Chapter-1

Introduction

1.1.History

Ancient Roots of Integration: - The history of integration can be traced back to ancient civilizations,
where mathematicians sought methods to calculate areas and volumes. The Egyptians and Babylonians
developed rudimentary techniques to solve geometrical problems, often using numerical
approximations. The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, dating to around 1650 BCE, provides evidence of
Egyptian attempts at calculating the area of irregular shapes, a precursor to the concept of integration.
Similarly, Babylonian tablets reveal their use of geometrical principles to estimate areas under curves.

The Greek Contributions: - Greek mathematicians made significant strides in formalizing the study
of areas and volumes. Around 300 BCE, Euclid, in his seminal work Elements, systematically
developed the axiomatic basis of geometry, laying the groundwork for later developments. Archimedes,
often regarded as the greatest mathematician of antiquity, extended these ideas by using the method of
exhaustion to find areas and volumes. This method involved inscribing polygons within a shape and
progressively increasing the number of sides to approximate its area. Archimedes applied this technique
to compute areas under parabolic segments, a result remarkably close to the integral of quadratic
functions.

Medieval Islamic Mathematics: - During the Islamic Golden Age (8th to 14th centuries),
mathematicians such as Alhazen (Ibn al-Haytham) and Omar Khayyam expanded upon Greek ideas.
Alhazen used infinitesimal methods to calculate volumes and areas, prefiguring integral calculus. His
work on the problem of summing powers of integers contributed indirectly to the development of
integration. Omar Khayyam, known for his work on cubic equations, also explored geometric methods
to solve integration-related problems, bridging the gap between algebra and geometry.

The Renaissance and Early Modern Period: - The Renaissance marked a revival of interest in
mathematics and the natural sciences. Mathematicians such as Johannes Kepler and Bonaventura
Cavalieri laid the groundwork for modern integration. Kepler's work on planetary motion led him to
approximate areas and volumes using infinitesimal slices, a precursor to integral calculus. Cavalieri's
method of indivisibles introduced a systematic way of summing infinitesimally small quantities, which
directly influenced later developments in calculus.

The Birth of Integral Calculus: - The 17th century witnessed the emergence of integral calculus as a
distinct mathematical discipline, thanks to the work of Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz.
Newton's development of the fundamental theorem of calculus linked differentiation and integration,
providing a unified framework for solving problems involving rates of change and areas. In his work
Principia Mathematica, Newton demonstrated how integration could be used to solve physical
problems, such as finding the area under curves and calculating the motion of celestial bodies.

Leibniz, working independently, developed a formal notation for integration that is still in use today.
His integral sign ∫, derived from the Latin word "summa," symbolized the summation of infinitesimal
elements. Leibniz's systematic approach to integration included rules for calculating integrals of basic
functions and applications to geometry and physics.

Post-Newtonian Developments: - Following the work of Newton and Leibniz, mathematicians refined
and expanded the techniques of integration. The Bernoulli family, particularly Jacob and Johann
Bernoulli, made significant contributions to the study of integral calculus. They solved complex
problems involving curves and introduced new methods, such as the substitution rule, to simplify
integration.

In the 18th century, Leonhard Euler advanced the field by introducing special functions and developing
methods for solving differential equations using integration. Euler's work on the Gamma function
extended the concept of integration to non-integer exponents, broadening its applicability.

Rigorous Foundations in the 19th Century: - The 19th century saw a shift towards rigor in
mathematics, with integration being placed on a solid theoretical foundation. Augustin-Louis Cauchy
formalized the definition of definite integrals using limits, addressing ambiguities in earlier methods.
Bernhard Riemann introduced the concept of the Riemann integral, providing a rigorous framework for
defining integration in terms of sums of rectangular areas. Riemann's approach enabled mathematicians
to handle a broader class of functions, including those with discontinuities.

Meanwhile, Joseph Fourier's work on heat transfer popularized the use of integrals in representing
periodic functions as infinite series. Fourier's techniques laid the foundation for modern harmonic
analysis and signal processing.

20th Century and Beyond: - The 20th century brought further advancements in the theory and
application of integration. Henri Lebesgue revolutionized the field by introducing the Lebesgue integral,
which extended the Riemann integral to more complex functions and domains. Lebesgue's approach
allowed for the integration of functions with intricate structures, such as those arising in probability
theory and quantum mechanics.

Integration also became central to the development of modern physics and engineering. The advent of
computers enabled numerical integration to solve complex problems that were previously intractable.
Techniques such as Monte Carlo integration and finite element analysis emerged, broadening the scope
of applications in fields ranging from finance to fluid dynamics.

Differential calculus focuses on the concept of derivatives, which were originally introduced to address
the problem of defining tangent lines to curves and calculating their slopes. This concept lies at the heart
of understanding how functions change at specific points. Integral calculus, on the other hand, emerged
to solve the problem of determining the area enclosed by a curve and the axes. Both branches of calculus
are interconnected and provide tools for solving diverse mathematical and practical problems.
When a function f is differentiable over an interval I, its derivative f′ exists at every point in that interval.
This leads to a natural question: if the derivative f′ is known, can the original function f be
reconstructed? The functions that could have f′ as their derivative are referred to as antiderivatives or
primitives. The formula representing all possible antiderivatives of a function is called its indefinite
integral, and the process of finding antiderivatives is known as integration.
Integration is not only a mathematical operation but also a powerful tool for solving real-world
problems. For instance, if the instantaneous velocity of an object is given, it is possible to use integration
to determine the object's position over time. Similar problems arise in physics, engineering, and
economics, where integration helps bridge the gap between rates of change and cumulative quantities.
The development of integral calculus stemmed from efforts to address two central challenges. The first
is finding a function when its derivative is provided, while the second involves calculating the area
bounded by the graph of a function under certain conditions. These two problems led to the distinction
between two types of integrals: indefinite and definite integrals. Indefinite integrals focus on
determining families of antiderivatives, whereas definite integrals are used to calculate precise
quantities such as areas and volumes. Together, they form the foundation of integral calculus.
In summary, integral calculus evolved to address questions of reconstructing functions from their rates
of change and determining areas under curves. Its applications extend across numerous fields, making
it a cornerstone of mathematical analysis and problem-solving.
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus establishes a vital link between indefinite and definite
integrals, making the definite integral a powerful tool in science and engineering. This connection
enables practical applications, allowing definite integrals to solve diverse problems across various
fields, including economics, finance, and probability. By bridging differentiation and integration, the
theorem not only enhances mathematical understanding but also extends the utility of integrals to real-
world challenges, solidifying their role in both theoretical and applied disciplines.
It might be out of scope of this book but yet it is better to understand partial differentiations first because
with the help of it we can easily understand integration respectively so, A partial derivative is a
derivative of a multivariable function with respect to one of its variables while keeping the other
variables constant. It measures how the function changes as only the specified variable changes,
providing insight into the function's behaviour along individual dimensions.

f
For a function f ( x, y ) , the partial derivative with respect to x is denoted by , and it is calculated
x
as:

f f ( x + h, y ) − f ( x, y )
= lim
x h→0 h
f
While, partial derivative with respect to y is denoted by , and it is calculated as:
y

f f ( x, y + h ) − f ( x, y )
= lim
y h→0 h
There also we have a relation between partial and total derivative. The relation between both of them is
given below
 f f
df = dx + dy
x y

In multivariable calculus and vector analysis this formula is very useful. Now, consider any function f
of n independent variables x1 , x2 , , xn simply we have

f f f
df = dx1 + dx2 + + dxn
x1 x2 xn

Then using

 df = f + C ( y)

 f f f 
  x dx1 + dx2 + + dxn  = f ( x1 , x2 , , xn ) + C ( y )
1 x2 xn 
f f f
 x dx1 +  dx2 + + dxn = f ( x1 , x2 , , xn ) + C ( y )
1 x2 xn

For function for single variable

 df ( x ) = f ( x ) + C ( y )
For now, it is of our use. With assuming different f ( x ) we can easily complete the above expression.
df ( x )
As an example, we can assume f ( x ) = x then = 1 or df ( x ) = dx . It gives
dx

 df ( x ) = f ( x ) + C ( y )   dx = x + C ( y )
Here, C ( y ) is arbitrary constant. One by one we are considering different functions.

1. f ( x ) = xn+1 with n  −1
df ( x )
As f ( x ) = x then = ( n + 1) x n putting it into equation gives
n +1

dx
 df ( x ) = f ( x ) + C ( y )
  ( n + 1) x n dx = x n +1 + C ( y )
x n +1 1
  x dx =
n
+ C ( y)
n +1 n +1
x n +1
  x n dx = +C
n +1
1
Where C is yet a constant of integration since C ( y ) is constant.
n +1
2. f ( x ) = eax
 df ( x )
As f ( x ) = eax then = aeax putting it into equation gives
dx
 df ( x ) = f ( x ) + C ( y )
  ae ax dx = e ax + C ( y )
eax 1
  e dx =
ax
+ C ( y)
a a
eax
  eax dx = +C
a
1
Where C is yet a constant of integration since C ( y ) is constant.
a
3. f ( x ) = bax with b  1, b  0
df ( x )
As f ( x ) = bax then = b ax log b putting it into equation gives
dx
 df ( x ) = f ( x ) + C ( y )
  b ax log bdx = b ax + C ( y )
bax 1
  bax dx = + C ( y)
log b log b
bax
  bax dx = +C
log b
4. f ( x ) = log ( ax + b )
df ( x ) a
As f ( x ) = log ( ax + b ) then = putting it into equation gives
dx ax + b
 df ( x ) = f ( x ) + C ( y )
a
 dx = log ( ax + b ) + C ( y )
ax + b
1 log ( ax + b ) 1
 dx = + C ( y)
ax + b a a
1 log ( ax + b )
 dx = +C
ax + b a
5. f ( x ) = sin ( ax + b )
df ( x )
As f ( x ) = sin ( ax + b ) then = a cos ( ax + b ) putting it into equation gives
dx
 df ( x ) = f ( x ) + C ( y )
  a cos ( ax + b ) dx = sin ( ax + b ) + C ( y )
sin ( ax + b ) 1
  cos ( ax + b ) dx = + C ( y)
a a
 sin ( ax + b )
  cos ( ax + b ) dx = +C
a
6. f ( x ) = cos ( ax + b )
df ( x )
As f ( x ) = cos ( ax + b ) then = −a sin ( ax + b ) putting it into equation gives
dx
 df ( x ) = f ( x ) + C ( y )
 −  a sin ( ax + b ) dx = cos ( ax + b ) + C ( y )
cos ( ax + b ) 1
  sin ( ax + b ) dx = − − C ( y)
a a
cos ( ax + b )
  sin ( ax + b ) dx = − +C
a
7. f ( x ) = tan ( ax + b )
df ( x )
As f ( x ) = tan ( ax + b ) then = a sec2 ( ax + b ) putting it into equation gives
dx
 df ( x ) = f ( x ) + C ( y )
  a sec ( ax + b ) dx = tan ( ax + b ) + C ( y )
2

tan ( ax + b ) 1
  sec2 ( ax + b ) dx = + C ( y)
a a
tan ( ax + b )
  sec2 ( ax + b ) dx = +C
a
8. f ( x ) = sec ( ax + b )
df ( x )
As f ( x ) = sec ( ax + b ) then = a sec ( ax + b ) tan ( ax + b ) putting it into equation gives
dx
 df ( x ) = f ( x ) + C ( y )
  a sec ( ax + b ) tan ( ax + b ) dx = sec ( ax + b ) + C ( y )
sec ( ax + b ) 1
  sec ( ax + b ) tan ( ax + b ) dx = + C ( y)
a a
sec ( ax + b )
  sec ( ax + b ) tan ( ax + b ) dx = +C
a
9. f ( x ) = cos ec ( ax + b )
df ( x )
As f ( x ) = cos ec ( ax + b ) then = −a cos ec ( ax + b ) cot ( ax + b ) putting it into equation
dx
gives
 df ( x ) = f ( x ) + C ( y )
 −  a cos ec ( ax + b ) cot ( ax + b ) dx = cos ec ( ax + b ) + C ( y )
cos ec ( ax + b ) 1
  cos ec ( ax + b ) cot ( ax + b ) dx = − − C ( y)
a a
 cos ec ( ax + b )
  cos ec ( ax + b ) cot ( ax + b ) dx = − +C
a
10. f ( x ) = cot ( ax + b )
df ( x )
As f ( x ) = cot ( ax + b ) then = −a cos ec 2 ( ax + b ) putting it into equation gives
dx
 df ( x ) = f ( x ) + C ( y )
 −  a cos ec ( ax + b ) cot ( ax + b ) dx = cos ec ( ax + b ) + C ( y )
cos ec ( ax + b ) 1
  cos ec ( ax + b ) cot ( ax + b ) dx = − − C ( y)
a a
cos ec ( ax + b )
  cos ec ( ax + b ) cot ( ax + b ) dx = − +C
a
x
11. f ( x ) = tan −1  
a
x df ( x ) 1 1 a
As f ( x ) = tan −1   then = = 2 putting it into equation gives
a x a a +x
2 2
dx
1+  
a
 df ( x ) = f ( x ) + C ( y )
a x
 dx = tan −1   + C ( y )
a +x
2 2
a
1 1 x 1
 dx = tan −1   + C ( y )
a +x
2 2
a a a
1 1 x
 2 dx = tan −1   + C
a +x 2
a a
x
12. f ( x ) = sin −1  
a
x df ( x ) 1 1 1
As f ( x ) = sin −1   then = = putting it into equation gives
a dx x
2 a
a 2
− x 2

1−  
a
 df ( x ) = f ( x ) + C ( y )
1  x
 dx = sin −1   + C ( y )
a2 − x2 a
1  x
 dx = sin −1   + C
a2 − x2 a

(
13. f ( x ) = ln x + a 2 + x 2 )
df ( x )
(
As f ( x ) = ln x + a 2 + x 2 then ) dx
=
1
x + a2 + x2

1 +
2x
 2 a +x
2 2

= 2

1
a + x2
putting

it into equation gives

  df ( x ) = f ( x ) + C ( y )

1
a +x
2 2 ( )
dx = ln x + a 2 + x 2 + C ( y )

dx = ln ( x + a + x ) + C
1
 2 2

a +x2 2

14. f ( x ) = ln ( x + x − a ) 2 2

df ( x )
As f ( x ) = ln ( x + x − a ) then
1  2x  1
2 2
=  1+ = 2 putting
dx x+ x2 − a2  2 x2 − a2  x − a 2

it into equation gives

 df ( x ) = f ( x ) + C ( y )

1
x −a
2 2 (
dx = ln x + x 2 − a 2 + C ( y ) )
dx = ln ( x + x −a )+C
1
 2 2

x −a2 2

 x−a
15. f ( x ) = ln   = ln ( x − a ) − ln ( x + a )
 x+a
 x−a
As f ( x ) = ln   = ln ( x − a ) − ln ( x + a ) then
 x+a
df ( x ) 1 1 2a
 = − = 2
dx x − a x + a x − a2
putting it into equation gives
 df ( x ) = f ( x ) + C ( y )
2a  x−a
 dx = ln   + C ( y)
x −a
2 2
 x+a
1 1  x−a 1
 dx = ln   + C ( y)
x −a
2 2
2 a  x + a  2a
1 1  x−a
 2 dx = ln  +C
x −a 2
2a  x + a 
1
2
1
16. f ( x ) = x a 2 + x 2 + a 2 log x + a 2 + x 2
2
( )
1
2
1
As f ( x ) = x a 2 + x 2 + a 2 log x + a 2 + x 2 then
2
( )

df 1 d
=
dx 2 dx
(
x a2 + x2 + a2
1 d 
2 dx 
)
log x + a 2 + x 2 
 ( )

df 1  d
= x
dx 2  dx
( )
dx  1 d
a 2 + x 2 + a 2 + x 2  + a 2 log x + a 2 + x 2
dx  2 dx
( )
df 1  x  1 1  x 
 = x + a2 + x2  + a2 1+ 
dx 2  a 2 + x 2  2 x+ a +x 
2 2
a2 + x2 
  x + (a + x ) 
df 1   a2 + x2 + x 
2 2 2
 1 2 1
 =   + a  
dx 2 
 a 2
+ x 2


2 x + a 2 + x 2  a 2 + x 2 

df 1  2 x 2 + a 2  1 1  ( 2x + a ) + a 
2 2 2
a2
 =  + =   = a2 + x2
dx 2  a 2 + x 2  2 a 2 + x 2 2  a +x
2 2


putting it into equation gives
 df ( x ) = f ( x ) + C ( y )
  a 2 + x 2 dx =
1
2
1
( )
x a 2 + x 2 + a 2 log x + a 2 + x 2 +C ( y )
2
1
2
1
(
17. f ( x ) = x x 2 − a 2 − a 2 log x + x 2 − a 2
2
)
1
2
1
(
As f ( x ) = x x 2 − a 2 − a 2 log x + x 2 − a 2 then
2
)

df 1 d
=
dx 2 dx
(
x x2 − a2 − a2
1
) d 
2 dx 
(
log x + x 2 − a 2 
 )

df 1  d
= x
dx 2  dx
( ) dx  1 d
(
x 2 − a 2 + x 2 − a 2  − a 2 log x + x 2 − a 2
dx  2 dx
)
df 1  x  1 1  x 
 = x + x2 − a2  − a2  1+ 
dx 2  x 2 − a 2  2 x+ x −a 
2 2
x2 − a2 
x +(x − a )
df 1   x2 − a2 + x 
2 2 2
 1 2 1
 =   − a  
dx 2 
 x 2
− a 2


2 x + x 2 − a 2  x 2
− a 2


df 1  2 x 2 − a 2  1 1  ( 2x − a ) − a 
2 2 2
a2
 =  − =   = x2 − a2
dx 2  x − a  2 x − a
2 2 2 2 2 x −a
2 2


putting it into equation gives
 df ( x ) = f ( x ) + C ( y )
  x 2 − a 2 dx =
1
2
1
( )
x x 2 − a 2 − a 2 log x + x 2 − a 2 + C ( y )
2