PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY

MEE 2165
Instructor: Dr. Gaudence

Lecture 3:

FUNDAMENTALS OF METAL
FORMING
Production Technology - MEE 2165 UR - CST Semester I 2024/2025
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 FUNDAMENTALS OF METAL FORMING

Overview of Metal Forming

Material Behavior in Metal Forming
Temperature in Metal Forming
Strain Rate Sensitivity
Friction and Lubrication in Metal Forming

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 Metal Forming
Large group of manufacturing processes in which plastic deformation is
used to change the shape of metal workpieces.
oThe tool, usually called a die, applies stresses that exceed yield strength
of metal.
oThe metal takes a shape determined by the geometry of the die.
Metal forming is also known as mechanical working of metals.
Metal forming operations are frequently desirable either to produce a
new shape or to improve the properties of the metal.
The main objectives of metal working processes are to provide the
desired shape and size, under the action of externally applied forces in
metals.
Such processes are used to achieve optimum mechanical properties in the
metal and reduce any internal voids or cavities present and thus make the
metal dense.
The necessary deformation in a metal can be achieved by application of
mechanical force only or by heating the metal and then applying a small
force.
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 Stresses in Metal Forming
Stresses to plastically deform the metal are usually compressive
oExamples: rolling, forging, extrusion
oHowever, some forming processes
• Stretch the metal (tensile stresses)
• Others bend the metal (tensile and compressive)
• Still others apply shear stresses

Material Properties in Metal Forming

Desirable material properties:
oLow yield strength and high ductility
oThese properties are affected by temperature:
• Ductility increases and yield strength decreases when work temperature is
raised.
 Other factors:
o Strain rate and
oFriction
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 OVERVIEW OF METAL FORMING

Metal forming processes can be classified into two basic

categories:
oBulk Deformation processes
oSheet metalworking processes
Each category includes several major classes of shaping
operations.

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 CLASSIFICATION OF METAL FORMING
OPERATIONS

Classification of metal forming operations.

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 Bulk Deformation Processes

Characterized by significant deformations and massive

shape changes.
"Bulk" refers to workparts with relatively low surface
area-to-volume ratios.
Starting work shapes include:
o Cylindrical billets and
o Rectangular bars.

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Basic bulk deformation processes

(a) Rolling

 Rolling – This is a compressive

deformation process in which the
thickness of a slab or plate is
reduced by two opposing cylindrical
tools called rolls.
 The rolls rotate so as to draw the
work into the gap between them
and squeeze it.

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Basic bulk deformation processes

(b) Forging

 Forging – In forging, a
workpiece is compressed
between two opposing dies, so
that the die shapes are
imparted to the work.
Forging is traditionally a hot
working process, but many
types of forging are performed
cold.

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 Basic bulk deformation processes
(C) Extrusion (d) Drawing

 Extrusion – This is a compression

process in which the work metal  Drawing – In this forming
is forced to flow through a die process, the diameter of a
opening, thereby taking the shape round wire or bar is reduced
of the opening as its own cross by pulling it through a die
section. opening.

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 Sheet Metalworking

Forming and cutting operations performed on metal

sheets, strips, and coils.
High surface area-to-volume ratio of starting metal,
which distinguishes these sheet metal processes from bulk
deformation.
Often called pressworking because presses perform
these operations.
oParts produced in a sheet metal operations are called
stampings
oUsual tooling: punch and die
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 Basic sheet metalworking operations
(a)Bending

 Bending – Bending involves straining of a metal sheet or plate to

take an angle along a (usually) straight axis.-

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 Basic sheet metalworking operations
(b) Drawing

 Drawing-In sheet metal working,

drawing refers to the forming of a
flat metal sheet into a hollow or
concave shape, such as a cup, by
stretching the metal.
 A blank holder is used to hold
down the blank while the punch
pushes into the sheet metal.
 To distinguish this operation from
bar and wire drawing, the terms
Cup drawing or Deep drawing
are often used.

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 Basic sheet metalworking operations
(c) Shearing

 Shearing – This process is somewhat out-of-place in our list of

deformation processes, because it involves cutting rather than forming.
 A shearing operation cuts the work using a punch and die.
 Although it is not a forming process, it is included here because it is
necessary and very common operation in sheet metal working.
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 Material Behavior in Metal Forming

Considerable insight about the behavior of metals during forming can be

obtained from the Stress – Strain curve.
The typical stress–strain curve for most metals is divided into an elastic
region and a plastic region

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 Material Behavior in Metal Forming

Plastic region of stress-strain curve is primary interest because material

is plastically deformed.
In plastic region, metal's behavior is expressed by the flow curve:

Where
K = strength coefficient (MPa). It is a measure of how strong a system is;
and
n = strain hardening exponent
Stress and strain in flow curve are true stress and true strain.

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 Flow Stress

The flow curve describes the stress-strain relationship in the region

in which metal forming takes place.
For most metals at room temperature, strength increases when
deformed due to strain hardening.
oThe stress required to continue deformation must be increased to
match this increase in strength.
Flow stress - instantaneous value of stress required to continue
deforming the material.

where 𝒀𝒇 = flow stress (MPa)

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 Average Flow Stress
Average Flow Stress (also called the mean flow stress) – Is the average
value of stress over the stress – Strain curve from the beginning of strain
to the final (maximum) value that occurs during deformation.
Determined by integrating the flow curve equation between zero and the
final strain value then dividing by the total strain

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 Temperature in Metal Forming

For any metal, K and n in the flow curve depend on temperature.

oBoth strength and strain hardening exponent are reduced at
higher temperatures.
oIn addition, ductility is increased at higher temperatures.
Any deformation operation can be accomplished with lower forces
and power at elevated temperature.
There are three temperature ranges in metal forming:
oCold working
oWarm working
oHot working

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 Cold Working
Also known as cold forming is a metal forming performed at room
temperature or slightly above.
Many cold forming processes are important mass production operations.
Minimum or no machining usually required.
oThese operations are near net shape or net shape processes.

Advantages of Cold Forming vs Hot Working

Better accuracy (closer tolerances)

Better surface finish
Strain hardening increases strength and hardness of the part
Grain flow during deformation can cause desirable directional properties
in product.
No heating of work required. Production Technology - MEE 2165 UR - CST
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 Disadvantages of Cold Forming

Higher forces and power required.

Ductility and strain hardening limit the amount of
forming that can be done.
oIn some operations, metal must be annealed to allow
further deformation.
oIn other cases, metal is simply not ductile enough to be
cold worked.

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 Warm Working
Performed at temperatures above room temperature but below the
recrystallization temperature.
Dividing line between cold working and warm working often
expressed in terms of melting point:
o0.3𝑻𝒎 , where 𝑻𝒎 = melting point (absolute temperature) for
metal.

Advantages of Warm Working

Lower forces and power than in cold working

More intricate work geometries possible
Need for annealing may be reduced or eliminated
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 Hot Working
Also called Hot forming involves deformation at temperatures above the
recrystallization temperature.
Recrystallization temperature = about one-half of melting point on absolute
scale.
oIn practice, hot working usually performed somewhat above 0.5𝑻𝒎
oMetal continues to soften as temperature increases above 0.5 𝑻𝒎 , enhancing
advantage of hot working above this level.
The deformation process itself generates heat, which increases work
temperatures in localized regions of the part.
• This can cause melting in these regions, which is highly undesirable.
Why Hot Working?
Capability for substantial plastic deformation of the metal - far more than
possible with cold working or warm working.
Why?
oStrength coefficient is substantially less than at room temperature.
oStrain hardening exponent is zero (theoretically).
oDuctility is significantly increased. Production Technology - MEE 2165 UR - CST
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 Advantages of Hot Working vs Cold Working
Workpart shape can be significantly altered.
Lower forces and power required.
Metals that usually fracture in cold working can be hot formed.
Strength properties of product are generally isotropic.
No strengthening of part occurs from work hardening.
oAdvantageous in cases when part is to be subsequently processed by
cold forming.

Disadvantages of Hot Working

Lower dimensional accuracy

Higher total energy required (due to the thermal energy to heat the
workpiece)
Work surface oxidation (scale), poorer surface finish.
Shorter tool life.
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 Strain Rate Sensitivity
Theoretically, a metal in hot working behaves like a perfectly plastic material,
with strain hardening exponent n = 0.
oThe metal should continue to flow at the same flow stress, once that stress
is reached.
oHowever, an additional phenomenon occurs during deformation,
especially at elevated temperatures: Strain rate sensitivity

What is Strain Rate?

Strain rate in forming is directly related to speed of deformation V
Deformation speed V = velocity of the ram or other movement of the
equipment. where 𝜺=ሶ true strain rate (m/s/m)
Strain rate is defined: or (𝒔−𝟏 ); and h = instantaneous
height of workpiece being
deformed (m)
If deformation speed V is constant during operation, strain rate will change
as h changes.
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 Evaluation of Strain Rate
In most practical operations, evaluation of strain rate is
complicated by
oWorkpart geometry
oVariations in strain rate in different regions of the part
Strain rate can reach 1000 𝑺−𝟏 or more for some metal forming
operations.
Effect of Strain Rate on Flow Stress

Flow stress is a function of temperature

At hot working temperatures, flow stress also depends on strain
rate
oAs strain rate increases, resistance to deformation increases
oThis effect is known as strain-rate sensitivity
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(a) Effect of strain rate on (b) Same relationship plotted
flow stress at an elevated on log-log coordinates
work temperature

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 Strain Rate Sensitivity Equation

where C = strength constant (similar but not equal to

strength coefficient in flow curve equation), and
m = strain-rate sensitivity exponent. It assess the
superplasticity of materials and it varies with temperature
and microstructural characteristics (grain size)

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 Strain Rate Sensitivity Equation

Effect of
temperature on flow stress
for a typical metal.
The constant C indicated by the
intersection
of each plot with the vertical
dashed line at strain rate =
1.0, decreases, and m
(slope of each plot)
increases with increasing
temperature

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 Observations about Strain Rate Sensitivity

Increasing temperature decreases C, increases m

oAt room temperature, effect of strain rate is almost negligible.
• Flow curve is a good representation of material behavior.
oAs temperature increases, strain rate becomes increasingly
important in determining flow stress.

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 Friction in Metal Forming

In most metal forming processes, friction is undesirable:

oMetal flow is retarded
oForces and power are increased
oWears tooling faster
Friction and tool wear are more severe in hot working
Lubrication in Metal Forming
Metalworking lubricants are applied to tool-work interface in many
forming operations to reduce harmful effects of friction
Benefits:
oReduced sticking, forces, power, tool wear
oBetter surface finish
oRemoves heat from the tooling
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 Considerations in Choosing a Lubricant

Type of forming process (rolling, forging, sheet metal

drawing, etc.)
Hot working or cold working
Work material
Chemical reactivity with tool and work metals
Ease of application
Cost

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1) K = 600 MPa and n = 0.20 for a certain metal. During a
forming operation, the final true strain that the metal
experiences = 0.73. Determine the flow stress at this strain and
the average flow stress that the metal experienced during the
operation.
2) Determine the value of the strain hardening exponent for a
metal that will cause the average flow
stress to be 3/4 of the final flow stress after deformation.

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 4) A workpart with starting height h = 100 mm
is compressed to a final height of 50 mm.
During the deformation, the relative speed of
the plattens compressing the part = 200
mm/s. Determine the strain rate at (a) h =
100 mm, (b) h = 75 mm, and (c) h = 51 mm.

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 1)

2)

4)

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 5) A hot working operation is carried out at
various speeds. The strength constant C =
30,000 lb/𝑖𝑛2 and the strain-rate sensitivity
exponent m = 0.15. Determine the flow stress
if the strain rate is: (a) 0.01/sec (b) 1.0/sec,
(c) 100/sec.

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PRODUCTION TEHNOLOGY
MEE 2165

BULK DEFORMATION PROCESSES IN

METALWORKING

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Production Technology - MEE 2165 UR - CST Semester I 2024/2025
 Bulk deformation processes in metalworking

Bulk deformation processes cause significant shape change in metal parts

whose initial form is bulk rather than sheet.
The starting forms include cylindrical bars and billets, rectangular billets
and slabs, and similar elementary geometries.
Bulk deformation processes refine the starting shapes, sometimes
improving mechanical properties, and always adding value.
Deformation processes work by stressing the metal sufficiently to cause it
to plastically flow into desired shape.
Performed as cold, warm, and hot working operations
oCold and warm working are appropriate when the shape change is less
severe, and there is a need to improve mechanical properties and
achieve good finish on the part.
oHot working is generally required when massive deformation of large
workparts is involved.

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 Rolling
Deformation process in which the thickness of the work is reduced by
compressive forces exerted by two opposing rolls.
The rolls rotate to pull and simultaneously squeeze the work between them.
Most rolling processes are very capital intensive, requiring massive pieces of
equipment, called rolling mills, to perform them.

Types of Rolling
• By geometry of work:
– Flat rolling - used to reduce thickness of a rectangular
cross-section
– Shape rolling - workpiece is rolled into a specific shape using
specially designed rolls
• By temperature of work:
– Hot Rolling – most common due to the large amount of
deformation required
– Cold rolling – produces finished sheet and plate stock
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 Rolling process -specifically, flat rolling

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 Rolling

Hot-rolled metal is generally free of residual stresses, and its properties

are isotropic.
Disadvantages of hot rolling are that the product cannot be held to close
tolerances, and the surface has a characteristic oxide scale.
Further flattening of hot-rolled plates and sheets is often accomplished
by cold rolling, in order to prepare them for subsequent sheet metal
operations.
Cold rolling strengthens the metal and permits a tighter tolerance on
thickness.
The surface of the cold-rolled sheet is free of scale and generally
superior to the corresponding hot-rolled product.
These characteristics make cold-rolled sheets, strips, and coils ideal for
stampings, exterior panels, and other parts of products ranging from
automobiles to appliances and office furniture.

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 Rolling
some of the steel products made in rolling mill

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 Flat rolling and its analysis
Flat rolling involves the rolling of slabs, strips, sheets, and plates workparts of
rectangular cross section in which the width is greater than the thickness.
In flat rolling, the work is squeezed between two rolls so that its thickness is
reduced by an amount called the draft.
d = 𝒕𝒐 - 𝒕𝒇
where d = draft (mm or in); 𝒕𝒐 = Starting thickness (mm or in); and 𝒕𝒇
= final thickness (mm or in).
Draft is sometimes expressed as fraction of the starting stock of
thickness, called reduction:
𝒅
r= Where r = reduction
𝒕𝒐

oWhen a series of rolling operations are used, reduction is taken as

the sum of the drafts divided by the original thickness.
In addition to thickness reduction, rolling usually increases work
width – This is called spreading

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 Flat rolling and its analysis
Conservation of matter is preserved
o Volume of metal exiting the rolls equals the volume entering
𝒕𝒐 𝒘𝒐 𝑳𝒐 = 𝒕𝒇 𝒘𝒇 𝑳𝒇

Where 𝒘𝒐 and 𝒘𝒇 are the before and after work widths (mm or in);
and 𝑳𝒐 and 𝑳𝒇 are the before and after work lengths (mm or in).
Similarly, before and after volume rates of material flow must be the
same
oBefore and after velocities can be related:
𝒕𝒐 𝒘𝒐 𝒗𝒐 = 𝒕𝒇 𝒘𝒇 𝒗𝒇

Where 𝒗𝒐 and 𝒗𝒇 are the entering and existing velocities of the work

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 Flat rolling and its analysis
The rolls contact the work along a contact arc defined by the angle 𝜽.
Each roll has radius R, and its rotational speed gives it a surface velocity
𝒗𝒓 .
oThis velocity is greater than the entering speed of the work 𝒗𝒐 and less
than its exiting speed 𝒗𝒇 (𝒗𝒐 < 𝒗𝒓 < 𝒗𝒇 )
Since the metal flow is continuous, there is a gradual change in velocity of
the work between the rolls.
One point along the arc where work velocity equals roll velocity is called
No-slip point (or Neutral point).
On either side of this point, slipping and friction occur between roll and
work.
The amount of slip between the rolls and the work can be measured by
means of the forward slip 𝒗𝒇 − 𝒗𝒓
𝒔=
𝒗𝒓
where s = forward slip; 𝒗𝒇 = final (exiting ) work velocity(m/s); and 𝒗𝒓 = roller
speed (m/s) Production Technology - MEE 2165 UR - CST Semester I 2024/2025
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 Flat rolling and its analysis

Side view of flat rolling,

indicating before and after
thicknesses, work velocities,
angle of contact with rolls, and
other features.

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 Flat rolling and its analysis

The true strain experienced by the work in rolling is based on before

and after stock thickness.
𝒕𝒐
∈= 𝒍𝒏
𝒕𝒇

The true strain can be used to determine the average flow stress 𝒀𝒇
applied to the work material in flat rolling.
𝑲 ∈𝒏
𝒀𝒇 =
𝟏+𝒏
The average flow stress is used to compute estimates of force and
power in rolling.
Friction in rolling occurs with a certain coefficient of friction.
oFriction force between rolls and the work

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 Flat rolling and its analysis

There is a limit to the maximum possible draft that can be accomplished in

flat rolling with a given coefficient of friction.

𝒅𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝝁𝟐 R

Where 𝒅𝒎𝒂𝒙 = Maximum draft (mm or in); 𝝁 = coefficient of friction; and R=

roll radius (mm or in).
oThe equation indicates that if friction were zero, draft would be zero, and it
would be impossible to accomplish the rolling operation.
Coefficient of friction in rolling depends on lubrication, work material, and
working temperature.
Rolling force F =𝒀𝒇 𝒘𝑳
where F is expressed in N, 𝒀𝒇 average flow rate (MPa) and the product 𝒘𝑳
the roll-work contact area, 𝒎𝒎𝟐
o𝒘 − 𝒘𝒊𝒅𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒘𝒐𝒌 𝒃𝒆𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒓𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝒎𝒎
oL – Length of contact between rolls and work or contact length (mm)
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 Flat rolling and its analysis

Contact Length can be approximated by:

𝑳= 𝑹(𝒕𝒐 − 𝒕𝒇 )

The torque in rolling can be estimated by assuming that the roll force is
centered on the work as it passes between the rolls, and that it acts with a
moment arm of one-half the contact length L.

T = 0.5 FL

Power (torque T× angular velocity) required per roll can be estimated by

assuming that F acts in the middle of the arc of contact
The power required to drive two rolls is
P = 2𝝅NFL
Where P = Power (W ); N = Rotational speed (rev/min); F= rolling force (N);
L = Contact length (m)
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 Flat rolling and its analysis
EXERCISE
A 300 mm wide strip 25 mm thick is fed through a rolling mill with
two powered rolls each of radius = 250 mm. The work thickness is to be
reduced to 22 mm in one pass at a roll speed of 50rev/min. The work
material has a flow curve defined by K = 275 MPa and n= 0.15, and the
coefficient of friction between the rolls and the work is assumed to be
0.12. Determine if the friction is sufficient to permit the rolling
operation to be accomplished. If so, calculate the roll force, and the
power.
SOLUTION:

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 Flat rolling and its analysis
SOLUTION

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 Shape rolling
Work is deformed into a contoured cross-section.
Products made by shape rolling include construction shapes as I-beams, L-
beams, and U-channels; rails for railroad tracks; and round and square bars
and rods.
The process is accomplished by passing the work through rolls that have the
reserve of the desired shape.
Most of the principle that apply in flat rolling are also applicable to shape
rolling.
 Shaping rolls are more complicated; and the work, usually starting as a
square shape, requires a gradual transformation through several rolls in order
to achieve the final cross section.
Designing the sequence of intermediate shapes and corresponding rolls is
called roll-pass design.
oWith the goal of achieving uniform deformation throughout the cross
section in each reduction
Both horizontal and vertical rolls are utilized to achieve consistent reduction
of the work material.
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 Shape rolling

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 Rolling mills
Basic rolling mill consists of two opposing rolls and is referred to as a two-high rolling
mill.
The rolls in these mills have diameters in the range 0.6 – 1.4 m.
The two-high configuration can be either reversing or non-reversing.
oThe reversing mill allows the direction of roll rotation to be reversed, so that the
work can be passed through in either direction.
• The disadvantage of the reversing configuration is the significant angular
momentum possessed by large rotating rolls and the associated technical
problems involved in reversing the direction.
oIn Non-reversing mill, the rolls always rotate in the same direction, and the work
always passes through from the same side.
In tree-high configuration, there are three rolls in a vertical column, and the direction
of rotation of each roll remains unchanged.
To achieve a series of reduction, the work can be passed through from either side by
raising or lowering the strip after each pass.
Advantages are gained in reducing roll diameter.
Roll-work contact length is reduced with lower roll radius, and this leads to lower
forces, torque, and power.
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 Rolling mills
Various configurations of rolling: (a) 2-high; (b) 3-high; (c) 4-high; (d) Cluster
mill; (e) Tandem rolling mill

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 Rolling mills
The four-high rolling mill uses two smaller-diameter rolls to contact the work
and two backing rolls behind them.
oBecause of the high roll forces, these smaller rolls would defect elastically
between their end bearings as the work passes through unless the larger
backing rolls were used to support them.
Cluster rolling mill – another roll configuration that allows smaller working
rolls against the work.
Tandem rolling mill - is often used to achieve the higher throughput rates in
standards products.
oThis configuration consists of rolling stands (typically
8 or 10 stands ), each
making a reduction in thickness or a refinement in the shape of the work
passing through.
oWith each rolling step, work velocity increases.
oModern tandem rolling mills are often supplied directly by continuous
casting operations.
There are other deformation processes related to rolling (thread rolling, ring
rolling, gear rolling and roll piercing)
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 Forging
Deformation process in which the work is compressed between two
dies, using either impact or gradual pressure to form the part.
The oldest of the metal forming operations, dating back to perhaps
5000 B.C.
Today , forging is an important industrial process used to make a
variety of high-strength components for automotive, aerospace, and
other applications.
oThis components include engine crankshafts and connecting rods,
gears, aircraft structural components, and jet engine turbine parts.
Most forging operations are performed hot or warm, owing to the
significant deformation demanded by the process and the need to
reduce strength and increase ductility of the work metal.
Cold forging is also very common for certain products.
oThe advantage of cold forging is the increased strength that results
from strain hardening of the component.
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 Forging
In forging, either impact or gradual pressure is used.
oIt depends on the equipment used.
oForging hammer is a forging machine that applies an impact load.
oForging press is a forging machine that applies gradual pressure.
Three types of forging operations:
(a) Open-die forging
(b)Impression-die forging and
(c)Flashless forging

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Three types of forging operation by cross-sectional
sketches

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 Open-die forging
The simplest case of open-die forging involves compression of a workpart of
cylindrical cross section between two flat dies.
Known as upsetting or upset forging
oReduces the height of the work and increases its diameter.
An important industrial process
Shapes generated by open-die operations are simple (shafts, disks, and rings)
Operations classified as open-die forging are fullering, edging and cogging.

Homogeneous deformation of a
cylindrical workpiece under ideal
conditions:
(1) Start of process with workpiece at
its length and diameter.
(2) Partial compression
(3) Final size

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 Analysis of Open-die forging
Under ideal conditions, the true strain in this process is
𝒉𝒐
∈ = 𝒍𝒏
𝒉
Where 𝒉𝒐 = starting height of the work (mm;); h= the height at some
intermediate point in the process (mm).
oAt the end of compression stroke, h = its final value 𝒉𝒇, and the true
srain reaches its maximum value.
Force required to continue compression at any given height h during
the process:
F = 𝒀𝒇 A
Where F = force (N); A= cross-sectional area of the part (𝒎𝒎𝟐 ) and 𝒀𝒇
= flow stress (MPa)

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 Impression-die forging
Sometimes called closed-die forging
Performed with dies that contain the inverse of the desired shape of the part.
Several forming steps are often required in impression die forging to
transform the starting blank into the desired final geometry
Sequence in impression-die forging:
(1) Just prior to initial contact with raw workpiece,
(2) Partial compression,
(3) final die closure, causing flash to form in gap between die plates.

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 Flashless forging
Imposes requirements on process control that are more demanding than
impression-die forging.
Work volume must equal the space in the die cavity within a very close
tolerance
Best to part geometries that are usually simple and symmetrical, and to
work materials such as aluminium and magnesium and their alloys.
Sequence in Flashless forging: (1) Just before initial contact with workpiece,
(2) Partial compression and (3) final punch and die closure

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 Forging, hammers, presses and dies
Equipment used in forging consists of forging machines:
oHammers and presses
oForging dies
oIn addition, auxiliary equipment is needed, such as furnaces
to heat the
work, mechanical devices to load and unload the work, and trimming
stations to cut away the flash in impression-die forging
Forging hammers operate by applying an impact loading against the work
Forging presses apply gradual pressure, rather than sudden impact, to
accomplish the forging operation. They include:
oMechanical presses (eccentrics, cranks, or knuckle joints) converting the
rotational motion of a drive motor into translation motion of the ram
oHydraulic presses, and
oScrew presses
Forging dies – Proper die design is important in the success of a forging
operation.

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 Principles and limitations considerations for forging die
terminology
 Parting line – the plane where
two die halves meet.
Draft – amount of taper on the
sides of the part required to
remove it from the die.
Webs and ribs - cause difficulty in
metal flow as they become thinner
oWeb is a thin portion of the
forging that is parallel to the
parting line
oRib is a thin portion that is
perpendicular to the parting Terminology for a conventional impression- die in
forging
line
Flash

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 Other deformation processes related to forging

Upsetting and heading (also called upset forging)

 Swaging and Radial forging
Roll forging
Orbital forging
Hubbing
Isothermal and Hot-die forging
Trimming

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 Extrusion
Compression process in which the work is forced to flow through a die
opening to produce a desired cross-sectional shape.
Several advantages of the modern process of extrusion:
oA variety of shapes are possible (especially with hot extrusion)
oGrain structure and strength properties are enhanced in cold and warm
extrusion
oFairly close tolerances are possible (especially in cold extrusion)
oIn some extrusion operations, little or no wasted material is created

Types of extrusion
Two principal types:
oDirect extrusion & Indirect extrusion
By working temperature:
oCold extrusion, Warm extrusion, or Hot extrusion
Finally, extrusion is performed as either a continuous process or discrete
process
Production Technology - MEE 2165 UR - CST Semester I 2024/2025 67
 Direct extrusion
Also called forward extrusion
A metal billet is loaded into a
container, and a ram
compresses the material,
forcing it to flow through one
or more openings in a die at
the opposite end of the
container. Direct extrusion
As the ram approaches the
die, a small portion of the
billet remains that cannot be
forced through the die
opening.
oThis extra portion is called
butt – it is separated from the
product by cutting it just
beyond the exit of the die.
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 Direct extrusion
In direct extrusion, a significant friction exists between the work surface and
the walls of the container as the billet is forced to slide toward the die opening.

(a) Direct extrusion to produce a

hollow or semi-hollow cross
section
(b) Hollow and
(c) Semi-cross sections

The starting billet in direct extrusion is usually round in cross section, but the
final shape is determined by the shape of the die opening.
It is obvious that the largest dimension of the die opening must be smaller than
the diameter of the billet.

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 Indirect extrusion
Also called backward extrusion and reserve extrusion
The die is mounted to the ram rather than at the opposite end of the
container.
As the ram penetrates into the work, the material is forced to flow
through the clearance in a direction opposite to the motion of the ram.

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 Indirect extrusion

Since the billet is not forced to move relative to the container, there is
no friction at the container walls.
The ram force is lower than in direct extrusion
Limitations of indirect extrusion are imposed by lower rigidity of the
hollow ram and the difficulty in supporting the extruded product as it
exists the die.
Hollow cross sections can be produced in indirect extrusion
oThe ram is pressed into the billet, forcing the material to flow
around the ram and take the cup shape.
oLimitations on the length of the extruded part because the support
of the ram becomes a problem as work length increases

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 Hot extrusion
Involves prior heating of the billet to a temperature above its
recrystallization temperature.
oStrength reduction and ductility increases of the metal.
Advantages:
oMore extreme size reductions and more complex shapes produced.
oReduction of the ram force and increased ram speed
Disadvantage: Cooling of the billet as it contacts the container walls is
a problem
oIsothermal extrusion helps to overcome this problem
Glass is sometimes used as lubricant in hot extrusion to reduce
friction as well as to provide effective thermal insulation between billet
and the extrusion container

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 Cold extrusion
As well as warm extrusion are generally used to produce discrete
parts, often in finished (or near finished) form
Advantages: Increased strength, Close tolerances, Improved surface
finish, Absence of oxide layers, High production rates and eliminating
the need for heating the starting billet.

Continuous Vs Discrete Processing

A true continuous process operates in steady state mode for an
indefinite period of time.
oProduction of very long sections in one cycle to be cut into smaller
lengths in a subsequent sawing or shearing operation
o Limitations of billet size that can be loaded into the extrusion
container.
In a discrete extrusion operation, a single part is produced in each
extrusion cycle (e.g. impact extrusion)

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 Analysis of extrusion
By using figure below (Pressure and other variables in direct extrusion):

Assumptions:
oBoth billet and extrudate are round in cross section
Extrusion ratio (also called reduction ratio) 𝒓𝒙 =
𝑨𝒐
𝑨𝒇

where 𝑨𝒐 = Cross - sectional area of the starting billet (𝒎𝒎𝟐 ), and

𝑨𝒇 = Final cross-sectional area of the extruded section (𝒎𝒎𝟐 )
This ratio applies for both direct and indirect extrusion
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 Analysis of extrusion
𝒓𝒙 can be used to determine true strain in extrusion (considering ideal
deformation with no friction and no redundant work )
𝑨
∈ = ln𝒓𝒙 = ln 𝒐
𝑨 𝒇

Therefore, Pressure applied by the ram to compress the billet through the
die opening ,
p = 𝒀𝒇 ln𝒓𝒙

Where 𝒀𝒇 = average flow stress during deformation (MPa)

𝒌∈𝒏
oReferring to previous slides, 𝒀𝒇 =
𝟏+𝒏

Read more on pages 420,421 and 422 in the book and do the exercise.
Important factors in an extrusion die: die angle and orifice shape
Other extrusion processes:
oImpact extrusion
oHydrostatic extrusion
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 Defects in extruded parts

(a) Centerburst (also called arrowhead fracture, center cracking or chevron

cracking)– Internal crack developing as a result of tensile stresses along the
centerline of the workpart during extrusion.
oUsually not noticeable by visual observation
o If the stresses are great enough, bursting occurs
(b) Piping (also called tailpipe or fishtailing)– defect associated with direct
extrusion where a sink of hole is formed in the end of the billet.
(c) Surface cracking – Defect resulting from high workpart temperatures that
cause cracks to develop at the surface when extrusion speed and friction are too
high and.

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 Wire and bar drawing

Drawing is an operation in which the cross section of a bar, rod, or wire is

reduced by pulling it through a die opening
Same general features as in extrusion
Difference is that the work is pulled through the die in drawing, whereas it is
pushed through the die in extrusion.
Presence of tensile stresses and Indirect compression (metal is squeezed down
as it passes through the die)
Used in sheet metalworking
Bar drawing and wire drawing differ to stock size
oBar drawing – used for large diameter bar and rod stock
• Generally accomplished as a single-draft operation (the stock is pulled
through one die opening )
oWire drawing – applies to small diameter stock
Same mechanism of process but different methods and equipment

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 Drawing of bar, rod or wire

In drawing operation, the change in size of the work is usually given by the
area reduction (in percentage): 𝑨𝒐 − 𝑨𝒇
𝒓=
𝑨𝒐
Where r = area reduction in drawing, 𝑨𝒐 = Original area of work (𝒎𝒎𝟐 );
and 𝑨𝒇 = final area (𝒎𝒎𝟐 )
Draft – Difference between original and final stock diameters
𝒅 = 𝑫𝒐 − 𝑫𝒇 Where d = draft (mm); 𝑫𝒐 = original diameter
of work; 𝑫𝒇 = final work diameter (mm)

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 Analysis of drawing
If no friction or redundant work occurred in drawing, true strain
could be determined as follows: 𝑨𝒐 𝟏
∈ = 𝒍𝒏 = 𝒍𝒏
𝑨𝒇 𝟏−𝒓

Where 𝑨𝒐 and 𝑨𝒇 are the original and final cross-sectional areas of

the work; and r = drawing reduction
Stresses resulting from the ideal deformation:
𝑨𝒐
𝝈 = 𝒀𝒇 ∈ = 𝒀𝒇 𝒍𝒏 where average flow 𝒌∈𝒏
𝑨𝒇
𝒀𝒇 =
𝟏+𝒏

Considering other factors including coefficient of friction, read pages

428, 429 and 430 in the book and do the exercise.
oMaximum Reduction per pass!

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 Drawing practice
Usually performed as a cold-working operation
Frequently used to produce round cross sections, but squares and
other shapes are possible.
oProduction of electrical wire and cable, wire stock for fences, coat
hangers, and shopping carts; and rod stock to produce nails, screws,
rivets, springs, and other hardware items.
oBar drawing is used to produce metal bars for machining, forging
and other processes
Advantages:
oClose dimensional control
oGood surface finish
oImproved mechanical properties (strength and hardness)
oAdaptability to economical batch or mass production

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 Drawing practice
Equipment:
oAccomplished on a machine called draw bench (entry table, die stand,
carriage, and exit rack)
• Carriage – pulls the stock through the draw die and it is powered by
hydraulic cylinders or motor –driven chains
• Die stand (which contains draw die) is often designed to hold more
than one die, so that several bars can be pulled simultaneously
through their respective dies
Wire drawing is done on continuous drawing machines that consists of
multiple draw dies, separated by accumulating drums between dies
Each drum (called capstan), is a motor-driven to provide the proper pull
force to draw the wire stock through the upstream die.
Each die provides a certain amount of reduction in the wire, so that the
desired total reduction is achieved by series.
Depending on the metal to be processed and the total reduction,
annealing of the wire is sometimes required between groups of dies in the
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Hydraulically operated draw bench for drawing metal bars

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 Continuous drawing of wire

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 Draw die for drawing of round rod or wire

Four regions of the die (1) Entry; (2) Approach angle; (3)
Bearing surface; (4) Back relief

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 Preparation of the work
Prior to drawing, the beginning stock must be properly prepared.
Three steps:
(1) Annealing – To increase the ductility of the stock to accept deformation
during drawing
(2) Cleaning – Prevention of work surface and draw die damage (removal of
surface contaminants such as rust).
(3) Pointing – Reduction in diameter of the starting end of the stock so that
it can be inserted through the draw die to start the process.

Tube drawing
Reduction of the diameter wall thickness of seamless tubes and pipes,
after the initial tubing by some other processes such as extrusion.
Can be carried out either with or without mandrel

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 Tube drawing

Tube drawing with no mandrel (tube sinking)

Tube drawing with mandrel: (a) fixed mandrel; (b)floating plug

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 EXERCISES (ROLLING)
1) A 40 mm thick plate is to be reduced to 30 mm in one pass in a rolling
operation. Entrance speed = 16 m/min. Roll radius = 300 mm, and rotational
speed = 18.5 rev/min. Determine:
i) The minimum required coefficient of friction that would make this rolling
operation possible,
ii) Exit velocity under the assumption that the plate widens by 2% during the
operation, and
iii) Forward slip.
2.
A 42.0 mm thick plate made of low carbon steel is to be reduced to 34.0 mm in one pass
in a rolling operation. As the thickness is reduced, the plate widens by 4%. The yield
strength of the steel plate is 174 MPa and the tensile strength is 290 MPa. The entrance
speed of the plate is 15.0 m/min. The roll radius is 325 mm and the rotational speed is
49.0 rev/min. Determine (a) the minimum required coefficient of friction that would
make this rolling operation possible, (b) exit velocity of the plate, and (c) forward slip.

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Production Technology - MEE 2165 UR - CST
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 3. A plate that is 250 mm wide and 25 mm thick is to be reduced in a single pass
in a two-high rolling mill to a thickness of 20 mm. The roll has a radius = 500
mm, and its speed = 30 m/min. The work material has a strength coefficient =
240 MPa and a strain hardening exponent = 0.2. Determine (a) roll force, (b) roll
torque, and (c) power required to accomplish this operation.

4. A single-pass rolling operation reduces a 20 mm thick plate to 18

mm. The starting plate is 200 mm wide. Roll radius = 250 mm and
rotational speed = 12 rev/min. The work material has a strength
coefficient = 600 MPa and a strength coefficient = 0.22. Determine (a)
roll force, (b) roll torque, and (c) power required for this operation.

Forging

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3)

4)

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