PRODUCTION TEHNOLOGY

MEE 2165
Instructor: Dr. Gaudence
Lecture 1:

INTRODUCTION

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 Introduction
 The course aims to develop fundamental knowledge of production methods, and
enable Mechanical Engineers to perform effective and appropriate work.
In general, Manufacturing is the process of using resources like labor, machines,
tools, chemicals and others to convert raw materials, components or parts into
finished goods that meet a customer’s expectations or specifications.
As for Production, is a process of converting inputs into outputs (Goods or
services). It involves the transformation of inputs (such as raw materials, labor,
energy) into outputs of greater value that satisfy human needs.
oProduction refers to both tangible outputs, like cars or electronics, and intangible
outputs, like education or healthcare.
The words manufacturing and production are often used interchangeably.
oHowever, Production has a broader meaning than manufacturing.
Manufacture is a Latin Word, manu factus, or, literally, “made by hand.
oBut the power of the hand tool is limited!
Most modern manufacturing is accomplished by automated and computer-
controlled machinery that is manually supervised.

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 Introduction
 In the modern context, manufacturing can be defined two ways:
Technologic and Economic
oTechnologically, manufacturing is the application of physical and
chemical processes to alter the geometry, properties, and/or
appearance of a given starting material to make parts or products.
• Manufacturing also includes assembly of multiple parts to
make products.
• The processes to accomplish manufacturing involve a
combination of :Machinery, Tools, Power, and Manual labor.
• Manufacturing is almost always carried out as a sequence of
operations. Each operation brings the material closer to the
desired final state.
oEconomically, manufacturing is the transformation of materials
into items of greater value by means of one or more processing
and/or assembly operations.
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 Introduction

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 Introduction

 Considering Manufacturing Capability, a manufacturing

plant consists of a set of processes and systems (and
people of course) designed to transform a certain limited
range of materials into products of increased value.
Three building blocks of modern manufacturing:
oMaterials ,
oProcesses and
oSystems
There is a strong interdependence among these factors.

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 Materials in Manufacturing

Metals Ceramic

Polymers
Composites

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 Materials in Manufacturing
Before we know Production Technology We need to know about
Materials!
Most engineering materials can be classified into one of the three
basic categories:
o Metals
oCeramics,
oPolymers
Their chemical, physical and mechanical properties are dissimilar.
These differences affect the manufacturing processes that can be
used to produce products from them.
In addition to the other three basic categories, there are Composites,
which are non-homogeneous mixture of the other three basic types
rather than a unique category.
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 Materials in Manufacturing

Metals used in manufacturing are usually alloys, which are

composed of two or more elements, with at least one being a
metallic element. Metals can be divided into two basic groups:
oFerrous Metals - They are based on iron; the group includes steel
and cast iron.
oNon-ferrous Metals – They include the other metallic elements
and their alloys. The non-ferrous metals include the pure metals
and alloys of Aluminium, copper, gold, Magnesium, Nickel, silver,
Tin, Titanium, Zinc and other metals.

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 Materials in Manufacturing
Ceramic is defined as a compound containing metallic (or semi-
metallic) and non-metallic elements (ionic bond). Typically
nonmetallic elements are oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon. Ceramics
include a variety of Traditional and modern materials.
oTraditional Ceramics include Clay, Silica (the basis for nearly all
glass products); and alumina and silicon carbide (abrasive
materials)
oModern ceramics include some of preceding materials, such as
alumina, whose properties are enhanced in various ways
through modern process methods.
oNewer ceramics include carbides and nitrides.

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 Materials in Manufacturing

Polymer is a compound formed of repeating structural units called

mers, whose atoms share electrons to form very large molecules
(covalent bond). Polymers usually consist of carbon plus one or
more elements such as hydrogen and nitrogen.

Polyethylene: (the mer unit is C2H4) Polypropylene: (the mer unit is C3H6)

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 Materials in Manufacturing

Polymers are divided into three categories:

oThermoplastic polymers
oThermosetting polymers, and
oElastomers

1. Thermoplastic polymers - can be subjected to multiple

heating and cooling cycles without substantially altering
molecular structure
2. Thermosetting polymers - chemically transform into a rigid
structure – cannot reheat
3. Elastomers - shows significant elastic behavior
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Semester I 2024/2025
 Materials in Manufacturing

Composites do not really constitute a

separate category of materials; they are
a mixture of the other three types. A
composite is a material consisting of
two or more phases (materials) that are
processed separately and then bonded
together to achieve properties superior
to those of its constituents.
oThe phases are often called the
reinforcement (or dispersed phase)
and matrix.
oComposites are found in nature
(e.g. wood) and they can be
produced synthetically.

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 Materials Properties
The properties of Materials include density, vapor pressure, thermal
expansion, thermal conductivity, electric and magnetic properties as well as
engineering properties.
Engineering properties include many different mechanical properties such
as:
o Tensile strength - The maximum stress at the time of material
destruction when a specimen is pulled on the two ends.
oYield strength – The lowest stress that produces a permanent
deformation in a material
oCompressive strength - The stress caused by an applied load that acts to
reduce the length of the material in the axis of the applied load.
Compressive strength is easily determined for brittle materials.
oDuctility – material property that enables a material to be bent, drawn,
stretched, formed, or permanently distorted without rupture.
oModulus of elasticity - The ratio of tensile stress or compressive stress to
the corresponding strain (constant).
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 Materials Properties
o Brittleness – The property of a material of breaking without
significant deformation, when subjected to stress.
o Impact resistance – is the ability of a material to withstand a high
force or shock applied to it over a short period of time.
o Hardness – The property of a material that enables it to resist plastic
deformation, usually by penetration.
• However, the term hardness may also refer to resistance to
bending, scratching, abrasion or cutting.
o Toughness – The amount of energy absorbed by a material as it
fractures (area under stress-strain curve)
o Shear Strength: This is a measure of the maximum shear stress that a
material can withstand before failing. It is a property of the material
and is important in determining how the material will perform under
shear loads.
oTorsional strength
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 Manufacturing Operations
Two basic types of manufacturing processes:
oProcessing operations
oAssembly operations
A processing operation transforms a work material from one state of
completion to a more advanced state that is closer to the final desired
product.
oIt adds value by changing the geometry, properties or appearance of the
starting material
oIn general, processing operations are performed on discrete workparts,
but some processing operations are also applicable to assemble items.
An assembly operation joins two or more components in order to create
a new entity, called an assembly, subassembly, or some other term that
refers to the joining process (e.g. a welded assembly is called a weldment)

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 Classification of Manufacturing Processes

Production
Technology -
MEE 2165 UR -
CST Semester I
2024/2025

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 Processing Operations
A processing operation uses energy to alter a workpart’s shape, physical
properties, or appearance in order to add value to the material.
The forms of energy include mechanical, thermal, electrical, and
chemical.
 The energy is applied in a controlled way by means of machinery and
tooling.
Human energy may also be required, but human workers are generally
employed to control the machines, oversee the operations, and load and
unload parts before and after each cycle of operation.

A general model of a
processing operation

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 Processing Operations
Material is fed into the process, energy is applied by the machinery
and tooling to transform the material, and the completed workpart
exits the process.
Most production operations produce waste or scrap, either as a
natural aspect of the process (e.g. removing material as in
machining) or in the form of occasional defective pieces.
It is an important objective in manufacturing to reduce waste in
either of these forms.
However, more than one processing operation is usually required
to transform the starting material into final form.
The operations are performed in the particular sequence required
to achieve the geometry and condition defined by the designed
specification.

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 Processing Operations
Three categories of processing operations:
oShaping Operations,
oProperty-enhancing Operations and
oSurface processing Operations

Shaping Operations alter the geometry of the starting work material by

various methods.
oCommon shaping processes include Casting, forging, and machining
Property-enhancing Operations add value to the material by improving
its physical properties without changing its shape.
oHeat treatment is the most common example.
Surface Processing Operations are performed to clean, treat, coat, or
deposit material onto the exterior surface of the work.
oCommon examples of coating are plating and painting.
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 Assembly Operations
The second basic type of manufacturing operation is Assembly, in
which two or more separate parts are joined to form a new entity.
Components of the new entity are connected either permanently or
semi-permanently.
o Permanent joining processes include Welding, brazing, soldering,
and adhesive bonding.
Mechanical assembly methods are available to fasten two (or more)
parts together in a joint that can be conveniently disassembled.
The use of screws, bolts, and other threaded fasteners are
important traditional methods in this category.
And other mechanical assembly techniques that form a more
permanent connection include rivets, press fitting, and expansion
fits.
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 Production Machines and Tooling
Manufacturing operations are accomplished using machinery and tooling (and
people).
oThe extensive use of machinery in manufacturing began with the industrial
Revolution.
It was at that time that metal cutting machines started to be developed and widely
used.
o These were called machine tools – Power driven machines used to operate
cutting tools previously operated by hand.
oMachine tools are among the most versatile of all production machines.
oThey are used to make not only parts for consumer products, but also
components for other production machines.
Modern machine tools are described by the same basic definition, except that the
power is electrical rather than water or steam.
oThe level of precision and automation is much greater today.
Both in a historic sense and in reproductive sense, the machine tool is the mother
of all machinery.
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 Production Machines and Tooling
Other production machines include presses for stamping
operations, forge hammers for forging, rolling mills for rolling sheet
metal, welding machines for welding, and insertion machines for
inserting electronic components into printed circuit boards.
Production machinery usually requires tooling that customizes the
equipment for the particular part or product.
In many cases, the tooling must be designed specifically for the part
or product configuration.
For each workpart type, the tooling is fastened to the machine and
the production is processed.
Because the special purpose machine is likely being used for mass
production, the tooling may never need changing except for
replacement of worn components or for repair of worn surfaces.
The type of tooling depends on the type of manufacturing process.
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Special Tooling Used in Various Operations
Table 1: Production equipment and tooling used for various
manufacturing processes
Process Equipment Special tooling (function)
Casting - Mold (cavity for molten metal)
Molding Molding machine Mold (cavity for hot polymer)
Rolling Rolling mill Roll (reduce work thickness)
Forging Forge hammer or press Die (squeeze work to shape)
Extrusion Press Extrusion die (reduce cross-
section)
Stamping Press Die (shearing, forming sheet
metal)
Machining Machine tool Cutting tool (material removal)
Fixture (hold workpart)
Jig(hold part and guide tool)

Grinding Grinding machine Grinding wheel (material

removal)
Welding Welding machine Electrode (fusion of work metal)
Fixture (hold parts during
welding)

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 Production Systems
To operate effectively, a manufacturing firm must have systems that
allow it to efficiently accomplish its type of production.
Production systems consist of people, equipment, and procedures
designed for the combination of materials and processes that
constitute a firm’s manufacturing operations.
Two categories of Production systems:
oProduction Facilities referring to physical equipment and the
arrangement of equipment in the factory.
oManufacturing support systems which are the procedures used
by the company to manage production and solve the technical
and logistics problems encountered in ordering materials, moving
work through the factory, and ensuring that products meet
quality standards.

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 Assignment 1

Describe types of bench tools used in the workshop

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PRODUCTION TEHNOLOGY
MEE 2165

CASTING PROCESS

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 Fundamentals of Metal Casting

Overview of Casting Technology

Heating and Pouring
Solidification and Cooling
Solidification Processes

Starting work material is either a liquid or is in a highly plastic condition,

and a part is created through solidification of the material.
Solidification processes can be classified according to engineering
material processed:
oMetals
oCeramics, specifically glasses
oPolymers and polymer matrix composites (PMCs)
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 Classification of solidification processes

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 Casting
Process in which molten metal flows by gravity or other force into a
mold where it solidifies in the shape of the mold cavity.
The term casting is also applied to the part that is made by this
process.
 Steps in casting seem simple:
1. Melt the metal
2. Pour it into a mold
3. Let it freeze
There are many factors and variables that must be considered in
order to accomplish successful casting operation.

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 Capabilities and Advantages of Casting
Different advantages for different casting processes:
oCan create complex part geometries
oCan create both external and internal shapes
oSome casting processes are net shape; others are near net shape
oCan produce very large parts
oSome casting methods are suited to mass production

Disadvantages of Casting
Different disadvantages for different casting processes:
oLimitations on mechanical properties
oPoor dimensional accuracy and surface finish for some processes; e.g., sand
casting
oSafety hazards to workers due to hot molten metals
oEnvironmental problems
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 Parts Made by Casting

Big parts: engine blocks

and heads for automotive
vehicles, wood burning
stoves, machine frames,
railway wheels, pipes,
church bells, big statues,
and pump housings.
Small parts: dental
crowns, jewelry, small
statues, and frying pans
All varieties of metals can
be cast, ferrous and
nonferrous

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 Overview of Casting Technology
Casting is usually performed in a foundry
Foundry - Factory equipped for making molds, melting and handling
molten metal, performing the casting process, and cleaning the finished
casting
Workers who perform casting are called foundrymen
Casting Process
Casting process begins with the mold.
The mold contains cavity whose geometry determines part shape.
Actual size and shape of cavity must be slightly oversized to allow for
shrinkage of metal during solidification and cooling.
Molds are made of a variety of materials, including sand, plaster,
ceramic, and metal.

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 Casting Process
The various casting processes are often classified according to these
different types of molds.
To accomplish a casting operation,
oThe metal is first heated to a temperature high enough to completely
transform it into a liquid state.
oIt is then poured, or otherwise directed, into the cavity of the mold.
In an open mold, the liquid metal is simply poured until it fills the
open cavity.
In a closed mold, a passageway, called the gating system, is provided to
permit the molten metal to flow from outside the mold into the cavity.
As soon as the molten metal is in the mold, it begins to cool.
oWhen the temperature drops sufficiently, solidification begins.

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 Casting Process
Solidification involves a change of phase of the metal.
oTime is required to complete the phase change, and considerable heat is
given up in the process.
oIt is during this step in the process that the metal assumes the solid
shape of the mold cavity and many of the properties and characteristics
of the casting are established.
Once the casting has cooled sufficiently, it is removed from the mold.
 Depending on the casting method and metal used, further processing
may be required. This may include:
o Trimming the excess metal from the actual cast part,
o Cleaning the surface,
oInspecting the product, and
oHeat treatment to enhance properties.

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 The Mold in Casting

Two forms of mold:

(a) open mold, simply a container in the shape of the desired part; and
(b) closed mold, in which the mold geometry is more complex and
requires a gating system (passageway) leading into the cavity

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 Typical gating systems

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 Two broad Categories of Casting Process
Expendable mold casting–uses an expendable mold which must be
destroyed to remove casting.
o Mold materials: sand, plaster, and similar materials, plus binders
Permanent mold casting –uses a permanent mold which can be used
many times to produce many castings.
oMade of metal or, less commonly, a ceramic refractory material

Advantages and Disadvantages

More intricate geometries are possible with expendable mold processes
Part shapes in permanent mold processes are limited by the need to open
mold
Permanent mold processes are more economic in high production
operations.

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 Sand casting mold

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 Sand casting mold Terms
Mold consists of two halves:
oCope = upper half of mold
oDrag = bottom half
Mold halves are contained in a box, called a flask
The two halves separate at the parting line

Forming the Mold Cavity

Mold cavity is formed by packing sand around a pattern, which has the shape of
the part.
Pattern is made of wood, metal, plastic, or other material and has the shape of
the part to be cast.
When the pattern is removed, the remaining cavity has desired shape of cast
part.
The pattern is usually oversized to allow for shrinkage of metal as it solidifies and
cools
Sand for the mold is moist and contains a binder to maintain shape
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 Cores in the Mold Cavity
The mold cavity provides the external surfaces of the cast part
 In addition, a casting may have internal surfaces, determined by a core,
placed inside the mold cavity to define the interior geometry of part.
In sand casting, cores are generally made of sand.
oHowever other materials can be used, such as metals, plaster, and
ceramics.

Gating System
Channel through which molten metal flows into cavity from outside of
mold.
oConsists of a downsprue, through which metal enters a runner leading to
the main cavity.
oAt top of downsprue, a pouring cup is often used to minimize splash and
turbulence as the metal flows into downsprue.

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 Riser
Reservoir in the mold which serves a source of liquid metal to
compensate for shrinkage during solidification.
oThe riser must be designed to freeze after the main casting in
order to satisfy its function.

Finally, as the metal flows in the mold, the air that previously
occupied the cavity, as well as hot gases formed by reactions of the
molten metal, must be evacuated so that the metal will completely fill
the empty space.
In permanent metal molds, small vent holes are drilled into the mold
or machined into the parting line to permit removal of air and gases.

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 Heating and Pouring

To perform a casting operation, the metal must be heated to a

temperature above its melting point and then poured into the mold cavity
to solidify.

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 Heating the Metal
Heating furnaces are used to heat the metal to molten temperature
sufficient for casting.
The heat required is the sum of:
o Heat to raise temperature to melting point
o Heat of fusion to convert from solid to liquid
o Heat to raise molten metal to desired temperature for pouring
This can be expressed as:

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 Heating the Metal - Example
One cubic meter of a certain eutectic alloy is heated in a crucible from
room temperature to 100 oC above its melting point for casting. The alloy’s
density = 7.5 g/cm3, melting point = 800 oC, specific heat = 0.33 j/g0C in
the solid state and 0.29 j/g0C in the liquid state; and heat of fusion = 160
J/g. How much heat energy must be added to accomplish the heating,
assuming no losses?

SOLUTION:
We assume ambient temperature in the foundry = 𝟐𝟓𝟎 𝑪 and that the density of
the liquid and solid of the metal are the same. Noting that 𝒎𝟑 = 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒄𝒎𝟑, and
substituting the values, we have:

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 Pouring the Molten Metal
For this step to be successful, metal must flow into all regions of the
mold, most importantly the main cavity, before solidifying.
Factors that determine success:
oPouring temperature – The temperature of the molten metal as it is
introduced into the mold.
oPouring rate – This refers to volumetric rate at which the molten metal
is poured into the mold.
• If the rate is too slow, the metal will chill and freeze before filling the
cavity.
oTurbulence – in fluid flow is characterized by erratic vibrations in the
magnitude and direction of the velocity throughout the fluid.
• If the pouring is excessive, turbulence can become a serious
problem.
Bernoulli’s theorem is an important relationship to analyse Pouring
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 Fluidity

Fluidity is a measure of
the capability of
a metal to flow into and fill the mold
before freezing.
It defines to the great extend the quality
of casting.
Factors influencing fluidity:
oPouring temperature
oMetal composition
oHeat transfer to the surroundings
oViscosity of the liquid metal
In the foundry practice, test for fluidity is
carried out for each ladle just before
pouring the molten metal into the mold.

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 Solidification and Cooling
After pouring into the mold, the molten metal cools and solidifies.
Issues associated with Solidification include:
o The time for a metal to freeze,
o Shrinkage,
o Directional solidification, and
o Riser design.

Solidification of Metals
Transformation of molten metal back into solid state
oSolidification differs depending on whether the metal is a pure element or
an alloy.

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 Cooling curve for a pure metal during casting
A pure metal solidifies at a constant temperature equal to its freezing point (same as
melting point)

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 Solidification of Pure Metals

Due to chilling action of mold wall, a thin skin of solid metal is formed
at the interface immediately after pouring.
Skin thickness increases to form a shell around the molten metal as
solidification progresses
Rate of freezing depends on heat transfer into mold, as well as thermal
properties of the metal.
It is of the interest to examine the metallic grain formation and growth
during this solidification process.
oThe metal which forms the initial skin has been rapidly cooled by the
extraction of the heat through the mold wall.

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 Characteristic grain
Characteristic grain
structure in a casting of a
structure in an alloy casting
pure metal

Shows randomly oriented grains of small

size near the mold wall, and large columnar  shows segregation of alloying
grains oriented toward the center of the components in center of casting
casting

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 (a)Phase diagram for a (b)Associated cooling curve
copper-nickel alloy system for a 50%Ni-50%Cu
composition during casting

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 Solidification Time
Solidification takes time.
Total solidification Time TST = Time required for casting to solidify
after pouring.
TST depends on size and shape of casting by relationship known as
Chvorinov's Rule
Chvorinov's Rule

where TST = Total Solidification Time; (min)

V = volume of the casting; (𝒄𝒎𝟑 or 𝒊𝒏𝟑 )
A = surface area of casting; (𝒄𝒎𝟐 or 𝒊𝒏𝟐)
n = exponent usually taken to have a value = 2; and
𝒄𝒎 is mold constant; (min/𝒄𝒎𝟐 or min/𝒊𝒏𝟐)
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 Mold Constant in Chvorinov's Rule
𝒄𝒎 depends on mold material, thermal properties of casting metal, and
pouring temperature relative to melting point.
Value of 𝒄𝒎 for a given casting operation can be based on experimental
data from previous operations carried out using same mold material,
metal, and pouring temperature, even though the shape of the part may be
quite different.

What Chvorinov's Rule Tells Us

A casting with a higher volume-to-surface area ratio cools and solidifies

more slowly than one with a lower ratio.
oTo feed molten metal to main cavity, TST for riser must greater than TST
for main casting.
Since riser and casting mold constants will be equal, design the riser to
have a larger volume-to-area ratio so that the main casting solidifies first
oThis minimizes the effects of shrinkage.
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 Solidification Shrinkage
Occurs in nearly all metals because the solid phase has a higher density than the liquid
phase.
T hus, solidification causes a reduction in volume per unit weight of metal.
Exception: cast iron with high C content (Graphitization during final stages of freezing causes
expansion that counteracts volumetric decrease associated with phase change).

Shrinkage
Our discussion of solidification has neglected the impact of shrinkage that occurs
during cooling and freezing!
Shrinkage occurs in three steps:
oLiquid contraction during cooling prior to solidification
oContraction during the phase change from liquid to solid , called solidification
shrinkage;
oT hermal contraction of the solidified casting during cooling to room temperature.
The three steps can be explained using a cylindrical casting made of an open mold as
shown in next two slides.

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Shrinkage of a cylindrical casting during solidification and
cooling
(0) Starting level of molten metal (1) Reduction in level caused by liquid
immediately after pouring contraction during cooling (dimensional
reductions are exaggerated for
clarity in sketches)

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Shrinkage of a cylindrical casting during solidification and
cooling
(2) Reduction in height and (3) Further reduction in height and diameter
formation of shrinkage due to thermal contraction during cooling of
cavity caused by solidification the solid metal (dimensional reductions are
shrinkage exaggerated for clarity in our sketches)

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 Shrinkage Allowance

Patternmakers account for solidification shrinkage and thermal

contraction by making mold cavity oversized.
Amount by which mold is made larger relative to final casting size
is called pattern shrinkage allowance.
Casting dimensions are expressed linearly, so allowances are
applied accordingly.
Special shrinkage rules with slightly elongated scales are used to
make the patterns and molds larger than the desired casting by the
appropriate amount.

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Table: Volumetric contraction for different casting metals due
to solidification shrinkage and solid contraction

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 Shrinkage Allowance - Risers for shrinkage control
But, generally a riser is used to control the shrinkage as shown in Figure
below:

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 Shrinkage Allowance - Example

A mold cavity has the shape of a cube, 100 mm on a side. Determine

the dimensions and volume of the final cube after cooling to room
temperature if the cast metal is copper. Assume that the mold is full at
the start of solidification and that shrinkage occurs uniformly in all
directions. Use the shrinkage values given in Table on slide 33. There is
no riser used and pattern allowance is not considered.
Solution: For copper, solidification shrinkage is 4.5%,
solid contraction during cooling is 7.5%.
Volume of cavity V = (100)3 = 1,000,000 mm3
Volume of casting V = 1,000,000(1-0.045)(1-0.075) =
1,000,000(.951)(.025) = 883,375 mm3
Dimension on each side of cube = (883,375)0.333 = 95.51 mm

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 Shrinkage Allowance - Example

The cavity of a casting mold has dimensions: L = 250 mm, W = 125

mm and H = 20 mm. Determine the dimensions of the final casting after
cooling to room temperature if the cast metal is aluminum. Assume that
the mold is full at the start of solidification and that shrinkage occurs
uniformly in all directions. For aluminum, solidification shrinkage =
6.6%, solid contraction during cooling = 5.6%. There is no riser used
and pattern allowance is not considered.

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 Directional Solidification
To minimize damaging effects of shrinkage, it is desirable for regions of the
casting most distant from the liquid metal supply to freeze first and for
solidification to progress from these remote regions toward the riser(s).
oThus, molten metal is continually available from risers to prevent shrinkage
voids during freezing.
oThe term directional solidification describes this aspect of freezing process
and the methods by which it is controlled.

Achieving Directional Solidification

Desired directional solidification is achieved using Chvorinov's Rule to design the
casting itself, its orientation in the mold, and the riser system that feeds it.
Locate sections of the casting with lower V/A ratios away from riser, so freezing
occurs first in these regions, and the liquid metal supply for the rest of the casting
remains open.
Chills - internal or external heat sinks that cause rapid freezing in certain
regions of the casting.
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(a) External chill to encourage (b) The likely result
rapid freezing of the if the external chill were not
molten metal in a thin section used
of the casting

Chills as an aid to
directional solidification

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 Riser Design
As described earlier, a riser is used in a sand- casting mold to feed liquid
metal to the casting during freezing in order to compensate for
solidification shrinkage.
To function, the riser must remain molten until after the casting
solidifies.
 Chvorinov’s rule can be used to compute the size of a riser that will
satisfy this requirement.
The following example illustrates the calculation.
oExample:
A cylindrical riser must be designed for a sand casting mold. The casting
itself is a steel rectangular plate with dimensions 7.5 cm X 12.5cm X
2cm. Previous observations have indicated that the total solidification
time for this casting = 1.6 min. The cylinder for the riser will have a
diameter-to-height ratio =1. Determine the dimensions of the riser so
that its total solidification time = 2 min.
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Riser Design - Solution

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 Riser Design
The riser represents waste metal that will be separated from the cast part
and remelted to make subsequent castings.
 It is desirable for the volume of metal in the riser to be a minimum.
 Since the geometry of the riser is normally selected to minimize the V/A
ratio, this tends to reduce the riser volume as much as possible.
Risers can be designed in different forms:
oSide riser: Riser can be attached to the side of the casting by means of a
small channel.
oTop riser: is one that is connected to the top surface of the casting.
Risers can be open or blind.
oAn open riser is exposed to the outside at the top surface of the cope. This
has the disadvantage of allowing more heat to escape, promoting faster
solidification.
oA blind riser is entirely enclosed within the mold.

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