PRODUCTION TEHNOLOGY

MEE 2165
Instructor: Dr. Gaudence

Lecture 4:

SHEET METALWORKING
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Production Technology I - MEE 2165 UR - CST Semester I 2024/2025
 Sheet Metalworking - overview

Cutting Operations
Bending Operations
Drawing
Other Sheet Metal Forming Operations
Dies and Presses for Sheet Metal Processes
Sheet Metal Operations Not Performed on Presses

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 Sheet Metalworking
Includes Cutting and forming operations performed on relatively thin sheets of
metal.
T hickness of sheet metal = 0.4 mm (1/64 in) to 6 mm (1/4 in)
T hickness of plate stock > 6 mm
Operations usually performed as cold working
Sheet and plate metal products
Sheet and plate metal parts for consumer and industrial products such as:
oAutomobiles and trucks
oAirplanes
oRailway cars and locomotives
oFarm and construction equipment
oSmall and large appliances
oOffice furniture
oComputers and office equipment
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 Advantages of sheet metal parts
High strength
Good dimensional accuracy
Good surface finish
Relatively low cost
Economical mass production for large quantities

Sheet Metalworking terminology

Punch-and-die -Tooling to perform cutting, bending, and drawing

Stamping press- Machine tool that performs most sheet metal operations
Stampings -Sheet metal products

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 Basic types of sheet metal processes

Cutting
oShearing - to separate large sheets
oBlanking - to cut part perimeters out of sheet metal
oPunching - to make holes in sheet metal
Bending
o Straining sheet around a straight axis
Drawing
oForming of sheet into convex or concave shapes

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 Sheet Metal cutting
Shearing of sheet metal between two sharp cutting edges

(1) Just before the punch contacts work;

(2) Punch begins to push into work, causing plastic deformation;

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 Sheet Metal cutting

(3) Punch compresses and penetrates into work causing a smooth cut
surface;
(4) Fracture is initiated at the opposing cutting edges which separates the
sheet.

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 Sheet Metal cutting

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 Shearing, Blanking, and Punching
Three principal operations in Pressworking that cut sheet metal:
oShearing
oBlanking
oPunching

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 shearing
Sheet metal cutting operation along a straight line between two cutting
edges
oTypically used to cut large sheets into smaller sections for subsequent
pressworking operations
Shearing operation:
(a) Side view of the shearing operation;
(b) Front view of power shears equipped with inclined upper cutting blade.
Symbol V indicates motion

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 Blanking and Punching
Blanking -Sheet metal cutting to separate piece (called a blank) from
surrounding stock.
Punching -Similar to blanking except cut piece is scrap, called a slug
(a) Blanking and (b) Punching.

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 Clearance in sheet metal cutting
Distance between punch cutting edge and
die cutting edge
oTypical values range between 4% and
8% of stock thickness.
oIf too small, fracture lines pass each
other, causing double burnishing and
larger force.
oIf the clearance is too large, metal is
pinched between cutting edges and
excessive burr results.
• Burr – a sharp corner on the edge
caused by elongation of the metal
during final separation of the two
pieces.
Recommended clearance is calculated by:
c = 𝒂t
where c= clearance (mm); 𝒂=Clearance
allowance; and t= stock thickness (mm)
Clearance allowance a is determined
according to type of metal.

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 Sheet Metal groups allowances

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 Punch and Die sizes

For a round blank of diameter𝑫𝒃 :

oBlanking punch diameter = 𝑫𝒃 -2c
(where Blanking die diameter = 𝑫𝒃
and c= clearance)
For a round hole of diameter 𝑫𝒉 :
oHole punch diameter = 𝑫𝒉
oHole die diameter = 𝑫𝒉 + 2c
where c= clearance

Die size determines blank size 𝑫𝒃 ;

Punch size determines hole size 𝑫𝒉.;
c = clearance

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 Angular clearance

Purpose: allows slug or blank to

drop through die.
Typical values: 0.25°to 1.5°on each
side

Cutting forces
Important for determining press size (tonnage)
F= S t L
where S= shear strength of metal (MPa); t = stock thickness
(mm), and L= length of cut edge (mm)

L is the perimeter of the blank or hole being cut. The minor effect of
clearance in determining the value of L can be neglected.
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 Punch and Die sizes

Exercise: A round disk of 150 mm diameter is to be blanked

from a strip of 3.2mm, half-hard cold rolled steel whose
shear strength = 310 MPa and a = 0.075. Determine:
(a) The appropriate punch and die diameters, and
(b) Blanking force

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Production Technology I - MEE 2165 UR - CST
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 Other sheet -metal cutting operations

Cutoff
Parting
Slotting
Perforating
Notching
Trimming
Shaving
Fine blanking

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 Sheet Metal Bending
Straining sheet metal around a
straight axis to take a
permanent bend.
Bending produces little or no
change in the thickness of the
sheet metal.

(a) Bending of sheet metal

Metal on inside of neutral

plane is compressed, while
metal on outside of neutral
plane is stretched

(b) Both compression and tensile

elongation of the metal occur in
bending.

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 Types of sheet metal bending
V-bending : sheet metal is bent between a V-shaped punch and die.
Edge bending – Involves cantilever loading of the sheet metal (Performed with a
wiping die)
V-Bending Edge bending
For low production  For high production
Performed on a press brake  Pressure pad required
V-dies are simple and inexpensive  Dies are more complicated and
costly

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 Stretching during bending
If bend radius is small relative to stock thickness, metal tends to
stretch during bending.
Important to estimate amount of stretching, so that final part length
gets specified dimension.
Problem: To determine the length of neutral axis (Bend Allowance) of
the part before bending.

𝜶′
𝑨𝒃 = 𝟐𝝅 𝟑𝟔𝟎 (𝑹 + 𝑲𝒃𝒂 𝒕)

Where 𝑨𝒃 = Bend Allowance (mm); 𝜶 = bend Angle (degrees); R= Bend

radius (mm);
t= stock thickness (mm); and 𝑲𝒃𝒂 is factor to estimate stretching.
oIf R< 2t, 𝑲𝒃𝒂 = 0.33
oIf R ≥ 2t, 𝑲𝒃𝒂 = 0.50
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 Springback
Increase in included angle of bent part relative to included angle of the
forming tool after tool is removed.
Reason for springback (elastic recovery):
oWhen bending pressure is removed, elastic energy remains in bent part,
causing it to recover partially toward its original shape
Springback in bending is seen as a decrease in bend angle and an increase in bend radius:
(1) During bending, the work is forced to take radius 𝑹𝒃 and included angle ∝ ′𝒃of the
bending tool,
(2) After punch is removed, the work springs back to radius R and angle α‘.
Applied
bending
force

SB – Spring back
𝛼 ′ - Included angle of the sheet-
metal part (degrees)
′
𝛼𝑡 - included angle of the
bending tool (degrees)

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 Bending force
The force required to perform bending depends on:
o The geometry of the punch-and-die and
oThe strength, thickness, and length of the sheet metal.
Maximum bending force estimated as follows:

𝑲𝒃𝒇 𝑻𝑺𝑾𝒕𝟐
F= 𝑫

where F = Bending force (N); TS = tensile strength of sheet metal (MPa); W =

Part width in direction of bend axis (mm); t = stock thickness (mm) and
D=Die opening dimension. 𝑲 is a constant that accounts for
𝒃𝒇
oFor V-bending, 𝑲𝒃𝒇 = 1.33; differences encountered in an actual
bending process.
oFor edge bending, 𝑲𝒃𝒇 = 0.33

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 Die opening dimension
(a) V-die, (b) wiping die

Other bending and forming dimensions

Flanging
Hemming
Seaming
Curling
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 Drawing
 Sheet metal forming to make cup-shaped, box-shaped, or other
complex-curved, hollow-shaped parts.

oSheet metal blank

is positioned over
die cavity and then
punch pushes
metal into opening
oProducts:
beverage cans,
automobile body
panels, etc.
oAlso known as
deep drawing(to
distinguish it from
wire and bar
drawing)

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 Drawing

a) Drawing of cup-shaped
part:
(1)Before punch contacts
work,
(2) Near end of stroke;
b) Workpart:
(1) Starting blank,
(2) Drawn part.

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 Clearance in drawing
Sides of punch and die separated by a clearance c given by:
c= 1.1 t
where t= stock thickness
In other words, clearance is about 10% greater than stock thickness

Tests of drawing feasibility

Drawing ratio
Reduction
Thickness-to-diameter ratio

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 Drawing ratio DR
Most easily defined for cylindrical shape:
𝑫
DR = 𝑫𝒃
𝒑

where 𝑫𝒃 - Blank diameter; and 𝑫𝒑 - Punch diameter

Indicates severity of a given drawing operation (the greater the ratio
more severe the operation )
oUpper: DR ≤ 2.0

REDUCTION r

 Defined for cylindrical shape:

𝑫𝒃 − 𝑫𝒑
r= 𝑫
𝒃
Value of r should be less than 0.50

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 Thickness-to-Diameter Ratio t/𝑫𝒃
Thickness of starting blank divided by blank diameter
Desirable for t/𝑫𝒃ratio to be greater than 1%
As t/𝑫𝒃 decreases, tendency for wrinkling increases

Blank size determination

For final dimensions of drawn shape to be correct, starting blank

diameter 𝑫𝒃 must be right.
Solve for 𝑫𝒃 by setting starting sheet metal blank volume = Final
product volume
To facilitate calculation, assume negligible thinning of part wall

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A drawing operation is used to form a cylindrical cup with inside
diameter = 75 mm and height = 50 mm. The starting blank size = 138
mm and the stock thickness = 2.4 mm. Based on these data, is the
operation feasible?

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 Shapes other than cylindrical cups
Square or rectangular boxes (as in sinks)
Stepped cups
Cones
Cups with spherical rather than flat bases
Irregular curved forms (as in automobile body panels)

Each of these shapes presents its own unique technical problems in drawing!

Common drawing defects

(a) Wrinkling in the flange
(b) Wrinkling in the wall
(c) Tearing
(d) Earing
(e) Surface scratches
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 Common drawing defects

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 Other sheet metal forming on presses
Other sheet metal forming operations performed on conventional presses:
oOperations performed with metal tooling (ironing, coining and embossing,
lancing, and twisting)
oOperations performed with flexible rubber tooling (Guerin process and
hydroforming)

Ironing
Makes wall thickness of cylindrical
cup more uniform.
Ironing is a very useful process when
employed in combination with deep
drawing to produce a uniform wall
thickness and to increase the wall
height.
Ironing to achieve more uniform wall thickness in a drawn cup:
(1) Start of process;
(2) During process. Note thinning and elongation of walls.
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 Embossing Lancing
Creates indentations in sheet, such
It is a combined cutting and bending
as raised (or indented) lettering or or cutting and forming operation
strengthening ribs. performed in one step to partially
separate the metal from the sheet.

Lancing in several forms:

Embossing: (a) Cutting and bending
(a) Cross-section of punch and die (b) and (c) Two types of cutting and forming
configuration during pressing;
(b) Finished part with embossed ribs.

Coining – Bulk deformation operation frequently used in sheet-metal work to form

indentations resulting in thinning of the sheet-metal part and raised sections resulting
in thickening of the sheet metal part.
Twisting – a sheet-metal is subjected to a torsion over its length rather than a
bending load. It has limited applications (fan and propeller blades)
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 Guerin process
A thick rubber pad is used (or
other flexible material)
Rubber pad confined in a steel
container
As the ram descends, the rubbery
gradually surrounds the sheet
oPressure is applied to deform the
sheet to the shape of the form
block
oLimited to shallow forms.
Advantages: Guerin process:
oLow tooling cost. (1) before and
oForm block can be made of wood, (2) after.
plastic, or other materials that are
easy to shape. Symbols v and F indicate motion and
oRubber pad can be used with applied force respectively.
different form blocks.
oProcess attractive in small
quantity production.
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 Dies for sheet metal processes

Most pressworking operations performed with conventional punch-

and-die tooling.
Custom-designed for particular part.
The term stamping dies sometimes used for high production dies
Types of stamping dies:
oSimple die – Die performing a single blanking operation with each
stroke of the press
oCompound die – Die performing two operations at a single station
such as blanking and punching or blanking and drawing.
oCombination die – Performing two operations at two different
stations in the die (less common).
oProgressive die - Performing two or more operations on a sheet
metal coil at two or more stations with each press stroke. (the part
is fabricated progressively).
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 Punch and Die components for a blanking operation

 Components of a punch and die for a blanking operation

 Stripper – a devise in a die that strips the sheet metal from the punch.
 Stop – a devise stopping the sheet metal as it advances through the die between press
cycles.
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 Progressive die

(a) Progressive die

(b)Associated
strip development

Upper shoe = Punch holder

Lowe shoe = die holder

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 Stamping press
 Components of a typical mechanical drive stamping press

 Press used for sheet

metalworking is a machine tool
with stationary bed and a
powered ram (or slide) that can
be driven toward and away
from the bed to perform
various cutting and forming
operations.

 Relative position of the bed and ram are established by the frame.
 Ram driven by mechanical or hydraulic power.
 When a die is mounted in the press, the punch holder is attached to
the ram, and the die holder is attached to the bolster of the bed.

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 Types of stamping press frame
Gap frame
o Configuration of the letter C and
often referred to as a C-Frame
oPrincipal types of gap frame
press: Solid gap frame, Adjustable
bed, Open back inclinable, Press
brake, Turret press
Straight-sided frame
oBox-like construction for
higher tonnage

Gap frame press for sheet metalworking

(Photo courtesy of E. W. Bliss Co.);
capacity = 1350 kN (150 tons)

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Press brake (photo courtesy of Niagara Sheet metal parts produced on a turret
Machine & Tool Works); bed width = press, showing variety of hole shapes
9.15 m (30 ft) and capacity = 11,200 kN possible (photo courtesy of Strippet
(1250 tons). Inc.).

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Computer numerical control turret Straight-sided frame press (photo
press (photo courtesy of Strippet, Inc.) courtesy of Greenerd Press & Machine
Company, Inc.)

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 Power and drive systems
Hydraulic presses -use a large piston and cylinder to drive the ram
oLonger ram stroke than mechanical types
oSuited to deep drawing
oSlower than mechanical drives
Mechanical presses –convert rotation of motor to linear motion of ram
oHigh forces at bottom of stroke
oSuited to blanking and punching
Operations not performed on presses

Stretch forming
Roll bending and forming
Spinning
High-energy-rate forming processes.
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 Stretch forming
Sheet metal is intentionally stretched and simultaneously bent to achieve
shape change.

Stretch forming:
(1) Start of process;
(2) Form die is pressed into the work with force 𝑭𝒅𝒊𝒆, causing it to be stretched
and bent over the form.
F= stretching force.

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 Force required in stretch forming

F = Lt𝒀𝒇

Where F = stretching force (N); L = Length of sheet in direction perpendicular to

stretching (mm); t = instantaneous stock thickness (mm); and 𝒀𝒇 = flow stress of work
metal (MPa)
 Die force 𝑭𝒅𝒊𝒆 can be determined by balancing vertical force
components

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 Roll Bending

Metal sheet
Large metal sheets and plates are
formed into curved sections using
F
rolls.
Components for large storage
tanks and pressure vessels are
fabricated by roll bending. V
Can also be used to bend
structural shapes, railroad rails, and
tubes.

Three rotating rolls

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 Roll forming
Continuous bending process in which opposing rolls produce long
sections of formed shapes from coil or strip stock.
Roll forming of a continuous channel section:
(1) straight rolls,
(2) partial form,
(3) final form.

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 Spinning

Metal forming process in which an axially symmetric part is

gradually shaped over a rotating mandrel using a rounded tool or
roller.
Three types:
oConventional spinning (basic spinning operation) – A sheet metal
disk is held against the end of a rotating mandrel of the desired
inside shape of the final part while the tool or roller deforms the
metal against the mandrel.
oShear spinning – The part is formed over the mandrel by shear
deformation process in which the outside diameter remains constant
and the wall thickness is reduced.
oTube spinning - used to reduce the wall thickness and increase the
length of a tube by means of a roller applied to the work over a
cylindrical mandrel.

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 Conventional Spinning
Conventional
spinning:
(1) setup at start of
process;
(2) during spinning;
and
(3) completion of
process.

Tube spinning:
(a) External
(b) Internal
(c) Profiling

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 High-Energy-Rate Forming (HERF)

Processes to form metals using large amounts of energy over a very

short time.
HERF processes include:
oExplosive forming
oElectrohydraulic forming
oElectromagnetic forming
Explosive Forming

High-Energy-Rate Forming process which uses explosive charge to

form sheet (or plate) metal into a die cavity.
Explosive charge causes a shock wave whose energy is transmitted to
force part into cavity
Applications: large parts, typical of aerospace industry
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 Explosive forming

Explosive forming:
(1) Setup,
(2) Explosive is detonated, and
(3) Shock wave forms part and plume escapes water surface.

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 Electromagnetic Forming
Sheet metal is deformed by mechanical force of an electromagnetic field
induced in the workpart by an energized coil.
Presently the most widely used HERF process
Applications: tubular parts, sheet metal dent removing

Electromagnetic forming:
(1) setup in which coil is inserted into tubular
workpart surrounded by die;
(2) formed part.
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 Exercises
1)A cup is to be drawn in a deep drawing operation. The height of the cup is 75 mm
and its inside diameter = 100 mm. The sheet metal thickness = 2 mm. If the blank
diameter = 225 mm, determine:
(a) Drawing ratio,
(b) Reduction, and
(c) Thickness-to-diameter ratio.
(d) Based on these three tests of drawing feasibility, does the operation seem feasible?
Explain your answer.
2) A blanking operation is to be performed on 2.0 mm thick cold rolled steel (half hard).
The part is circular with diameter of 75.0 mm and the clearance allowance is 0.075.
Determine the appropriate punch and die sizes for this operation.
3) Determine the blanking force required in Problem 2, if the shear strength of the steel =
325 Mpa and the tensile strength is 450 MPa.
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 3. A compound die will be used to blank and punch a large washer out of 6061ST
aluminum alloy sheet stock 3.50 mm thick. The outside diameter of the washer is
50.0 mm and the inside diameter is 15.0 mm. Determine (a) the punch and die
sizes for the blanking operation, and (b) the punch and die sizes for the punching
operation. Clearance allowance is 0.060.

Solution: For 6061ST aluminum alloy, Ac = 0.060. Thus, c = 0.060(3.50) =

0.210 mm
(a) Blanking punch diameter = Db - 2c = 50 - 2(0.21) = 49.58 mm

Blanking die diameter = Db = 50.00 mm

(b) Punching punch diameter = Dh = 15.00 mm
Punching die diameter = Dh + 2c = 15 + 2(0.210) = 15.42 mm

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