities,
changes in land-use patterns, and other sources lead to rising levels of carbon
dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide . Industrial processes alsorelease artificial and
new greenhouse gases like CFCs (chloroflurocarbons).The resulting enhanced
greenhouse effect is more commonly referred to as global warming or climate
change.
Greenhouse effect
103 Watt per m3
343 Watt per m3

240 Watt per m3
Source: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

5.3 Potential Effects of Greenhouse effect or Global Warming

1. Biomass production- decrease in productivity of crops and grazing lands directly
through changes in temperature and precipitation, frequency of droughts/floods and
indirectly through changes in soil quality, pests, and diseases, shifts in agro ecological
zones. Alteration in the species diversity and die-back of tropical forests and grasslands
due to change inthe pattern of rainfall etc.
2. Decline in soil quality- due to decline in soil structure, increased soil crusting and
compaction, accelerated soil erosion, leaching & acidification, salinization, and organic
carbon decline and nutrient depletion.
3. Water resources & quality- warmer climate will change rainfall & snowfall patterns
leads to increased droughts & floods, melting of glaciers and polar ice sheets resulting in
accelerated sea- level rise affecting freshwater resources, coastal agriculture, fisheries &
aquaculture, forests, natural ecological systems, human settlements, loss of land due to
inundation & erosion, salt-water intrusion, increased sedimentload, eutrophication etc.
4. Air quality- increase dust concentrations, greenhouse gases, industrial pollution etc.
5. General – warmer and wetter climate will favor the growth and spread of vector borne
diseases like malaria & dengue affecting human health increased frequency of storm and
other extreme event cause decrease in hydro-power generation, loss of infrastructure,
tourism, disruption in transport routes, human settlements, industries, building
Impacts of Climate Change
Forests
Biodiversity

Impact of rise in temperature of 1.8oC to 4oC
Agriculture
Coastlines
5.4 Depletion of Ozone layer

The earth atmosphere is made of numerous gases. In 1983. C.F. Schonbein
first discovered the presence of ozone molecules in the central part of the
atmosphere between altitudes of 15-35 km (from the ground level) in the
stratosphere and that it absorbed the harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun. The ozone
layer by absorbing the harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun determines the
temperature structure of the stratosphere and safeguards life on the planet. It is
believed that for millions of years the atmospheric composition had not
undergone much change. However, in the past half-century humans have upset the
delicate balance of nature by releasing into the atmosphere harmful chemicals that
are gradually destroying the lie-protecting layer. It is emitted mainly from air
conditioners, refrigerators and aerosols or spray can propellants. Another widely
used chemical that is a threat to the ozone layer is methyl bromide. This can release
bromide, which is 30 to 50 times as destructive to ozone as chlorine. It is used as a
fumigant (fumes used as disinfectants for control of soil-borne pathogens) for soil
and commodities and as a transport fuel additive.
It has to be clearly stated that the expected recovery of the ozone layer would
have been impossible without the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete
the Ozone Layer (1987), which called for a phased reduction of all ozone depleting
substances. .
5.4.1 Methane Emission from Rice Fields
Wetland rice fields have recently been identified as a major source of

atmospheric methane. Methane is produced as the terminal step of the anaerobic

breakdown of organic matter in wetland rice soils. In a natural wetland, flooding a
rice field cuts off the oxygen supply from the atmosphere to the soil, which results
in anaerobic fermentation of soil organic matter. Methane is a major end product
of anaerobic fermentation. Continued increase in atmospheric methane
concentrations at the current rate of approximately 1% per year is likely to
contribute more to futureclimatic change than any other gas except carbon dioxide.
Methane is exclusively produced by methanogenic bacteria that can metabolize
only in the strict absence of free oxygen and at redox potentials of less than-
150 mV. In tropical flooded rice soils, where soil temperatures are 25-30oC,
methane production is rapid in alkaline and calcareous soils (may start hours after
flooding)and slow in acid soils (formed five or more weeks after flooding).
Methane production is negatively correlated with a soil redox potential and
positively correlated with soil temperature, soil carbon content, and rice growth.
Easily degradable crop residues, fallow weeds, and soil organic matter are the
major source for initial methane production. At later growth stages of rice, root
exudates, decaying roots, and aquaticbiomass seem to be more important.
5.4.2 Conditions favoring methane production and emission in rice fields
• Anaerobic conditions in wetland soils
• Disturbance of wetland soil by cultural practices favours soil trapped methane
to escape to atmosphere through ebullition
• Use of organic amendments
• Application of chemical fertilizers
5.4.3 Mitigation options
• Prevent of submergence of rice fields wherever feasible without affecting the
rice productivity
• Increased adoption of direct seeding (wet and dry seeding) instead of
transplanting
• Crop diversification in rice-based cropping systems
• Water management- intermittent drying and mid-season drainage in controlled

water situations
• Growing rice cultivars having traits with low methane emission potential
• Use of sulfate-containing fertilizer reduces methane emission
• Minimization of soil disturbance during growing season to reduce escape of
entrapped methane
• Use of properly composted organic amendments
***

Lecture No.6
FERTILIZER AS A SOURCE OF
POLLUTION AND CONTROL MEASURES
6.1 Introduction
Synthetic fertilizers have played a dominant role in agricultural intensification in
industrialized and developing countries like India for decades. Both fertilizers and
pesticides have become widely distributed in the environment and most of the
concern today related to the health consequences of agriculture now centers on
these two (as a source of environmental pollution).
6.2 Fertilizers as a source of pollution

Several problems linking excessive use of fertilizer with environment have
been identified. The increase of nitrates in the drinking water, a development about
which general public is greatly concerned, and believed to be due to excessive use
of N fertilizers and animal manures, is regarded as most important fertilizer related
pollution issue. Nutrient enrichment, eutrophication and deterioration of surface
water quality due to transpiration of nutrients applied through fertilizers via
leaching and /or runoff and sediment erosion is another problem. The
contamination of soils by heavy metals through fertilizers such as cadmium from
phosphatic fertilizers, is also receiving increasing attention of environmentalists.
6.2.1 Pollution due to excessive nitrate in soil
Nitrate can be absorbed by crop plants, lost beyond the rooting zone of the
crops via leaching or denitrified to N2O gases. Nitrate leaching below the root zone
of crop constitutes a potential pollution threat for surface and groundwater bodies.
The production of N2O through nitrification- denitrification reaction represents a
potential danger in terms of damage to both stratospheric ozone layer and the
greenhouse effect. Nitrate can also be absorbed in large amounts by plants,
particularly fodders and vegetables, and result in nitrate toxicity to the consumers.
Thus, a majority of the environmental issues related to N-use in agriculture revolve
around transformations leadingto the production of nitrate in soil.
6.2.2 Nitrate pollution of groundwater
Two major factors controlling the leaching losses of nitrate are
(i) the concentration of nitrate in the soil profile at the time of leaching, and (ii) the
quantity of water passing through the soil profile. High soil nitrate levels and
sufficient downward movement of water to move nitrate below the rooting depth is
often encountered in high intensity irrigated agriculture combined high levels of
nitrate-N can lead to methemoglobinemia (blue baby syndrome) particularly in
infants (< 6 months old).
6.2.3 Eutrophication
Eutrophication refers to the process of enrichment of watercourses or surface
water bodies by inorganic plant nutrients. Estimates indicate that more than 72% of
the N entering surface waters originates from a agricultural land. Both N and P are
important in stimulating eutrophication. This artificial eutrophication has already
happened in many parts of the world including India. Causes of eutrophication
include natural run-off of nutrients from the soil and the weathering of rocks,
accelerated runoff of inorganic fertilizer & manures (containing nitrates and
phosphates) from agricultural lands, runoff from areas following mining,
construction work or poor land use, discharge of detergents (containing
phosphates) through domestic wastewater.

Weed infestation of water bodies is driven by

nutrient enrichment
6.2.3.1 Effects of eutrophication

• Excessive growth of phytoplankton and filamentous algae
• Increase in aquatic plant life
• Increase in turbidity (cloudiness) of water
• Increase in rate of sedimentation
• Development of anoxic conditions (low oxygen levels)
• Decrease in species diversity, and an
• Increase in the frequency of algae blooms causing a dearthof oxygen and a change
in fish species composition
6.2.3.2 Measures to reduce artificial eutrophicaion

• Reducing the use of phosphates as builders in detergents
• Reducing the use of nitrate containing fertilizers
• Using tertiary sewage treatment methods to remove phosphate and nitrate before
discharging the effluent into rivers and lakes
• Directing wastewater away from lakes to safe treatment & disposal sites

• Aerating lakes and reservoirs to prevent oxygen depletion particularly during algal
blooms
• Removing phosphate- rich plant material from affectedlakes
• Removing phosphate rich sediments by dredging
6.2.3.3 Management practices to reduce fertilizer pollution by N
Some of the management practices that can reduce environmental pollution
by N originating from agricultural lands are listed below:
1. Improved fertilizer use efficiency
• Apply optimum dose of N
• Timing the fertilizer N applications to coincide with thecrop needs
• Apply N fertilizer in split doses
• Apply balanced doses of N,P and K
• Incorporate or deep place fertilizer N into soil
• Use slow-release fertilizers
• Use urea and nitrification inhibitors
2. Land management techniques
• Adopt crop rotation and catch crops
• Improve irrigation scheduling to encourage plant growthand minimize leaching
• Conservation tillage to control surface runoff
• Crop residue recycling
• Use of terrace, contouring and retention bases to catchsediments
• Genetic manipulation of plant material to be moreefficient at N-recovery and N2
fixation
***

Lecture No.7
PESTICIDES AS A SOURCE OF
POLLUTION AND CONTROL MEASURES
7.1. Introduction
The pesticides upset natural balance and ecosystem and also affect the
field workers. If the residues go undetected, the consumer may also be affected.
Pesticides residues in soil, water, environment, foods etc, are of serious
environmental concern.
7.2 Insecticides
In almost all the soils that have been surveyed for insecticide residues in
India, the most common chemical, and the one that is found in the largest
amounts is DDT, followed by HCH and dialdrin. In a study in Punjab, out of 106
soil samples, 91 were found contaminated with insecticide residues. The highest
level of 0.08 mg/g DDT-R was found in cotton growing areas, which is four
times its permitted level of 0.02 mg/g. The presence of cholinesterase
inhibitors in 19% soil samples indicated contamination with organophosphates
and carbamate insecticides. Pesticide residues in food items, which are on the
increase, have become a matter of threat to man. Even small quantities of these
residues ingested daily along with food can build-up high levels in the body fat.
The long-term effects of these residues in the human body include carcinogenicity,
high infant mortality and varied metabolic and genetic disorders. The major source
of dietary intake of DDT residues is through milk and milk products followed by
oils and fats, in both vegetarian and non-vegetarian diet. The dietary intake of
HCH is also mainly through milk and milk products followed by meat and eggs for
the non- vegetarian diet, whereas it is through cereals followed by milk and milk
products in vegetarian diet .
Table 7.1. Pesticide residues identified in variousfood, fodder and feed items

Pesticide Items of food having residues of taxic levels
HCH RiCe , milk, eggs, tomato, carrot, cucumber,
onion, raddish, brinjal, okra, bitter, gourd, green
chillies, dry chilles, chillinpowder, rice bran, rice
straw,water samples,
rice growing soils
Certain brands of cooking oils, milk, milk products
like skimmed milk, milkpowder,
butter, cheese, everyday whiteners
Poultry feed-maize, cakes, bran, fish, feed mix
Livestock feed-eggs, fish, corn cakes,
wheat+jowar+groundnut cake
DDT Cooking oil, milk, butter, maize, fish, feed mixture,
eggs, human breast milk, livestock feed
Monocr Tomato, onion, cooking oil (one brand)
otophos
Cyperm Cooking oil (certain brands)
ethrin
Quinolp hos Fish, cooking oil (one brand)
Aldrin Maize, fish, feed mix, livestock feed, eggs, human

breast milk
Endosul Livestock concentrated feed, fish
phan
Large number of pesticide compounds have a mobility class value of 1

indicating their high immobility. This group includes compounds such as phorate,
parathion, ethlon, zineb, benomyl, paraquat, trifluralin, heptachlor, endrin, aldrin,
chlordane, toxaphene, DDT, etc. Some of these are already banned for use in
agriculture. The commonly used herbicides such as atrazine, alachlor, propachlor,

simazine, prpanil, diuron, etc, have moderate to high immobility indicating greater
persistence in soil. When the pesticides are used repeatedly in each crop season
and those applied to soils, which are poor in organic matter and microbial
biodiversity, the chemicals are bound to accumulate for longer periods of time
causing much environmental pollution and yield depressions, the biochemical
degradation by soil organisms is the single most important mechanism that can
remove insecticides from the soil. Before pesticides are completely inactivated,
they may adversely affect the functioning of non-target microbes and other forms
of life inhabitingthe soil.
7.3 Fungicides
The residues of fungicides based on the inorganic compounds of sulphur
copper, and mercury accumulate in soil because the heavy metals contained in
them are irreversibly adsorbed on soil colloids. Under certain conditions, toxicity
from the accumulation of copper and sulphur containing fungicides may render the
soil useless for growing crops and cause significant yield depressions. Depressing
effect of fungicides on the nodule formation and yields of groundnut were also
reported.
7.4 Herbicides
Under Indian conditions, when a herbicide dose of 0.5 to
2.0 kg/ha is applied, it results in a buildup of residues in the range of 0.25 to
1.0 mg/g/, which is safely below the potential residual effect. But the same
herbicide when applied repeatedly it starts building undesirable residues in the soil.
For example,fluchloralin, metabenzthiazuron and atrazine were detected inamounts
that could adversely affect not only other crop plants but also several processes
in soil leasing to inefficient nutrient management and in turn, reduced crop yields.
The herbicide, 2, 4-D, restricts the growth of azotobacter, Lindane applied at
normal rates considerably reduces the number and weight ofnodules in groundnut.
7.5 Control measures to reduce pesticide pollution
• Application of easily decomposable organic matter
• Use of large quantities of organic manures
• Raising high N cover crops
• Growing of crop plants that a tendency to accumulate thepesticide
• Follow soil management practices leading to increasedleaching of pesticides
• Adoption of biological control methods
• Use of biochemical pesticides
• Need based plant protection
7.6 Biopesticides and bioherbicides
7.6.1 Introduction
Biological control is defined as applied natural control wherein man
intervenes to improve the efficiency of natural enemies including parasites,
predators, and pathogens of pest species by introductions, conservation, or
augmentation to maintain pest populations below economically injurious levels.
Biological control by means of entomopathogens and other microbial pest
control agents involves the application of microorganisms on to the crop for
ingestion by insect’s pests or directly on the noxious insects, fungus or weed with
the objective of destroying the, these bio control agents include bacteria, protozoa,
fungi, viruses and nematodes.
7.6.2 Biopesticdes
Biopesticides also known as biological pesticides are certain types of pesticides
dervived from such materials as animals, bacteria, and certain minerals. These are
an important group of pesticides that can reduce pesticide risks.
7.6.2.1 Characteristics of Bio-pesticides
• Have a narrow target range and a very specific mode ofaction
• Are slow acting
• Have relatively critical application times
• Suppress, rather than eliminate, a pest population
• Have limited field persistence and short shelf life
• Are safer to humans and the environment thanconventional pesticides
• Present no residue problems
7.6.2.2 Advantages of using bio-pesticides
• Biopesticides are inherently less harmful thanconventional pesticides
• Biopesticides are designed to affect only one specific pest or, in some cases, a few
target organisms, in contrast to broad spectrum, conventional pesticides that may
affect organisms as different as birds, insects, and mammals
• Biopesticides often are effective in very small quantities, and they decompose
quickly thereby resulting in lower exposures and largely avoiding the pollution
problemscaused by conventional pesticides
• When used as a component of integrated pest Management (IPM) programs,
biopesticides can greatly decrease the use of conventional pesticides while
cropyields remain high
• To use biopesticides effectively; however, users need to know a great deal about
managing pests
7.6.2.3 Microbial pesticides
Microbial pesticides contain a microorganism (bacterium, fungus, virus.
Protozoan or algae) as the active ingredient. They suppress pests by
• Producing a toxin specific to the pest.
• Causing a disease.
• Preventing establishment of other microorganisms throughcompetition; or
• Other modes of action
An example of microbial pesticide is Bacillus thuringiensis ot Bt. Bacillus
thuringiensis is a naturally occurring soil bacteria that is toxic to the larvae of
several species of insects but non-toxic to non-target organisms. Bacillus
thuringiensis can be applied to plant foliage or incorporated into the genetic
material of crops eg. Bt cottons. Bacillus thuringiensis as discovered is toxic to the
caterpillars (larvae) of moths and butterflies. Several strains of Bt have been
developed and now strains are available that control fly larvae. Other examples
of microbial pesticides include the following:
• Bacillus thuringensis against caterpillars of Heliothis, Earias, Spodoptera etc
• Pseudomonas fluoroscenes against Pythium spp.,
Rhizoctonia spp., Fusarium spp.
• Nematodes like Green commandoes and Soil commandoes against caterpillars &
grubs
• Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus(NPV)
• Trichoderma virdi against many common diseases ofvegetables and spices
• Weevils Neochitina eichorniae & N bruchi against waterhyacinth
• Beetle Zygogramma biocolorata against Parthenium
7.6.2.4 Biochemical pesticides
These are naturally occurring substances that control pests by non-toxic
mechanisms. (Conventional pesticides, by contrast, are synthetic materials that
usually kill or inactivate the pest). Biochemical pesticides include substances that
interfere with growth or mating, such as growth regulators, or substances that repel
or attract pests, such as pheromones. Pheromones are often used to detect or
monitor insect populations, or in some cases, to control them.
7.6.3 Bioherbicides
“A bioherbicide is a plant pathogen used as a weed control agent through
inundative and repeated application of its inoculums or by augmentation of natural,
seasonal disease levels through small releases of inoculums. The bioherbicide can
provide an effective, safe and viable method of weed control”.
A bioherbicide can often live in the environment and wait for the next growing
season when there will be more weeds to infects. This reduces the farmer’s cost of
applying herbicides year after year. A new range of bioherbicides may essentially
allow farmers to replace or reduce the expensive chemical herbicides that they
now use. They also allow farmers to get rid of weed that interfere with their
crop’s productivity without threatening the environment.

PHEROMONETRAP Bracon hebetor larval parasitoid
Trichogramma sps
gi o
Parthenium Beetle,
Hyles euphorbiae
Table7.3. Registered and approved bioherbicides since 1980

Biohebicide Kind of bioagent Target weed Crop
Devine Phytophthora palmivora Morrenia odorata Citrus groves
Collego Colletorichum Aeschynomene Rice
gloeosporioides virginica
sp. Aeschynomene
Biomal Colletorichum Malva pusilla Various row
gloeosporioides sp. Malvae crops
Biopolaris Bipolaris sorghicola Sorghum halopense Rice & Wheat
Biophos Streptomyces General vegetation

hygroscopicus
Comperico Xanthomonas campestris Poa annua Golf course
turfs
Biochon Chondrostereum Prunus serotina Forests
purpureum
Emmalocera Stem boring moth Echinocloa spp Rice & Wheat
spp.
Tripose Plant pathogen Rumex spp. Rice & Wheat
Uromyces Plant pathogen Rumex spp. Rice & Wheat
rumicis
Gastrophysa Beetle Rumex spp. Rive & Wheat
viridula
Bactra Shoot boring moth Cyperus rotundus Rice & Wheat
verutana

Lecture No. 8
MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES

(SOIL, WATER, VEGETATION AND ENERGY)
8.1 Introduction
The natural resource management at most places in the world including
India is inappropriate, exploitative and unscientifically planned. Even today, land
and water are being exploited without restraint considering them inexhaustible, and
wastes are discharged freely into air and water assuming that these have unlimited
assimilative and carrying capacities.
Agenda 21 for Natural Resource management
The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) at
the earth summit held in Rio-de- Janario, Brazil in 1992 focused attention on the
harmful effect of development of the earth’s life sustaining capacity. The
conference also adopted Agenda 21- a global blueprint for environmental action.
Management of natural resources
8.1.1 Land resource
India has only 2.4% of the land resource of the world to meet their basic
requirements of 18% of the world’s population and over 25% of the world’s
livestock. Nearly 57% of the land resource in India is facing degradation due to
water erosion, wind erosion, loss of productivity and chemical and physical
degradation. About 5.3 million ha of topsoil is displaced every year only through
water erosion which also accounts for a loss of
8 million tones of plant nutrients. While most of the land resource faces nitrogen
deficiency, nearly 50% and 20% of the land resource is deficient in phosphorus
and potassium.
The best means of improving and maintaining soil quality which determines soil
productivity and environmental quality is adoption of alternative agricultural
practices such as crop rotation, recycling of crop residues and animal manures,
green manures, biofertilizers and intergrated nutrient management for encouraging
balanced use of fertilizers and manures, and reduceduse of pesticides.
Soil degradation Soil Conservation
process Processes
Soil Conservation Conservation tillage

Processes Crop rotation
Improved drainage residue
Nutrient Runoff loss
management
Water logging Water conservation
Desertification Terracing
Contour farming
Acidification
Salinization
Compaction
Negative Soil Positive

productivity
Crusting Organic fertilizer
Organic matter loss Chemical fertilizer
Nutrient depletion by Improved nutrient recycling
leaching Improved system to Match soil,
Toxicant application climate and cultivars
8.3 Water resource

Water is one of the most important natural resources vital for economic
development of a nation. The per capita water availability presently estimated at
2001 m3/annum is projected to come down to a stress level of 1700 m3/annum in
the next 2-3 decades. The ultimate irrigation potential of the country has been
estimated at 139.5 million ha comprising of 58.5 million ha from major and
medium irrigation Schemes, 15 million ha from minor irrigation schemes and 66
million ha from groundwater exploitation. The present irrigated area in the country
is about 53 million ha. It is estimated that even after achieving full irrigation
potential nearly 50% of the total cultivated area will remain rain fed. During 1990

the total utilization of water for all uses, was about 51.8Mha-m or 609
m3/capita/year.
i) Water conservation- it involves two steps (a) reduction of runoff losses and
increasing its infiltration in the soil throughland shaping, tillage mechanical
structures and vegetativebarriers to reduce water flow, proper crop rotations,
application of soil amendments and mulching (b) reduction of losses through
deep drainage (by increasing water storage capacity & soil moisture
retentivity), and direct evaporation from soil (by following shallow tillage,
straw mulching).
ii) Scheduling of irrigation to crops- the timing and amount of irrigation to
crops plays a significant role in optimizing crop production with a given
amount of water and avoiding effects of either over-irrigation or under
irrigation on soil environment. Approaches to irrigation scheduling vary
depending on situations e.g., water is adequate irrigation water is available on
demand to secure potential yield and where available supplies fall short of the
full irrigation water requirement of crops over the entirecommand area.
iii) Maximizing the utilization of resource by crop and maximizing returns
per unit resource used by the crop- The World Bank (1999) in a working
paper on irrigation sector observed that 25% improvement both in water use
efficiency and crop yields (WUE rising from 35 to 43%) would generate an
additional food grain production of 85 million tones, which represents an
equivalent of 44% increase in food grain production by the year 2025.
iv) Conjunctive use of different sources of water for increasing the returns from
available water resources and reducing soil- degrading effect. Conjunctive
use of saline water and canal water can be effective in avoiding the deleterious
effect of saline water on crops.
v) Participatory irrigation management-Promoting participatory irrigation
management through establishment of Water User’s Associations (WUA).
For dryland agriculture, increased efficiency of rain-water is essential and it

can be achieved in the following ways:
1. Retain precipitation in situ and minimize the run-off,
2. Reduce evaporation in relation to transpiration,
3. Growing drought tolerant crops that match the rainfallpattern
4. Recycle the run-off drainage water for high value crop adopting life saving
irrigation approach
5. Watershed approach for maximization of rainwater harvesting and recycling and
6. Ensure farmers’ cooperation by assuring equity in distribution of benefit and
maximization of the profitability of cropping system.
The can be achieved by following practices viz., contour cultivation, bench
terracing, strip-cropping and different types of land configuration: Storage
structures viz., farm ponds, low earthern dams, nala bunds and percolation tanks:
Agronomic practices viz., tillage practices, fallowing, crops and cropping systems
versus water availability periods, mulching, manipulation of plant geometry etc.
8.4 Vegetative cover
Vegetation acts as a protective cover to the planet earth. Deforestation and over
grazing have been causing tremendous soil erosion and landslides. To increase the
vegetation in the country, plantation practices such as the following are
encouraged:
1. Afforestation: establishment of forest by artificial means on an area from
which forest vegetation hasalways or long been absent
2. Reforestation: restocking of felled or otherwise cleared woodland
3. Social forestry: adoption of forestry practices by the society to meet its
common requirements such as fuel, fodder etc
4. Agro forestry: adoption of suitable land use systems that maintains or increases
total yield by combining food crops (annuals) with tree crops (perennials)
8.5 Energy and Agriculture
Energy is needed in all stages of agriculture from land preparation, water
lifting and pumping to planting and transplanting, weed control, harvesting,

transport and processing. Sustainable management of the natural resources like
land,water, air and biodiversity is the mantra for sustainable Agriculture.
High external input and highly mechanized factory metal of agriculture of the
advanced countries is so times as in energyintensive as traditional agriculture. Very
low or nil external input agricultural that is a part of thesubsistence agriculture
prevalent in many of the stressed ecosystem(LEISA).
8.5.1 Impact of low energy use in Agriculture
Lack of energy input in agriculture has also led to enormous landdegradation in the
form of erosion and deputation of soil organic matter and soil fertility, which has
further lowed productivity andincreased environmental pollution.
8.5.2 Energy and agricultural sustainability
Thus, both high external input and low-energy primitive agriculture
systems are unsustainable in the long run, because of their inadequate land and
labour productivity to sustain food security and livelihoods.
8.5.3 Sustainable energy management in High – Input Agriculture
Following the principles of thermodynamics, a key indicator of
sustainability is the ratio of energy equivalents of all the outputs and inputs. The
higher this ratio the more sustainablethe system is
Energy budget in crop production on sustainability = highoutput to input energy
ratio.
Energy nutrient
and pesticide
Output
Solar energy Net

production
Agro ecosystem

The basic way to improve the sustainability of modern agriculture is to decrease
both the direct and embodied external energy component by increasing their
efficiency of use in all possible agricultural practices. Maintaining high
productivity with an acceptable impact on resources, environmental and economics
is the key to sustainability the used non-polluting alternative sustainability.
Conservation tillage, integrated pest management, integrated plant nutrient supply,
crop rotation, micro irrigation techniques and precision agriculture belong to this
category. IPM combines several virtues, including cost reduction, environmental
and human safety, prevention of pesticide resistance and post resurgence, with a
favorable energy balance. Biodiversity enhancement through polyculture, crop
rotation, mixed cropping and strip cropping has been shown to have a variety of
positive effects such as conservation. Efficiency of use of nutrients and water,
erosion control, biological pest and disease control and improvement of soil
quality. Integrated technologies are the best way to balance all factors related to
the sustainability, stability and productivity of agro ecosystems.
8.5.4 Biomass energy
Biomass is stored energy that is not subject to seasonal vagaries, it can
produce all forms of energy, such as heat, electricity, gas and liquid fuel. These
can be harnessed to create small and big industries in rural areas to employment
and also to increase the profitability of the agricultural sector.
8.5.5 Other renewable sources of energy
Solar energy, wind energy, biomass energy and hydro and geothermal tidal
energies are being evolved as potential forms of renewable energy. They are non-
polluting, non-emission sources and are suitable for small to medium-scale
operations, especially in rural and remote areas.
Solar, wind and bio energy are particularly useful in rural areas because of
this local availability, adaptability to dispersal small and medium scale energy
requirements, reliability and environmental safety. Solar energy is the second
fastest growing source of energy. Wind energy is one of the fastest growing forms

of alternative energy.
Conclusion
Energy has been identified as the second most critical factor, next only to
water, for sustainable development. Attention to the quantity and quality of energy
and the efficiency of its use in agriculture is crucial for sustainability.

Lecture.9
CONJUNCTIVE USE OF WATER

9.1 Definition
The term “Conjunctive use “of water resource implies the coordinated and
harmonious development for increased efficiency of water from different
resources. Thus, Conjunctive use of water resource can be defined as “ the
management of multiple water resources in a coordinated operation such that, the
water yield of the system over a period of time exceeds, the sum of yields of the
individual components of the system, resulting from in-coordinated operation”.
9.2 Objectives
1. Mitigating the effect of shortages in canal watersupply
2. Increasing the dependability of existing watersupply
3. Alleviating the problem of high-water table andsalinity
4. Facilitating the use of high salinity ground water
5. Mitigating the damages due to drought
6. Increasing the efficiency of surface water system
9.3 Systems of conjunctive use
1. Canal water and ground water system
2. Rainfall and irrigation water system
3. Saline water and freshwater system
9.4 Advantages
1. Use of ground water helps reduce peak demands for irrigation, size of canals, and
hence construction costs
2. Supplemental supplies from groundwater ensure proper irrigation scheduling
raising multiple crops and early sowing even if rainfall is delayed
3. Increased water resources ensure supply to tail end areasof higher elevation.
4. Ground water exploitation lowers the water table and reduces danger of water
logging and consequent wastageof water for leaching of soils
5. Surface and subsurface out flows are minimized causing reduction in peak run off
and flood discharge
6. Conjunctive use when integrated with an artificial recharge project the need for
lining of canals is reduced as seepage from canals recharges ground water
7. During periods of peak water demand irrigation requirement can be met by surface
water sources, so powersaved can be diverted to other sectors
8. Conjunctive use is an attractive benefit considering the difficult political and
environmental challenges facing many surfaces water storage projects
9.5 Constraints
1. Possibility of deterioration in ground-water quality due to influx of salts leached
down from the soil which may be quite marked as a result of recycling within
cones of depressions and / or upward and lateral migration of saline water intro
freshwater zones in response to pumping.
2. Increased power consumption to sustain pump age from wells. Possible dislocation
of groundwater supplies due to power failure in critical periods and decrease in
pump efficiencies supplies due large fluctuations in water levels.
3. Operation, supervision and control of conjunctive use and artificial recharge
projects are more complex
4. Administrative difficulties in evolving acceptable and equitable water rates,
providing motivation and incentives to accept groundwater use when surface water
is available
(Aquifer storage and Recovery (ASR) is a form of conjunctive use where excess
water is stored under ground is a suitable aquifer later as needed).
***

Lecture No.10
WASTELANDS AND THEIRMANAGTEMENT

10.1 Definition
Wasteland is defined as “degraded land which can be brought under
vegetative cover with reasonable effort, and which is currently under utilized and
land which is deteriorating for lack of appropriate water and soil management or
on account of natural causes. Wastelands can result from inherent/imposed
disabilities such as by location, environment, chemical and physical properties of
the soil or financial or management constraints”.
10.2 Classification of Wastelands
Confronted by various estimates by different agenciesincluding data thrown
up by latest technological tools like Remote Sensing, it become evident that a
precise definition of wastelands of various categories is required.
1. Gullied and /or Ravinous land

2. Land with or without scrub
3. Waterlogged and marshy land
4. Land affected by salinity/alkalinity-Coastal or inland
5. Shifting cultivation area
6. Underutilized / degraded notified forest land
7. Degraded pastures/grazing land
8. Degraded land under plantation crops
9. Sands-Desertic/ coastal
10. Mining/ industrial wastelands
11. Barren rocky/ stony waste/sheet rock area
12. Steep sloping area
13. Snow covered and/ or glacial area

10.3 Need for development of wastelands

Due to increasing pressure of population, there is an excessive demand of
more land both for agricultural and non-agricultural use. This has resulted in
uncontrolled exploitation of land resources resulting in vast stretches of wastelands
such as degraded land, soil salinity, waterlogging, desertification, soil erosion etc.,
and also led to decrease in per capita availability of cultivable land besides
ecological imbalances.
10.4.1 India
The total wastelands area in districts (584) in India is estimated at
6.38518.31 Km2 accounting for 20.17% of the geographical area (Table 10.1). The
very high percentage of area under wasteland in Jammu an Kashimr (64.55%),
Himachal Pradesh (56.87%) are due to snow cover and degraded forest;
Nagaland(50.69%), Assam (25.52%), Manipur (58%)
,Meghalaya (44.16), Mizoram (19.31%) are due to shifting cultivation; Sikkim
(50.30%) is due to degraded forest and in Rajasthan (30.87%) die to sandy area.
Among all the states Kerala has a minimum 2.73% and Jammu and Kashmir has a
maximum 64.55% of area under wastelands. The category-wise distribution of
wastelands shows that highest percentage (6.13%) belongs to the category land
“with or without scrub” followed by “under utilized forestland” (4.44%)
10.4.2 Andhra Pradesh
The total wastelands area in the Andhra Pradesh state is estimated at
51750.19 Km2 accounting for 18.81% of the geographical area. The very high
percentage of wastelands area (38.76%) is in Chittoor district closely followed by
Nellore (37.61%), while the lowest is in Hyderabad (0.0%) belongs category wise
distribution of lands shows that highest percentage (8.08%) belongs to “degraded
notified forest land” followed by “land with or without scrub” (7.36%).
Regeneration of wastelands involves the following aspects:
• Pasture development for fodder supply and erosion control
• Tree plantation for fuel and timber purpose
• Social forestry for labor employment
• Silve-pastroal programme for fodder, fuel, timber purposes
• Agri-horticulture system for income generation
• Medicinal and Aromatic plants for revenue generation
• Grasslands and fish farming in low lying areas

Lecture No. 11
ORGANIC FARMING
11.1 Definition
Organic farming “is a production system which avoids or largely excludes the use
of synthetically compounded fertilizers, pesticides, growth regulators, and
livestock feed additives.
“Organic agriculture is a holistic production management system which promotes
and enhances agro-ecosystem health, including bio-diversity, biological cycles and
soil biological activity. It emphasizes the use of management practices in
preference to the use of off-farm inputs, taking into account that regionalconditions
require locally adapted systems. This is accomplished by using wherever possible,
agronomic, biological, and mechanical methods, as opposed to using synthetic
materials, to fulfill any specific function within the system”(Codex, 1999).
11.2 Principles of organic farming
1. To produce food of high nutritional quality in sufficient quantity
2. To interact in a constructive and life enhancing way with all natural systems and
cycles
3. To encourage and biological cycles with in the farming system, involving micro-
organisms, soil flora and fauna, plants and animals and careful mechanical
intervention
4. To maintain and increase long-term fertility of soils
5. To promote the healthy use and proper care of water, water resources and all life
therein
6. To help in the conservation of soil and water
7. To use, as far as is possible, renewable resources in locally organized agricultural
systems
8. To work, as far as possible, within a closed system with regard to organic matter

and nutrient elements
9. To work, as far as possible, with materials and substances which can be reused or
recycled, either on the farm or elsewhere
10. To give all livestock conditions of life which allow them to perform the basic
aspects of their innate behavior
11. To maintain all forms of pollution that may result from agricultural practices
12. To maintain the genetic diversity of the production system and its surroundings
including the protection of wildlife habitats
13. To allow everyone involved in organic production and processing a quality of life
confirming to the UN Human Rights Charter, to cover their basic needs and obtain
an adequate return and satisfaction from their work, including a safe working
environment
14. To consider the wider social and ecological impact of the farming system
15. To produce non-food products from renewable resources, which are fully
degradable
16. Weed, disease and pest control relaying primarily on crop rotation, natural
predators, diversity, organic manuring, resistant varieties, and limited (preferably
minimal) thermal, biological and chemical intervention
17. To create harmonious balance between crop productionand animal husbandry
18. To encourage organic agriculture associations to function along democratic lines
and the principle of division ofpowers
19. To progress towards an entire production, processing and distribution chain which
is both socially just and ecologically responsible
11.3 Relevance of organic farming
a) Degradation of soil quality (structured & fertility)
b) Pollution of soil, water and food with pesticides and nitrates
c) Health effects on farmers, farm workers, farm families, rural communities (apart
from concerns about the non- intended effects of pesticides on human beings in
general, sound use of pesticides requires a technical knowledge which is often

lacking in developing countries)
d) Resistance of pests to pesticides
e) Dependence on off-farm agricultural inputs which can increase poor farmers’
dependence on credit facilities (to purchase synthetic fertilizers, pesticides and
seed), which may result in decreased local food security and self- reliance
Relative characteristics of Modern and Organic Farming systems
Production factor Modern Organic

Productivity High High
Sustainability Low High
Farming system Simple Complex
Bio-diversity Uniform Diverse
Production orientation Market Subsistence/market
Usage of external inputs High Low
Fertilization Inorganic Organic
Plant protection Curative & inorganic Preventive & organic
Energy balance Negative Positive
11.4 Components of organic farming

Crop production and health in organic farming systems is attained through a
combination of structural factors and tactical management components to ensure
products of sufficient quality and quantity for human and livestock consumption.
11.4.1 Diverse crop rotations: Crop diversification can deliver many agronomic
and ecological benefits simultaneously, while maintaining or enhancing the scale
and efficiency of production. Benefits of diverse crop rotations include yield
stability, reduction in disease incidence & severity, reduced pest incidence,
improved weed control, reduced soil erosion, recycling of nutrient reserves,
transfer or nitrogen from nitrogen fixing species, structural improvement etc.
There are many different forms of crop diversification viz., rotational cropping,
sequential cropping, intercropping, multistoried cropping system etc., and in
practice these can be combined within the farming system. Crop and variety choice
and their spatial and temporal design are critical in ensuring an effective rotation.
The inclusion of crops, which are able to fix atmospheric through symbiotic
relationship with N-fixing bacteria that nodulate on crop roots, enables organic
farming systems to be self sufficient in nitrogen.
11.4.2 Soil fertility management: The aim of nutrient or soil fertility

management within organic farming systems is to work, as far as possible, with in
a closed system .Organic farming aims to manage soil fertility through use of
organic manures (FYM & farm compost, vermicompost), recycling of crop
residues such as straw, plant residues, grasses etc., dung and urine from
domesticated animals and wastes from slaughter houses, human excreta & sewage,
biomass of weeds, organic wastes from fruit and vegetable production &
processing units and household wastes, sugarcane trash, oil cakes, press mud and
fly ash from thermal power plant. Biological nitrogen fixation through blue green
algae, azolla for rice, rhizobium for legumes, azotobacter & azospirillum for
other crops, green manuring & green-leaf manuring, manure form biogas plants,
legumes in crop rotations & intercropping systems.

11.4.3 Weed control: Appropriate soil cultivation viz., deep ploughing in
summer, harrowing, inter-cultivation using mechanical hoes and harrows, and the
timing of field operations and good crop establishment are vital for successful
control of weeds. Mulching the soil surface can physically suppress weed seedling
emergence. Soil solarization, to heat field soil under plastic sheeting to
temperatures high enough to kill weed seeds (>65 oC) can also be used for weed,
control in some parts of India. Good seedbed preparation, timely sowing, line
sowing, crop rotation, smoother crops & intercropping systems etc., suppress the
weed growth and favour normal growth and development of crops in organic
systems.
11.4.4 Natural pest and disease control: One of the important features of organic
farming is the exclusion of plant protection chemicals for pest and disease control.
Few examples are:
a. Manipulation of crop rotations, to minimize survival of crop- specific pests (in
the form of, for example insect eggs, fungi) which can infest the next crop
b. Strip cropping, to moderate spreading of pests over largeareas
c. Manipulation of the moisture level or pH level of the soil (inirrigated areas)
d. Manipulation of planting dates, to plant at a time most optimalfor the crop, or
least beneficial for the pest
e. Adjustment of seeding rate, to achieve an optimal densitygiven the need to
check weeds or avoid insects
f. Use of appropriate plant varieties for local conditions
g. Biological control methods, to encourage natural enemies of pests by providing
habitat or by breeding and releasing themin areas where they are required.
• Bacillus thuringensis against caterpillars of Heliothis, Earias, Spodoptera
etc
• Pseudomonas fluoroscenes against Pythium spp., Rhizoctonia spp.,
Fusarium spp.

• Nematodes like Green commandoes and Soilcommandoes against caterpillars &
grubs
• Nuclear Polyhedrosis virus (NPV) against caterpillars
• Trichoderma virdi against many common diseases ofvegetables and
spices
• Weevils Neochitina eichorniae & N. bruchi against waterhyacinth
• Beetle Zygogramma biocolorata against parthenium
h. Trapping insects, possibly with the use of lures such as pheromones
i. Use of domesticated birds
j. Biological pesticides (for example neem oil, nicotine) of which the active
ingredient is short-lasting, and which may be produced locally
11.5 Integrated nutrient management
Integrated nutrient management system envisages conjunctive use of
organic manures, crop residues, biofertilizers, legumes in crop rotation and green
manuring. Development of INM system involving and appropriate mix of
organics, biological N fixation, phosphate solubilising microbes, and need based
chemical fertilizers would be crucial for sustainability of production and soil as a
resource base for it.
11.5.1 Bulky organic manures: In India, the estimate production of rural

compost is about 226 million tons and urban compost of 6.6 million tons annually.
Aggregate stability, decrease in pH, resistance to compaction, infiltration and
water holding capacity. Proper methods of preparation of FYM/Compost therefore
have to be popularized.
11.5.2 Recycling of organic wastes: Substantial quantities of crop residues
(350 million tons) are produced in India every year. Crop residues in
combination with organics have been shown to improve availability of plant
nutrients, soil organic matter, aggregate stability, infiltration rate, microbial
population etc.

11.5.3 Bio-fertilizers: Bio-fertilizers such as rhizobium culture is an effective
source of N supply to leguminous corps. Azotobacter and Azospirillium help in N
fixation and supply to crops like rice, wheat, sorghum, maize, cotton, sugarcane,
fruit corps and vegetables. Phosphate solubilising bacteria viz., Bacillus
aspergillus help in making available soil P to the crops and increase the solubility
of indigenous sources of P like rock phosphate. Blue green algae and Azolla have
shown promise in low land rice. These are renewable and environment friendly
supplementary sources of nutrients and are presently being used in quantities
between 8-10 tons per year. Vesicular arbuscular mycorrhiza (VAM) has
beneficial effect on plant growth, particularly in P deficient soils.
Azotobacter
Azospirullum
Vermicompost
11.5.4 Green manuring: Green manuring is a cheap alternative to the use of

fertilizer N. The process also makes a positive contribution to the maintenance of
soil organic matter at a satisfactory level. The stem nodulating green manure plant,
Sesbania rostrata (Danchia) can fix 100-250 kg/N/ha in 45 to 55days and has great
scope in rice culture. There is also greater scope for green-leaf manuring for rice
and other crops from the lopping of various multipurpose trees popularized
through afforestation and agro-forestry systems.
Popularization of bio-gas plants, encouraging legumes in crop rotation and
intercropping system and use of sewage, sludges and effluents for agriculture can
also be the components of INMS.
***

Lecture-12
FARMING SYSTEMS-I
12.1 What is a System?
A system is a group of interacting components, operating together for a
common purpose, capable of reacting as a whole toexternal stimuli: it is unaffected
directly by its own outputs and has a specified boundary based on the inclusion of
all significant feedbacks.
For example, the human body is a system-it has aboundary (e.g.,
the skin) enclosing a number of components(heart, lungs) that interact (the
heart pumps blood to the lungs)for a common purpose (to maintain and operate
the living body).
12.2 Farming system
Farming system is a complex inter-related matrix of soil, plants, animals
implement, power, labour, capital and other inputs controlled in part by farm
families and influenced by varying degrees of political, economic, institutional and
social forces that operate at many levels. It is a resource management strategy to
achieve economic and sustained production to meet diverse requirement of farm
household while preserving resource base and maintaining a high level of
environmental quality.For example it represents integration of farm enterprises
such as cropping systems, animal husbandry, fisheries, forestry, sericulture,
poultry etc for optimal utilization of resources bringing prosperity to the farmer.
The farm products other than the economic products, for which the crops are
grown, can be better utilized for productive purposes in the farming systems
approach.
12.3 Farming systems concept
Farming enterprises include crops, dairying, poultry, fishery, sericulture,
piggery, apiary tree crops etc. a combination of one or more enterprises with
cropping when carefully chosen, planned and executed, gives greater dividends
than a singleenterprise, especially for small and marginal farmers. Farm as a unit is
to be considered and planned for effective integration of the enterprises to be
combined with crop production activity,such that the end-products and wastes of
one enterprise are utilized effectively as inputs in other enterprise. For example,
the wastes of dairying viz., dung, urine, refuse etc are used in preparation of FYM
or compost which serves as an input in cropping system. Likewise, the straw
obtained from crops (maize,rice, sorghum etc) is used as a fodder for dairy cattle.
Further, in sericulture the leaves of mulberry crop as a feeding material for
silkworms, grain from maize crop is used as a feed in poultry etc.
Sustainability is the objective of the farming system where production
process is optimized through efficient utilization of inputs without infringing on
the quality of environment with which it interacts on one hand and attempt to meet
the national goals on the other. The concept has an undefined timedimension. The
magnitude of time dimension depends upon ones objectives, being shorter for
economic gains and longer for concerns pertaining to environment, soil
productivity and land degradation.
12.4 Principles of farming system
• Minimization of risk
• Recycling of wastes and residues
• Integration of two or more enterprises
• Optimum utilization of all resources
• Maximum productivity and profitability
• Ecological balance
• Generation of employment potential
• Increased input use efficiency
• Use of end products from one enterprise as input in otherenterprise
12.5 Characteristics of farming system
1. Farmer oriented & holistic approach
2. Effective farmers participation
3. Unique problem-solving system
4. Dynamic system
5. Gender sensitive
6. Responsible to society
7. Environmental sustainability
8. Location specificity of technology
9. Diversified farming enterprises to avoid risks due toenvironmental constraints
10. Provides feedback from farmers
12.6 Objectives of farming system
1. Productivity- Farming system provides on opportunity to increase economic
yield per unit area per unit time by virtue of intensification of crop and allied
enterprises. Time concept by crop intensification and space concept by building up
of vertical dimension through crops and allied enterprises.
2. Profitability - The system as a whole provides an opportunity to make use of
produce/waste material of one enterprise as an input in another enterprise at low/no
cost. Thus, by reducing the cost of production the profitability and benefit cost
ratio works out to be high.
3. Potentiality – Soil health, a key factor for sustainability is getting
deteriorated and polluted due to faulty agricultural management practices viz.,
excessive use of inorganic fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, high intensity
irrigation etc. In farming system, organic supplementation through effective use of
manures and waste recycling is done, thus providing an opportunity to sustain
potentiality of production base for much longer time.
4. Balanced food- In farming system, diverse enterprises are involved, and they
produce different sources of nutrition namely proteins, carbohydrates, fats &
minerals etc form the same unit land, which helps in solving the malnutrition
problem prevalent among the marginal and sub-marginal farming households.
5. Environmental safety- The very nature of farming system is to make use or
conserve the byproduct/waste product of one component as input in another
component and use of bio-control measures for pest & disease control. These eco-
friendly practices bring down the application of huge quantities of fertilizers,
pesticides and herbicides, which pollute the soil water and environment to an
alarming level. Whereas IFS will greatly reduce environmental pollution.
6. Income/cash flow round the year- Unlike conventional single enterprise crop
activity where the income is expected only at the time of disposal of
economic produce after several months depending upon the duration of the crop,
the IFS enables cash flow round the year by way of sale of products from different
enterprises viz., eggs from poultry, milk from dairy, fish from fisheries, silkworm
cocoons from sericulture, honey from apiculture etc. This not only enhances the
purchasing power of the farmer but also provides an opportunity to invest in
improved technologies for enhanced production.
7. Saving energy- Availability of fossil fuel has been declining at a rapid rate leading
to a situation wherein the whole world may suffer for want of fossil fuel by 2030
AD. In farming system, effective recycling of organic wastes to generate energy
from biogas plants can mitigate to certain extent this energy crisis.
8. Meeting fodder crises- In IFS every inch of land area is effectively utilized. Alley
cropping or growing fodder legume along the border or water courses,
intensification of cropping including fodder legumes in cropping systems helps
to produce the required fodder and greatly relieve the problem of non-
availability of fodder to livestock component of the farming system.
9. Solving timber and fuel crises- The current production level of 20 million m3 of
fuel wood and 11 million m3 of timber wood is no match for the demand estimated
or 360 m3 of fuel and 64,4 million m3 of timber wood in 2000 AD.
10. Employment generation- Various farm enterprises viz., crop +livestock or any
other allied enterprise in the farming system would increase labour requirement
significantly and would help solve the problem of under employment. An IFS
provides enough scope to employ family labour round the year.
11. Scope for establishment of agro- industries- When once the produce from
different components in IFS is increased to a commercial level there will be
surplus for value addition in the region leading to the establishment of agro-
industries.

12. Enhancement in input use efficiency – An IFS provides good scope for resource
utilization in different components leading to greater input use efficiency and
benefit- cost ratio.
FARMING SYSTEMS - II
12.7 Determinants of farming system

There are three major groups of factors, which incombination determine the
type of farming system employed by framers in a given region.
Factor A represent the physical and biological elements which set limits to the
type of agricultural produce to be produced in the given region. The physical
elements include land, soil quality, topography, climate, water, location, distance
etc. The biological elements include crops and livestock physiology, diseases
etc., which determine the potential farm enterprises. These elements can be altered
by limited intervention by the farmers and scientists. For instance, scientists can
evolve improved production technology and farmers can adopt it partially or in full
package.
Factor B represent endogenous human elements, which greatly influence the type
of farming system adopted in a particular region. The system revolves around the
farmer whose family and means of livelihood are intricately linked. The farm
family has available resources under their control in terms of land, labour, capital
and management. The quantity and quality of these resources are conditioned by
the characteristics of the family (size, age etc), education and management skills,
available labour, capital, power, attitudes and goals of the family. The farmers
goals and attitudes are initial factors that determine the nature of farming system
specially where there is a range of alternative operations and enterprises to
increase productivity consistent with existing technical elements. The farmer
could combine available resources in a manner that will maximize the goals of the
family.
Factor C represents the exogenous human variables, which govern the allocation
of available resources by the farmers. Farm producers need incentives to change

their farming methods and production patterns in desirable directions.
12.9 Cropping System Related terminology

12.9.1 Cropping system: A cropping system refers to the principles and practices
of cropping and their interaction with farm resources, technology, aerial and
edaphic environment to suit the regional or national or global needs and production
strategy. It is an important component of farming system.
Factor A FACTOR C
Physical elements Exgenous human elements
1. Soil
2. Land quality & topography
1. Policies
3. Climate • Price
4. Water • Trade
5. Location & Distance
Biological elements • Bank/Credit
1. Crops • Subsidies
2. Livestock 2. Infrastructure
3. Disease hazard
• Extension education
• Agricultural research
FACTOR A + B • Transportation
• Marketing
3. Socio-economic
FACTOR B • Input-economic
Endogenous elements • By products demand
1. Family size & age • Others
2. Management skills
3. Education
4. Labour
5. Power
6. Capital
7. Access to Credit & cash
8. Attitudes & goals
FACTOR A + B + C = INDIVIDUAL FARMING SYSTEM

SYSTEM OUTPUT
COST SAVING FARMING IMPROVEMENT SUBSISTENCE
POTENTIAL FARMING SYSTEM
FEED BACK TO CHANGE FACTOR A + B FEED BACK TO CHANGE FACTOR C
Fig.12.1. Determinants of farming system
1. Land: irrigated, rainfed, consolidation

2. 1. Production: system technology, comp
3. Power: Manual, Mechanical
4. Managerial: Technical & Administrati
5. Capital: Short-term (seed, fuel, labour
6. Technology transfer: Pilot demonstrat Fertilizer, pesticide, weedicide)
7. Long-term (land development, Irrigation, plant protection)
Fig.12.2. Elements of cropping system

Cropping
Environment
cropping
system
Farm Technology
resources
National
Production
12.9.2. Cropping pattern: The yearly sequence and spatial arrangement of crop or
of crops and fallow on a given area (a farm), region, province or country
apportioning due consideration to natural features (soil and climate), crop
efficiency, and capability, socio-economic structure, technological and extension
infra-structure (changeable) and the national agricultural policy.
12.9.3 Multiple cropping
Multiple cropping refers to intensification of cropping both in time and space. It
includes sequential cropping, inter-cropping and mixed cropping.
a) Sequential cropping: Growing two or more crops in a sequence on the same
field in a farming year (twelve months) for irrigated land and is limited to the
period of adequate soil moisture availability for crop growth in semi-arid &
arid areas. The succeeding crop is planted after the preceding crop has been
harvested. Crop intensification is only in time dimension. There is no inter-
crop competition. Farmers manage only one crop at a time in the same field.
b) Intercropping : It refers to growing of two or more dissimilar crops

simultaneously on the same piece of land, base crop necessarily in distinct row
arrangement. The recommended optimum plant population of the base crop is
suitably combined with appropriate additional plant density of the
associated/component crop. The objective is intensification of cropping both in
time and space dimensions and to raise productivity per unit area and inputs
by increasing the pressure of plant population. The following four types of
inter-cropping are identified.
i) Mixed inter-cropping: Growing component crops simultaneously with no
distinct row arrangement. Thisis commonly used in labour intensive
subsistence farming situations.
ii) Row inter-cropping: Growing component crops simultaneously in different
row arrangement. This isused in mechanized agriculture.
iii) Strip inter-cropping: Growing component crops in different strips wide
enough to permit independent cultivation but narrow enough to the crop to
interact agronomically.
iv) Relay inter-cropping: Growing component crops in relay, so that growth
cycles overlap. It necessarily does not mean planting of succeeding crop before
flowering stage of preceding crop or attainment of reproductive stage of
preceding crop. It refers to planting of succeeding crop before the harvest of
preceding crop, planting of succeeding crop may be done before or after
flowering before or after attainment of reproductive stage, completion of
active life cycle, senescence of leaves or attainment of physiological maturity.
12.9.4 Mixed cropping: Mixed cropping is growing of two or more crops
simultaneously on the same piece of land seeded either after the seeds of the crops
intended to be grown mixed or sowing alternate rows in various replacement
ratios. This may or may not have distinct row arrangement and the mixed plant
community faces inter and intra row competition with a differentplant type/variety.
The basic objective in mixed cropping is minimization of risk and insurance
against crop failure due to aberrant weather conditions. In inter-cropping systems,
pressure of plant density per unit is more than that in a sole cropping system, while
in mixed cropping the plant population pressure is generally equal to sole
cropping and in some cases it may evenbe less than sole cropping system.
Besides the above few other terms commonly used in cropping systems
approach are defined below:
12.9.5 Monoculture: The repetitive growing of the sole crop on the same piece
of land. It may either be due to climatological limitation or due to specialization by
a farmer to grow a particular crop.
12.9.6 Staggered planting: It means sowing of a crop is spread over and around
optimum period of planting either to minimize risks or to use labour & machinery
more effectively or to minimize competition (in inter-cropping) or to prolong the
periodof supply to the market or the factories.
12.9.7 Ratoon cropping: The cultivation of crops’ re-growth coming out of roots
or stalks of the preceding crop after harvest, although not necessarily for grain is
termed as ratoon cropping/ratooning.
12.9.8 Mixed farming: It is defined as a system of farming on a particular farm
(regardless of size) which includes crop production, raising of livestock, poultry,
fish and bee keeping, and/or tress to sustain and satisfy as many necessities of the
owner (farmer) as is possible. Subsistence is the objective here. It is based on the
principle of give and take. Farm animals feed on farm produce and in return
manure is given to the crops.

Lecture-13
STUDY OF ALLIED ENTERPRISES – I

(DAIRYING AND SHEEP & GOAT REARING)
13.1 Significance or integrating crops and livestock

Animals can perform numerous functions in smallholder systems. They
provide products such as meat, milk eggs, wool etc. They serve socio-cultural
functions, as bride wealth, for ceremonial feasts, and as gifts or loans, which
strengthen social bonds. Integration of livestock into the farming system is
particularly important for:
➢ Increasing subsistence security by diversifying the food generating activities of
the farm family
➢ Transferring nutrient and energy between animals andcrops via manure and
forage from cropped areas via use of draught animals.
13.2 Dairying
Dairy farming is one of the economically viable enterprises that could
provide constant income throughout the year to farmers when combined with
cropping. The dairy cattle are broadly classified into the following 5 groups.
1. Draft breeds: The bullocks of these breeds are good draft animals, but the cows
are poor milkers e.g, Nagore, Hallikar Kangeyam, Mali.
2. Dairy breeds: The cows are high milk yielders, and the bullocks are with good
draft work capacity e.g., Sahiwal, Sindhi, Gir.
3. Dual Purpose: The cows are fairly good milkers, and the bullocks are with good
draft work capacity e.g., Hariana, Ongole and Kankerj.
4. Exotic breeds: The exotic breeds are high milk yeilders, e.g., Jersey, Holstein-
Friesian, Aryshire, Brown Swiss and Guernsey
5. Buffaloes: Important dairy breeds of buffalo are Murrah, Nili Ravi (Which has its
home tract in Pakistan, Mehsana, Suti, Zafarabadi, Godavari and Bhadwari. Of
these Godavari has been evolved through crossing local buffaloes in coastal reins
of Andhra Pradesh with Murrah.
• Jersey crossbred cows come up very well in most of the climatic conditons,
consume less feed and fodder, give more milk with high fat content and possess
comparativelybetter disease resistance.
• Holstein-Friesian could be reared for higher milk yield in places of cooler climate
as they lack heat tolerance
• Buffaloes like Murrah could also be reared for milk production in semi-arid and
arid regions, since they can digest more percentage of roughage than cows and
thrive well on dry fodder.
Housing: It is important to provide good ventilation and an open shed of housing is
always preferable. Dairy cattle shed should be located at an elevated place to
facilitate easy drainage. The floor should be rough and gradient of 2.5 cm for every
25cm length.
Feed and fodder requirements: Of several types of input costs, feed and fodder
play a significant role in the economy of dairying. Of the total expenditure, nearly
65% goes towards feeding of cattle. Cattle feed generally contains fibrous, coarse,
low nutrient straw material called roughage and concentrates.
a) Roughage: Dairy cattle are efficient users of the roughage and convert large
quantities of relatively inexpensive roughage into milk. Roughages are basic for
cattle ration and include legumes, iron-legume hays, straw and silage of
legume and grasses.
b) Concentrates: Grains and byproducts of grains and oil seeds constitute the
concentrates. They are extensively used in dairy cattle ration. These include
cereals (maize, sorghum, oats, barley), cotton-seeds, industrial wastes (bran of
wheat & rice, and grain husk) and cakes of oil seeds (groundnut, sesame, rape
seed, soybean linseed).
c) Vitamins and mineral mixtures: It are advisable to feed a supplement
containing vitamin A and B besides mineral mixtures containing salt, Ca and P
and feed additives.
Milk yield: Crossbred cows give a milk yield of about 2500 to 3000 Litres/annum
compared to 500 to 600 Litres/annum bylocal cows.
Dung and urine: The amount of excreta (Dung and urine) produced by an
individual animal depends on age & weight of the animals and daily feed
(quantity of fodder and concentrates).
13.3. Biogas (Gobar gas) Plant
Biogas plant is a system comprising of a gas-holder and a digestion
chamber, in which “Gobar” (or cow dung) can be treated anaero bically to produce
two important and useful items viz., fuel gas (or biogas) and organic manure. In
this biochemical process the cellulotic material are broken down to methane and
carbon-di-oxide by different groups of microorganisms. It is a clean, unpolluted
and cheap source of energy, which can be obtained by a simple mechanism and
little investment. India was the first country in the world to have developed a
biogas plant on an experimental basis as early as 1939, followed by the installation
of a commercial model in 1954. Later, the Khadi and Village Industries
Commission (KVIC) adopted the biogas programme in 1962 and was instrumental
for intiating biogas plants in India.
Types of biogas plant:
1. Float dome type: Different models are available in this category, e.g., KVIC
vertical and horizontal, Pragathi model & Ganesh Model.
2. Fixed dome type: The gas plant is dome shaped under ground construction.
The entire construction is made of bricks and cement. The models available in
this category are Janata and Deen-Bandhu.
The selection of a particular type depends on technical, climatological,
geographical and economic factors.
Technical information
• Biogas is compsed mainly of methane (55 – 60%) andCarbon Dioxide (35
– 45%). Hydrogen and hydrogen sulphide can also be present in small amounts.
• Availability of fresh dung per stable bound medium sized animal per day is a
follow: buffalo - 15kg; Cow – 10kg; and Calves – 5kg.
• The NPK content of the residual sludge in the dry state is equivalent of N = 1.4 -
1.8% ; P2 O5 = 1.1 – 2.0% ; K2O = 0.8 – 1.2%
• Gas production would be maximum at a temperature between 30-35oC. If the
ambient temperature falls below 10oC, gas production is reduced drastically.
• One m3 of biogas is equivalent to 0.62 litres of kerosene
• A 2 m3 biogas plant would cater to domestic needs of a family of 6 – 8
members
Site selection and management: The site of biogas plant should be close to the
kitchen and cattle shed to cut down the cost on gas distribution system and
transportation of cattle dung Land should be leveled and slightly above the ground
level to avoid inflow or run-off of water. Plant should get clear Sunshine
during most part of the day. Gas generation is a function of dung availability. The
amount of gas production is considerably higher in summer followed by rainy and
winter seasons.
Uses of biogas: It can be efficiently used for domestic cooking and lighting. It can
also be a used as a substitute fuel for running diesel engine. It does not emit smoke
and also does not soot on the vessels unlike other conventional forms of fuel viz.,
coal, fire-wood and kerosene.
Uses of bio-gas slurry: Slurry is obtained after the production of bio-gas. It is
enriched manure containing NPK and humus. Another positive aspect of this
manure is thateven after weeks of exposure to the atmosphere, the slurry does not
attract fleas and worms.
13.4 Sheep and goat rearing
Rearing sheep and goat is one of the important common livestock
enterprises followed by small and marginal farm families and landless labourers in
drought prone, hilly and desert areas. Goat farming needs less capital when
compared to dairying, and the animals can be raised in small farms as well.
Small and marginal farmers could easily maintain 20 animals with available
fodder in one ha area. Per capita availability of meat is very poor in India. It is
around 6g/person/day as against 57g worldwide. It indicates a tremendous scope
for sheep and goat production potential inIndia. Goat milk constitutes about 2.4 per
cent of the total milk production. Goat milk has excellent market value, as it is a
scarce commodity for the preparation of many ayurvedic medicines and for human
diet.
Breeds
Goats: Tellicherry, Jamunapari, Barberi, Osmanabadi, Malaberi, Kashmeri,
Beetal, Surti, Gujarati. A few exotic goats such as Saanen, Toggenburg, Angora,
Anglo-Nubian, British Alpine and French Alpine have been found to be well
adapted to Indianconditions.
Sheep: Himalayan region – Gurez, Karanah, Bhakarwal; Western region –
Bikanari, Marwari, Kathiawari, Kutchi; Southern region – Deccani, Nellore,
Bellary, Mandya & Bandur
Housing: Successful sheep and goat rearing depends on the selection of proper
site. Sheep and goats do not thrive on marshy or swampy ground. They have to be
provided with a dry, comfortable, safe and inclement weather. Males and females
are generally kept together. The space requirement for a sheep and goats varies
between 4.5 50 5.4 sq.m.
Feeding: The requirement of nutrients per head in respect of sheep and goats is
relatively low. Hence, they are suitable for resource poor small farmers with
marginal grazing lands.
Goats are essentially browsers and eat plants, which any other animals won’t
touch. They eat 4-5 times that of their body weight. Since the profit depends on
weight addition, adequate proteins and calorie should be given to goats. They eat
more of tree leaf fodder (Subabul, Acacia etc) and legume fodder (Lucerne,
Berseem, Soyabean, Pillipeasera etc) @ 4kg/day and the rest with other grass
species (Maize, Jowar, Bajra, Anjan grass, Sudan grass, Hybrid napier etc). Goats
should be fed with concentrates of maize, wheat, horse-gram, groundnut cake, fish
meal and wheat bran, Common salt and vitamin mixtures should also be added.

Sheep are excellent gleaners and make use of much of the waste feed. They
consume large quantities of roughage, converting a relatively cheap food into a
good cash product. The feed and fodder requirements of sheep include:
Green fodder: Legumes (Berseem, Lucerne, Stylo, Pillipesera, etc), Cereal
(Maize, Jowar Ragi, Bajra besides Napier & Paragrass are also preferred), paddy
and wheat straw mixed with urea and gur molasses.
Concentrates: Grains of maize, jowar, bajra, ragi, pulses, rice bran, wheat bran,
maize bran, groundnut, seseme, sunflower, safflower and cotton seed cakes. A
sheep requires about 1 -2 kg
of leguminous hay/day depending on the age of sheep and its body weight.
Proteins may be supplied though concentrates such as groundnut cake, sesame
cake or safflower cake when the pastures are poor in legumes or when scarcity
conditions prevail.
Abundant clean fresh water (8 – 10 Litres/day) should be made available to both sheep and
goats.

LECTURE-14
STUDY OF ALLIED ENTERPRISES – II

(POULTRY FARMING, FISHERIES AND APICULTURE)
Poultry farming
Poultry farming is emerging as an important livestock activity in Farming system for

enhancing economic stability, nutrition and providing regular employment and cash
flow. Poultry meat accounts for about 27% of the total meat consumed worldwide, and
its consumption is growing at an average of 5% annually. The total egg production in
India was worth Rs.5000 crores (2001). Broiler production is increasing at the rate of
12% per yearThe average global consumption is 120 eggs per person per year and in
India, it is only 32 – 33 eggs per capita per year. As per the nutritional
recommendation, the per capita consumption is estimated at 180 eggs/year and 9 kg
meat/year.
Breeds: Under good management the egg laying potential of these breeds is 280 – 310
eggs/annum. To a limited extent, other breeds like Rhode Island Red, California Grey
and Australop are used. There are many hatcheries in Andhra Pradesh Supplying the
strains/inbred lines of layers and broiler chicks. Heavy breeds such as white Plymouth
Rock, White Cornish and New Hampshire are used for cross-bred broiler chicken.
Table 14.1. Hatcheries supplying chicks of layers
S.No Hatchery Breed
1. ANGRAU, Hyderabad ILR – 90 Jubliee
2. AVN Hatcheries Private Limited, Secunderabad BOWENS
3. Balaji Hatcheries, Chittoor BV – 300
4. Sreenivasa Hatcheries Private Limited Vijayawada BV – 300
5. Systemic Hatcheries Private Limited, Hyderabad BV – 300
6. Tirumala Hatcheries Private Limited Warangal BV -300
7. Venkateswara Hatcheries Private Limited, BV -300
Hyderabad

Table 14.2. Hatcheries supplying chicks of broilers

S.No. Hatchery Breed
1. B.R Rai Private Limited Hyderabad Hubchick
2. Diamond hatcheries Private Limited, Vencob
Hyderabad
3. Pioneer Farms Private Limited, Secunderabad Vencob
4. Sreenivasa Hatcheries Private Limited, Vijayawada Vencob
5. Tirumala Breeders Private Limited, Warangal Vencob
6. Chandra hatcheries, chittoor Vencob
7. Venkateswara hatcheries Private Limited, Hyderabad Vencob
8. Vijayanagara hatcheries Private Limited, Anantapur Hubchick
9. Pasuparthi Agro Industries Private Limited, Palmanair Vencob
Housing: The poultry shed should be located in areas having good ventilation,
water and power supply and reasonably cool in summer and warm during winter. It
should be located on well- drained ground, free from floodwaters. The width of the
poultry shed must not exceed 25 – 33’ of convenient length dependingup on the
number of birds. On side walls above 1.0’ fix a wire mesh. Roof normally consists
of asbestos sheets. About 0.3 -0.4 m3 per
bird is required for heavy breeds of broilers. Rearing of poultry birds (layers) in
cages is a recent phenomenon and is found to be beneficial. It saves space, labour,
feed expenses, protects the birds from diseases besides improving the
management, egg size and production. A cage having dimensions of 15 – 20”
length, 12” width and 18” height can accommodate 3 – 4 birds comfortably.
Feed: The feed conversion efficiency of the bird is far superior to other animals.
About 70 – 75% of the total expenditure on poultry farming is spent on the poultry
feed.
Maintenance and production: The chicks must be vaccinated against Ranikhet
diseases with F1 Serain vaccine within the first 6-7 days of age. One drop of
vaccine may be administered in the eye and nostril. When chicks get the optimum
body weight of 1.0-1.5 kg in around six weeks, they can be marketed for broiler.
Hens may be retained for one year for production i.e., up to the age of about 1.5
years. After that they are disposed off for table purpose. It may not be economical
to keep the hens beyond 1.5 years since egg production would get reduced. One
hen is capable of laying 180-200 eggs in a year staring from the sixth month. In
addition, a laying hen produces about 230 g of fresh droppings (75% moisture)
daily.
14.1 Fisheries
Ponds serve various useful purposes, viz., domestic requirement of water,
supplementary irrigation source to cropping and fisheries. With the traditional
management, farmers obtain hardly 300-400 kg of wild and culture fish per ha
annually. However, poly-fish culture with the stocking density of 7500 fingerlings
and supplementary feeding will boost the total biomass production.
Pond: The depth of the pond should be 1.5-2.0 m. This depth will help for
effective photosynthesis and temperature maintenance for the growth of
zooplankton and photosynthesis. Clay soils have higher water retention capacity
and hence are best suited for fish rearing. Pond water should have appropriate
proportion of nutrients, phosphate (0.2-0.4 ppm), nitrate (0.06- 0.1ppm) and
dissolved oxygen (5.0-7.0 ppm). Water should be slightly alkaline (pH 7.5-8.5). If
the pH is less than 6.5, it can be adjusted with the addition of lime at an interval of
2-3days. Higher pH (>8.5) can be reduced with the addition of gypsum.
Application of fresh dung may also reduce high pH in the water. Organic manure
such as FYM and poultry droppings may also be applied to promote the growth of
phyto and zooplankton. The area allocated for pond in rice – fish – poultry farming
system varies between 10 – 33%.
Species of fish:
1. Among the Indian major carps, Catla (Catla catla) is the fast growing fish. It
consumes a lot of vegetation and decomposing higher plants. It is mainly a
surface feeder.
2. Rohu (Labeo rohita) is a column feeder and feeds on growing plants
decomposing vegetation, large colonial algae, zooplankton and detritus to a
small extent.
3. Calbasu (Labea calbasu) is a bottom feeder on detritus. Mrigal (Cirrhimus
mrigale) is also a bottom feeder, taking dertritus on a large content, diatoms,
filamentous and other algae and higher plants. Common carp (Cyprinus carpio)
is a bottom feeder and omnivorous.
4. Silver carp (Hypophthalmichlthya malitrix) is mainly a surface and
phytoplankton feeder and also feeds on microplants.
5. Grass carp (Cyernus carpia) is a specialized feeder on aquatic plants, cut grass
and other vegetable matter. It is also a fast-growing exotic fish.
Poly fish culture: The phytophagous fish (Catla, Rohu and Mrigal) can be
combined with omnivorous (Common Carp), Plankton-feed (Silver Carp) and
Mud-eaters (Mrigal and Calbasu) in a composite fish culture system. For example,
a combination of silver carp (surface feeder), Mrigal (bottom feeder), rohu
(column feeder), and grass carp (specialized feeder on aquatic plants) can be
successfully used in the ratio of 4:3:2:1 in poly fish culture. The recommended
stocking density is 7500 fingerlings/ha
Management: The fish are to be nourished through supplementary feeding of rice
bran, oil seed cakes and poultry excreta. This will enable faster growth and better
yield. This stocking density will enable to get maximum yield of 2000 to 5000
kg/ha of fish annually.
14.3. Bee keeping (Apiculture)
Bee keeping is one of the most important agro-based industries, which does not
require any raw material from the artisan like other industries. Nectar and pollen
from flowers are the raw materials, which are available in plenty in nature.
Species : There are three species, Apis cerana indica (Indian Bee), Apis dorsata
(Rock bee) and Apis mellifera, (Italian Bee), are complentary to each other but
have different adaptations. A. cerana is better acclimatized to higher altitudes of
the Himalayan region. A. mellifera & Apis dorsata is more profitable in the plains.
Management: The sources of nectar are Tamarind, Mango, Guava and most of the
fruit crops. Whereas the sources of pollen include crops such as maize, sorghum &
other millets, bulrush, sunflower and palm tree. The plants which will provide
nectar and pollen for honeybees are known as bee pasturages. The beginner should
start with 2 and not more than 5 colonies. A minimum of 2 colonies is
recommended because in the event of some mishap, such as the loss of the queen
occurring in one, advantage may be taken with the other.
Honey collection: Honey should have good quality to meet the national and
international standards. Qualities such as aroma, colour, consistency and floral
sources are important. During the ripening, sucrose is converted into glucose and
fructose by an enzyme called invertase which is added to it by the bees. Honey is
an excellent energy food with an average of about 3500 calories per kg. It is
directly absorbed into the human blood stream, requiring no digestion.
***

LECTURE- 15
STUDY OF ALLIED ENTERPRISES – III

(SERICULTURE AND AGROFORESTRY SYSTEMS)
15.1 Sericulture
Sericulture is an agro-industry, the end product of which is silk Sericulture
involves thee activities viz., Mulberry cultivation, Silkworm rearing, Reeling for
the silk from the cocoons formed by the worms. India is the second largest
producer of mulberry silk after china. It currently produces about 1, 27,495 tons of
reeling cocoons and 14,048 tonnes of raw silk from a mulberry cropped area of
2,82,244 ha. The sericulture is practiced in India both in tropical (Karnataka,
Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu and West Bengal) and temperate(Jammu and
Kashmir)climates. The mulberry silk goods produced in India are mainly exported
to USA, Germany, United Kingdom, France, Italy, Singapore, Canada, UAE,
Switzerland, Netherlands, Spain, Japan, Thailand etc.
15.1.1.Moriculture: Cultivation of mulberry plants is called as moriculture.

Morus is the Latin word for mulberry. The mulberry plant is exploited for
commercial production of silk, since it constitutes the chief food for mulberry
silkworm, Bombyx mori. Mulberry leaf protein is the source for the silkworm to
bio-synthesize the silk, which is made up of two proteins, fibroin and sericin.
There are about 20 species of mulberry, of which four are commonly cultivated.
They are Morus alba, M. Indica, M. Serrata and M. latifolia. It can be cultivated
on wide range of soils. The recommended NPK dose is 120 – 50 – 50 kg/ha under
rain fed and 300 -120 – 120 kg/ha under irrigated conditions. The important
mulberry varieties are Kanva-2 (M5), S13, S30, S36, S41, S54, DD, V1 and Ananta. A
spacing of 90 cm X 90 cm under rainfed conditions (pit method) and 120cm x
60cm under irrigated conditions is commonly followed. It is mainly propagated by

cuttings. The planting season is July – August. The crop can yield well for 12
years, after which they are pulled out and fresh planting is done yield of mulberry
leaves is 30-40 t/ha/year.
15.1.2. Silkworm rearing

There are four types of silkworms viz., mulberry silkworm – Bombyx mori, Eri
silkworm – Philosamia ricini, Tassar silkworm – Antheraea mylitta, Muga silk
worm – Antheraeaassama. The silkworm is reared in a rearing house. Maintenance
of proper temperature (24 – 28 0C) and humidity (70 – 85%) depending upon the
silkworm stage (i.e., instar) is very essential. Initially the disease free layings
(DFLS) or egg cards are collected from a Government Grainage and kept for
hatching in a dark and cool place.
Agro-forestry
Agro-forestry may be defined as an integrated self sustained land management
system, which involves deliberate introduction/retention of woody components
with agriculturalcrops including pasture/livestock, simultaneously orsequential on
the same unit of land, meeting the ecological and socio-economic needs of
people. Important agro-forestry systems relevant to farming systems approach are
discussed below.
15.1.3. Agrisilviculture – In this system agricultural crops are intercropped with
tree crops in the interspaces available between trees. Tree component gives fodder,
fuel and timber including green leaf manure. It is ideal for Class IV soils of dry
lands with annual rainfall around 750 mm. The positive associative effect of
Leucaena leucocephala and Sesbaniaaegyptica has been found in crops like hybrid
Napier, Lucerne, oat and several other cereal forages.
15.2.2 Silvi-pastoral system – The system is primarily meant for augmenting the
scarce food supply. It integrates pasture and/or animals with tress. In Marginal
lands (Class IV onwards), this system promotes sustainability via resource
conservation and its efficient use, improvement in soil quality and by linking
agriculture with cattle.
15.2.3 Agri-silvipastoral system – The system integrates crop and /or animal
with trees. Woody perennials preferably of fodder value are introduced
deliberately. Such systems can be used for food production and soil conservation
besides providing fodder and fuel. It may be tree-livestock crop mix around
homestead, wood-hedge rows for browsing, green-leaf manure and soil
conservation or for an integrated production of pasture, crops animals and wood.
15.2.4 Agri-horticultural system – It is one form of agroforestry in which tree

component is fruit tree. It is also called as food-cum-fruit system. In which short
duration arable crops are raised in the interspaces of fruit trees. Some of the fruit
trees that can be considered are guava, pomegranate, custard apple, sapota and
mango. Pulses are the important arable crops for this system. However, depending
upon the requirements, others like sorghum and pearl millet can be grown in the
interspaces of fruit trees. Reasons for this systemnot being widely adopted are:
• Economic position of farmers may not permit awaitingincome for 5-6
years
• Watering of fruit trees, till their establishment is a problemin summer period
• Marketing problems for perishable horticultural produce
15.2.5 (a). Horti/silvipastoral system- Class IV and above soils, uneconomical for
arable crop production are termed as non-arable lands. Horti-Pastoral system is an
agro-forestry system involving integration of fruit trees with pasture. When a top
feed tree replaces fruit tree, it is called horti-pastoral system. Guava, custard apple
and ber suits well in an horti- pastoral system with grasses like Cenchrus ciliaris
(“anjan”), C.setigerus (birdfoot), Panicum antidotale (blue panic), Dicanthium
annulatum (marvel) and Chloris gayana (Rhodes), and legumes like Stylosanthes
hamata, S. scabra (stylo) and Macroptilum atropurpurium (siratro).

(b) Top-feed trees ideal for Silvi-pastoral system are Acacia nilotica(babul) ,
Acacia senagel(gum Arabica) , Bauhinea purpurea(khairwal) , Dalbergia
sissoo(shisham) , Gmelina arborea(gummadi teak) , Hardwickia binata(yepi),
Leucaena leucocephala(subabul), Sesbaniagrandiflora(avise). Grasses and
legumes indicated under horti-passtoral system are also suitable for silvi-pastoral
system.
15.2.6 Alley cropping
Food crops are grown in alleys formed by hedgerows of trees or shrubs in arable
lands. It is also known as “hedgerow” intercropping”. Hedgerows are cut back at
about one meter height at planting and kept pruned during cropping to prevent
shading and to reduce competition with food crops. It is recommended for humid
tropics, primarily as an alternative to shifting cultivation. In semi-arid regions of
India, alley cropping provides fodder during dry period since mulching the crop
with hedgerow pruning does not usually contribute to increased crop production.
Advantages of this system are :
• Provision of green fodder during lean period of theyear.
• Higher total biomass production per unit area thanarable crops alone.
• Efficient use of off-season precipitation in the absenceof a crop.
• Additional employment during off-season.
• It serves as a barrier to surface runoff leading to soiland water
conservation.
Based on then objectives , three types of alleycropping are recognized
(i) Forage alley cropping
(ii) Forage-cum-mulching alley system and
(iii) Forage-cum-pole system.
In all the three systems, crops are grown in alleys and forage obtained from the
lopping of hedgerows. However, gross returns are higher in all the alley cropping
systems than the sole crop system.

15. 2.7 Tree farming

Trees can flourish and yield abundantly where arable crops are not profitable.
Farmers of dry lands are inclined to tree farming because of labour scarcity at peak
periods of farm operations and frequent crop failure due to drought. A number of
multipurpose tree systems (MPTS) have been tested for their suitability and
profitability under different situations.
15.2.8 Role of trees in farming system
• Improve land productivity
• Provides fuel, fodder and fruit
• Service functions like shade for the cattle, workers, conservation of soil fertility,
fencingand water conservation
• Increase income earning opportunities
• Strengthen risk management through diversification
***

LECTURE- 16
Bio-Diversity
16.1 Bio-diversity and sustainable Agriculture

What is Biodiversity?
Biodiversity refers to rich and diverse energy of living organisms of
all species, the genes they contain and the ecosystem they constitute. “Biological
diversity means the variability among living organisms from all sources including,
interalia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological
complexes of which they are part, this includes diversity within species, between
species and of ecosystems”
Thus, biodiversity is considered at three levels:
a) genetic diversity
b) species diversity
c) ecosystem diversity
• Genetic diversity refers to the variation of genes between different populations of
a species as well as between species.
• Species/organismal diversity refer to the variety of living species.
• Ecosystem biodiversity relates to the variety of habitats, biotic communities and
ecological processes and the enormous diversity present within ecosystems
interms of habitat differences and the variety of ecological processes.
16.2 Importance of biodiversity
Humans derive all of their food almost 40 percent of their medicines, and
industrial products from the wild and domesticated components of biological
diversity.
16.3 Human Impact on Biodiversity
Human activities change biological diversity globally in two fundamental
ways
1) by affecting a globally dynamic systemsuch as the atmosphere directly
2) through the collective consequences of individual effects in various places and
at various times building up to globally significant impact. For instance, global
warming is due to direct excessive emission of green house gases from burning
fossil fuels as well as to the cumulative effect of deforestation, land clearance
and facultyagricultural practices in various parts of the world.
16.4 Importance of Agricultural Biodiversity
1. Recycling of nutrients
2. Control of microclimate
3. Regulation of local hydrological processes
4. Detoxification of waste and toxic chemicals
5. Regulation of the abundance of desirable andundesirable organisms.
6. Soil structure
7. Infiltration and run off Soil erosion
8. Natural pest and disease control
9. Pollination and
10. Genetic Introgression and hybridization
16.5 Agricultural Intensification & biodiversity
Agricultural activities have three types of impacts on biodiversity.
1. They alter the characteristics of natural ecosystems and their constituent species.
2. They impact the species and genetic variability of the chooses cultivated species
themselves and their nonfood components.
3. The affect on and off farm nonfood biodiversity through such adverse
physiochemical effects as erosion, salinization, and pesticide pollution. The
magnitude of these impacts varies with the intensity of the intervention.
The magnitude of these impacts varies with the intensityof the intervention.
16.6 Impact of biodiversity reduction on modernagricultural systems
Species diversity:- Products of plant origin make up 93 percent of the
human diet and 3000 species are regularly exploited for food. Only 103 species

contribute 90 percent of the world’s plant food supply just three crops Rice, wheat
and maize-account for 90 percent of the calories and 56 percent of the proteins
people derive from plants.
16.7 Genetic erosion
Genetic erosion consists of the loss of genes, gene complexes and unique
combinations of genes that occur in different land. The primary cause of the less of
genetic diversity of the widely used plant crops and vegetables is the wide speed
adoption of a limited number if modern varities that are generally bred for higher
yield, resistance to insect pests and diseases, and high performance over a range of
biophysical environment, thus reducing the need for specific local adaptations.
Modern agricultural production practices have created tensions related to different
aspects of agricultural biodiversity such as
- Severe reduction in the no. of species of food plantscultivated.
- Loss of genetic diversity of the presently cultivated cropsand vegetables.
- Destabilization of pest species in agro ecosystems.
- Deficiency in soul biodiversity and
- Erosion of cultural diversity, loss of indigenous knowledge of traditional
farming systems and environmental degradation.

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Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

We have summarized these notes by using standard source of agriculture so that

Agri Coaching Chandigarh

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S.No. Topic Name Page

INTRODUCTION TO SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE

Farming system & Sustainable Agriculture 1

Sustainable Agriculture refers to an agricultural production and distribution system

Productive and Conserves

1.5 Goals of sustainable Agriculture

Farming system & Sustainable Agriculture 6

Farming system & Sustainable Agriculture 7

FACTORS AFFECTING ECOLOGICAL BALANCE AND

Farming system & Sustainable Agriculture 8

Physical Chemical Biological

Compaction & Crusting Fertility imbalance Decline in OM

Desertification Elemental Reduction in macro &

Erosion and depletion Acidification Salinisation Toxicant

2.2.3 Accelerated Soil erosion

Agricultural productivity depends largely on the topsoil (up to 20 cm

Farming system & Sustainable Agriculture 12

Fig.2.8 Vicious circle of natural resource degradation

Farming system & Sustainable Agriculture 13

RISE IN WATE TABLE, WATER LOGGING, SALANIZATION &

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3.5.1 Nature of damages caused by cyclones to agriculturalcrops

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3.5.3 Mitigation options

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103 Watt per m3

343 Watt per m3

Source: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

Farming system & Sustainable Agriculture 26

5.3 Potential Effects of Greenhouse effect or Global Warming

Impacts of Climate Change

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5.4 Depletion of Ozone layer

Wetland rice fields have recently been identified as a major source of

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6.2 Fertilizers as a source of pollution

Farming system & Sustainable Agriculture 32

Weed infestation of water bodies is driven by

6.2.3.1 Effects of eutrophication

6.2.3.2 Measures to reduce artificial eutrophicaion

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Aldrin Maize, fish, feed mix, livestock feed, eggs, human

Large number of pesticide compounds have a mobility class value of 1

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