Module 3

Dispersion of Air Pollutants

The dispersion of air pollutants involves the spread of pollutants released from sources (like industrial stacks) into the
atmosphere, influenced by wind, atmospheric stability, and source characteristics. To predict and control pollutant
dispersion, environmental engineers use models like the Gaussian plume model, which helps estimate pollutant
concentration at different distances from a source, and consider factors like stability classes and stack height design to
optimize emissions control.

Point Source Gaussian Plume Model

The Point Source Gaussian Plume Model is a widely used mathematical model for predicting the dispersion of
pollutants released from a point source, such as a smokestack, into the atmosphere. This model assumes that pollutants
disperse in a bell-shaped (Gaussian) distribution, spreading horizontally and vertically from the source under steady-
state conditions.
Key Components of the Gaussian Plume Model
1. Purpose:
o The Gaussian plume model is primarily used to estimate the concentration of pollutants at different
distances downwind from the source, based on factors like wind speed, atmospheric stability, and
emission rate. It is widely applied in air quality assessments, regulatory compliance, and environmental
impact studies.
2. Model Assumptions:
o Steady-State Conditions: The emissions are constant over time.
o Uniform Wind Speed and Direction: Wind speed and direction are assumed to remain constant at a
given height.
o Flat Terrain: The model assumes relatively flat, unobstructed terrain, which simplifies dispersion
calculations.
3. Gaussian Plume Equation:
o The concentration (CCC) of pollutants at any point (x, y, z) downwind from a point source is given by:
 4. Dispersion Coefficients (σy and σz ):
• These coefficients represent the spread of the pollutant plume horizontally (σy ) and vertically (σz ) and are
derived from empirical data based on distance downwind, atmospheric stability, and wind speed.
• Atmospheric Stability: Stability classes (A–F) influence σy and σz , with unstable conditions (A, B) promoting
larger σ values (wider and taller plumes), and stable conditions (E, F) leading to smaller σ values (narrower and
more constrained plumes).
5. Effective Stack Height (H):
• The effective height of pollutant release, considering both the physical stack height and plume rise (the
additional height gained by the plume due to buoyancy or momentum).
• Plume Rise depends on the temperature and velocity of emissions; warmer and faster emissions rise higher due
to buoyancy and kinetic energy.
6. Applications:
o Air Quality Assessments: Used to predict pollutant concentrations near industrial facilities to assess
potential health and environmental impacts.
o Regulatory Compliance: Helps determine whether emissions meet air quality standards.
o Emergency Response: Assists in modeling the spread of hazardous releases during accidents.
Example: Concentration Prediction
To calculate the concentration at a point downwind from the stack:
1. Determine the emission rate (Q), wind speed (u), effective stack height (H), and distance coordinates (x, y, z).
2. Estimate the dispersion coefficients σy and σz based on stability and distance.
3. Use the Gaussian Equation to find the concentration.
Advantages and Limitations
• Advantages:
o Simple and easy to apply, especially for routine emissions assessments.
o Useful for regulatory purposes and air quality compliance.
• Limitations:
o Assumes steady-state conditions and constant wind, which may not reflect real-time changes.
o Assumes flat terrain, which is less applicable in mountainous or urban areas.

Stability Classes
Stability classes describe the atmospheric conditions that affect the dispersion of pollutants in the air. These classes,
defined by Pasquill and Gifford, categorize the atmosphere based on the level of turbulence, which influences how
pollutants disperse horizontally and vertically. Stability classes range from very unstable (promoting significant vertical
mixing) to very stable (suppressing vertical dispersion), and they are primarily influenced by solar radiation, wind speed,
and surface characteristics.
Stability Classes and Their Characteristics
1. Class A (Very Unstable):
o Conditions: Strong surface heating, typically on sunny days with low wind speeds.
o Characteristics: High turbulence and vigorous vertical mixing, leading to rapid dispersion of
pollutants.
 o Common Weather: Clear skies, light wind, midday to early afternoon.
o Effect on Plumes: Pollutants disperse quickly both horizontally and vertically, leading to lower
concentrations over a broad area.
2. Class B (Unstable):
o Conditions: Moderate surface heating with slightly stronger winds than in Class A.
o Characteristics: Moderate turbulence with substantial vertical mixing.
o Common Weather: Partly cloudy days, mild wind.
o Effect on Plumes: Pollutants still disperse effectively, though less rapidly than in Class A.
3. Class C (Slightly Unstable):
o Conditions: Gentle surface heating or cloudy weather with moderate winds.
o Characteristics: Reduced vertical mixing compared to A and B, though some dispersion still occurs.
o Common Weather: Cloudy days with moderate winds.
o Effect on Plumes: Pollutants disperse more slowly than in unstable classes, with moderate
concentrations near the source.
4. Class D (Neutral Stability):
o Conditions: Overcast skies with moderate to strong winds, or during the night with stronger winds.
o Characteristics: Minimal surface heating or cooling, with balanced vertical and horizontal dispersion.
o Common Weather: Overcast or windy conditions, usually during transitional periods (dawn, dusk).
o Effect on Plumes: Pollutants disperse in a stable pattern, providing a reasonable spread without extreme
concentration changes.
5. Class E (Slightly Stable):
o Conditions: Light winds, clear skies, typically at night.
o Characteristics: Limited vertical mixing, as the atmosphere becomes stratified with a stable
temperature profile.
o Common Weather: Nighttime, calm or light wind, clear skies.
o Effect on Plumes: Pollutants tend to remain near the source and spread more horizontally, leading to
higher concentrations near the ground.
6. Class F (Very Stable):
o Conditions: Very low winds and clear skies at night, leading to strong radiative cooling of the ground.
o Characteristics: Extremely limited vertical mixing, creating a highly stable layer near the ground.
o Common Weather: Clear nights with calm winds, leading to temperature inversions.
o Effect on Plumes: Pollutants stay close to the ground and spread very slowly, often resulting in high
concentrations in a localized area.
Factors Influencing Stability Classes
• Solar Radiation: Strong sunlight heats the ground, creating unstable conditions (Classes A, B). Overcast skies
or nighttime cooling promotes stable conditions (Classes E, F).
• Wind Speed: Higher wind speeds promote mixing, leading to more neutral stability (Class D), while calm or
light winds favor stable conditions.
 • Time of Day: Daytime heating generally creates unstable conditions, while nighttime cooling favors stable
conditions.
Stability Charts and Determining Stability Class
• Stability charts help determine the stability class based on observable weather conditions, such as wind speed,
cloud cover, and solar radiation.
• Example: On a sunny day with light wind, the stability might be classified as A or B; on a cloudy day with
moderate wind, it might be C or D.
Importance of Stability Classes in Air Pollution
• Stability classes are essential for air pollution modeling, as they influence how pollutants disperse from sources
like smokestacks.
• Unstable Classes (A, B) allow pollutants to disperse quickly, reducing ground-level concentrations.
• Stable Classes (E, F) trap pollutants near the source, often leading to high concentrations and poor air quality
near the ground.

Stability Charts
Stability charts are tools used to determine atmospheric stability class based on observable environmental conditions,
such as wind speed, solar radiation, and cloud cover. These charts are especially useful in air pollution modeling, as they
help identify the conditions under which pollutants will disperse and, thus, predict ground-level pollutant concentrations
near sources such as smokestacks.
Key Factors in Stability Charts
Stability charts typically consider the following key variables:
1. Solar Radiation (Daytime):
o During the day, solar radiation heats the ground, which, in turn, heats the air above it, promoting vertical
mixing. The strength of this heating influences the stability class.
o Strong solar radiation (clear, sunny days) creates unstable conditions, while weak or diffuse solar
radiation (cloudy conditions) leads to neutral or stable conditions.
2. Cloud Cover (Nighttime):
o At night, ground cooling leads to stable conditions since the air near the ground becomes cooler than
the air above. Cloud cover can prevent this cooling by reflecting heat back to the ground, creating more
neutral conditions.
o Clear skies at night typically result in stable classes (E, F), while overcast conditions can lead to neutral
stability (Class D).
3. Wind Speed:
o Wind enhances mixing and reduces temperature gradients. Higher wind speeds tend to produce neutral
stability (Class D) regardless of the time of day.
o Lower wind speeds favor stable conditions (Class E or F at night), while moderate winds combined
with strong solar radiation during the day result in unstable or neutral conditions.
4. Time of Day:
o Daytime generally favors unstable conditions due to solar heating, while nighttime generally favors
stable conditions due to cooling.
Stability Classifications in Stability Charts
A typical stability chart might look like this, with stability classes (A–F) assigned based on observed conditions:
 • Strong Sun (midday on clear days): Results in very unstable conditions (Class A or B).
• Moderate Sun (partly cloudy days): Leads to slightly unstable conditions (Class B or C).
• Cloudy or Overcast: Yields neutral stability, especially if combined with moderate or high wind speeds.
• Nighttime (Clear and Calm): Creates stable to very stable conditions (Classes E and F), as the ground cools
rapidly.
How to Use Stability Charts
To determine the stability class using a stability chart:
1. Identify the Time of Day: Choose either a daytime or nighttime chart based on current conditions.
2. Observe Cloud Cover and Solar Radiation: Use direct sunlight intensity or cloud cover as an indication of
solar radiation strength.
3. Measure Wind Speed: Check the wind speed at ground level or stack height, if available.
4. Match Conditions to Stability Class: Use the chart to match conditions to the stability class.
For example:
• A sunny afternoon with light wind might correspond to Class A (very unstable).
• A calm, clear night would likely correspond to Class F (very stable).
• An overcast night with moderate winds would likely yield a Class D (neutral stability).
Applications of Stability Charts
Stability charts are essential in fields like:
• Air Quality Modeling: Determine how pollutants will disperse based on atmospheric stability, influencing
concentration predictions.
• Environmental Impact Assessment: Assess the likely dispersion of emissions from industrial sources.
• Urban Planning and Public Health: Predict areas where pollutants might accumulate due to stable conditions,
informing zoning and health advisories.

Design of Stack Height

The design of stack height is crucial in air pollution control, as it ensures that pollutants are released high enough to
promote effective dispersion and minimize ground-level concentrations. Proper stack height helps reduce pollution
exposure in nearby areas by allowing the emitted pollutants to disperse over a larger area before reaching the ground.
Key Factors in Stack Height Design
1. Pollutant Dispersion and Air Quality Standards:
 o Stack height affects how pollutants disperse in the atmosphere. A higher stack allows pollutants to be
diluted over a larger area, reducing concentrations at ground level.
o Regulatory agencies, like the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and India’s Central
Pollution Control Board (CPCB), often set minimum stack height requirements to ensure that emissions
comply with air quality standards.
2. Meteorological and Environmental Conditions:
o Wind Speed and Direction: Strong winds help disperse pollutants, potentially allowing for a shorter
stack. Calm conditions might require a taller stack to ensure sufficient dispersion.
o Atmospheric Stability: Stability class affects the vertical spread of pollutants. In stable conditions,
pollutants may not disperse as effectively, necessitating a taller stack.
o Local Topography: Nearby hills or buildings can influence air currents and cause pollutants to be
trapped or deflected, affecting dispersion. Taller stacks may be required in complex terrains.
3. Building Downwash:
o Buildings or other obstacles close to the stack can create downwash—a condition where air flows over
the building and forces pollutants downwards, increasing ground-level concentrations near the source.
o The Good Engineering Practice (GEP) stack height formula is commonly used to prevent downwash
effects:
HGEP=Hs+1.5LH
where:
▪ HGEP is the Good Engineering Practice height,
▪ Hs is the height of the nearby building, and
▪ L is the length of the building dimension parallel to the wind direction.
o This ensures that the stack height is sufficient to avoid downwash effects.
4. Plume Rise:
o Plume rise is the additional height that the plume reaches above the stack due to buoyancy or
momentum from the temperature and velocity of emissions.
o Buoyant Plumes: When stack gases are hotter than the ambient air, they rise due to buoyancy,
increasing effective stack height.
o Momentum-driven Plumes: Higher exit velocities increase plume rise as well, pushing pollutants
further upward.
o The effective stack height is the physical height of the stack plus the plume rise, increasing the
dispersion area.
5. Empirical and Regulatory Formulas:
o Regulatory formulas provide minimum stack height to meet local air quality standards and avoid
ground-level concentration exceedances.
o In the U.S., the EPA defines a maximum stack height based on the taller of the following:
Hmax=2.5×height of nearby structures
o Alternatively, the Briggs equations are used to calculate plume rise under different atmospheric
conditions.
Designing for Optimal Stack Height
The process for determining stack height typically includes:
 1. Calculating Plume Rise: Use models such as the Briggs plume rise equations to estimate the additional height
gained by the plume due to buoyancy and exit velocity.
2. Determining the Effective Stack Height: Combine physical stack height with the estimated plume rise to find
the effective release height.
3. Evaluating Building Downwash: Ensure the stack height meets or exceeds the GEP height to prevent
downwash effects from nearby buildings.
4. Regulatory Compliance: Ensure that the proposed stack height meets all regulatory requirements and
minimizes ground-level concentrations.
Example Calculation
To design a stack height:
1. Identify Nearby Structures: Determine the height and width of buildings within a certain distance.
2. Estimate the Minimum Stack Height (H): For GEP, if a nearby building is 10 m high and 20 m wide:
H=10+1.5×20=40 m
3. Calculate Plume Rise: For example, using the Briggs formula under neutral conditions, calculate the plume
rise, then add it to the physical stack height.
4. Check against Regulations: Verify that the effective height meets required standards for pollutant
concentration limits.
Benefits and Limitations of Stack Height Design
• Benefits:
o Reduces ground-level pollutant concentrations and improves air quality near the emission source.
o Mitigates adverse health effects on nearby communities by spreading pollutants over a larger area.
• Limitations:
o Taller stacks can be costly to build and maintain.
o Stack height alone may not be sufficient for highly toxic emissions; additional treatment or control
technologies may be required.