Dr. V.

Senthil kumar
Professor
Dept of EEE
CEG AU
UNIT II - SPEED CONTROL OF DC MACHINES

Thyristor based bridge rectifier circuits – chopper

circuits - DC shunt motors and series motor: typical
and modified speed torque characteristics - Ward
Leonard method – applications of modified
characteristics - solid state DC drives – electrical
braking.
 DC MOTOR
 An electric Motor is a machine is a device which
converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
 The construction of a DC motor is exactly similar to
DC generator.
 A DC machine can be operated as a DC generator or
Dc motor.
 DC motors find extensive applications in Steel mills,
Paper mills, Textile mills, Printing presses, Cranes,
winches, Excavators, Lathes, Fans, Pumps, Air blowers,
Electric Traction etc.
Advantages :
 High starting torque.
 Speed control over a wide range, both below and above
the normal speed.
 Accurate step less speed control with constant torque.
 Quick starting, stopping, reversing and accelerating.

Disadvantages:
 High initial cost.
 Increased operating and maintenance costs because of
the commutators and brush gear.
DC MACHINES: CONSTRUCTION
The DC generators and DC motors have the same
general construction.
In fact, when the machine is being assembled, the
workmen usually do not know whether it is a DC
generator or motor.
Any DC generator can be run as a DC motor and vice-
versa.
All DC machines have five principal components viz.,
(i) field system (ii) armature core
(iii) armature winding (iv) commutator (v) brushes
 Field System:
The function of the field system is to produce uniform
magnetic field within which the armature rotates.
It consists of a number of salient poles (of course,
even number) bolted to the inside of circular frame
(generally called yoke).
The yoke is usually made of solid cast steel whereas
the pole pieces are composed of stacked laminations.
Field coils are mounted on the poles and carry the DC
exciting current.
The field coils are connected in such a way that
adjacent poles have opposite polarity.
 The m.m.f. developed by the field coils produces a
magnetic flux that passes through the pole pieces, the air
gap, the armature and the frame
Practical DC machines have air gaps ranging from 0.5
mm to 1.5 mm.
Since armature and field systems are composed of
materials that have high permeability, most of the
m.m.f. of field coils is required to set up flux in the air
gap.
By reducing the length of air gap, we can reduce the
size of field coils (i.e. number of turns).
 Armature Core:
The armature core is keyed to the machine shaft and
rotates between the field poles.
It consists of slotted soft-iron laminations (about 0.4
to 0.6 mm thick) that are stacked to form a cylindrical
core.
The laminations are individually coated with a thin
insulating film so that they do not come in electrical
contact with each other.
The purpose of laminating the core is to reduce the
eddy current loss.
 The laminations are slotted to accommodate and
provide mechanical security to the armature winding
and to give shorter air gap for the flux to cross between
the pole face and the armature “teeth”.
 Armature Winding:
The slots of the armature core hold insulated conductors
that are connected in a suitable manner.
This is known as armature winding. This is the winding
in which “working” e.m.f. is induced.
The armature conductors are connected in series-
parallel.
The conductors being connected in series so as to
increase the voltage and in parallel paths so as to
increase the current.
The armature winding of a DC machine is a closed-
circuit winding, the conductors being connected in a
symmetrical manner forming a closed loop or series of
closed loops.
 Commutator:
A commutator is a mechanical rectifier which converts
the alternating voltage generated in the armature
winding into direct voltage across the brushes.
The commutator is made of copper segments insulated
from each other by mica sheets and mounted on the
shaft of the machine
The armature conductors are soldered to the
commutator segments in a suitable manner to give rise
to the armature winding.
 Depending upon the manner in which the armature
conductors are connected to the commutator segments,
there are two types of armature winding in a DC
machine viz.,
(a) lap winding (b) wave winding.
 Great care is taken in building the commutator
because any eccentricity will cause the brushes to
bounce, producing unacceptable sparking.
The sparks may burn the brushes and overheat and
carbonise the commutator.

Shaft Bearings:
With small machines roller bearings are used at both
ends.
For larger machines roller bearings are used for
driving end and ball bearings are used for non-driving
(commutator) end.
For large machines pedestal bearings are used.
Ball
Bearings

Roller
Bearings

Pedestal Bearings
 Brushes:
The purpose of brushes is to ensure electrical
connections between the rotating commutator and
stationary external load circuit.
The brushes are made of carbon and rest on the
commutator.
The brush pressure is adjusted by means of adjustable
springs.
If the brush pressure is very large, the friction
produces heating of the commutator and the brushes.
On the other hand, if it is too weak, the imperfect
contact with the commutator may produce sparking.
 Multipole machines have as many brushes as they
have poles. For example, a 4- pole machine has 4
brushes.
As we go round the commutator, the successive
brushes have positive and negative polarities.
Brushes having the same polarity are connected
together so that we have two terminals viz., the +ve
terminal and the -ve terminal.
 Yoke:
The outer frame or yoke serves two
purposes:
1. It provides mechanical support for
the poles and acts as a protecting
cover for the whole machine
2. It carries the magnetic flux
produced by the poles
Large machines are made of cast
steel or rolled steel
Principle of Operation of DC Motor:
 Whenever a current carrying conductor is placed on a
stationary magnetic field, it experiences a force and
the direction of the force is given by Fleming’s Left
hand rule.

Figure 2.1
 Figure shows the resultant field produced when the
current carrying conductor wire of is inserted in the air
gap of with the axis of the conductor at right angles to
the direction of the flux.
 On the upper side of the conductor the magnetizing
forces of the field and of the current in the conductor
are additive while on the lower side these are
subtractive.
 This explains why the resultant field is strengthened
above and weakened below the conductor
 The force (F) developed in the conductor is given by
the relation,
F = BIl newtons
where
B = flux density, T (Wb/m2),
I = current in conductor, A
l = length of conductor, m.
Back emf:
 In a D.C. motor when the armature rotates, the
conductors on it cut the lines of force of magnetic field
in which they revolve, so that an emf is induced in the
armature as in a generator.
 The induced emf acts in opposition to the current in
the machine and therefore to the applied voltage.
 It is customary to refer this voltage as the ‘back emf’
 This can be deduced by Lenz’s law, which states that
the direction of an induced emf is such as to oppose
the change causing it, which is, of course, the applied
voltage.
 PZN
The back emf Eb 
60A
where
P = number of poles
φ = flux/pole, webers (Wb)
Z = total number of armature conductors
N = rotational speed of armature, r.p.m.
A = number of parallel paths in armature
Eb = back or counter emf developed in the armature of
the motor
Torque Equation of a DC Motor:
The expression for the torque developed by the motor
armature may be deduced as follows :

Let Ta be the torque developed in Nm by the motor

armature running at N r.p.m.
Power developed = work done per second
= Ta × 2πN watts (i)
Electrical equivalent of mechanical power developed
by the armature also
= EbIa watts (ii)
From the above equation for torque, we find that
T ∝ ɸIa
Then
(i) In the case of shunt motors, ɸ is practically
constant, hence
T ∝ Ia
(ii) In the case of series motors, ɸ is proportional to Ia
before saturation (because field windings carry full
armature current)
∴ T ∝ I a2 .
Speed of a DC Motor:
Types of DC motors:
There are three main types of motors characterised by
the connection of the field winding in relation to the
armature.
These are :
1. Shunt motor, in which the field winding is
connected in parallel with the armature.
2. Series motor, in which the armature and field
windings are connected in series.
3. Compound motor, which has two field windings,
one of which is connected in parallel with the armature
and the other in series with it.
DC Shunt
DC Series
Motor
Motor

DC Compound Motor
 DC Motor Characteristics
Three important operating characteristic of dc motor
are:
 Torque Vs armature current characteristics
Ta/Ia characteristic. This is also known as electrical
characteristics.
 Speed Vs armature current characteristics
N/Ia characteristics
 Speed Vs torque characteristics
N/Ta characteristic. This is also known as
mechanical characteristic.
 While discussing motor characteristics, the following
two relations should always be kept in mind:
Eb
Ta   I a and N


Characteristics of DC series motor:

1. Ta/Ia characteristics:
We have seen that T a   I a . In this case, as a field
windings also carry the armature current,   I a upto the
point of magnetic saturation.
 Hence, before saturation, Ta   I a and  Ta  I a2
At light loads, Ia and hence ɸ is small. But as Ia
increases, Ta increases as the square of the current.
Hence Ta/Ia curve is a parabola. After saturation, ɸ is
almost independent of Ia hence Ta ∝ Ia only. So the
characteristics becomes a straight line.
So we conclude that (prior to magnetic saturation) on
heavy loads, as series motor exerts a torque proportional
to the square of armature current. Hence in case were
huge starting torque is required for accelerating heavy
masses quickly as in hoists and electric trains etc., series
motors are used.
 Eb
2. N/Ia characteristics: N

Change in Eb, for various load currents is small and
hence may be neglected for the time being. With
increased Ia, ɸ also increases. Hence speed varies
inversely as armature current as shown in figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2
 When load is heavy, Ia is large. Hence, speed is low.
But when load current and hence Ia falls to a small value,
speed becomes dangerously high. Hence, a series motor
should never be started without some mechanical load
on it otherwise it may develop excessive speed and get
damaged due to heavy centrifugal forces so produced.

3. N/Ta characteristics:
It is found from above that when speed is high, torque
is low and vice-versa. The relation between the two is
shown in figure.
 Characteristics of DC shunt motor:
1. Ta/Ia characteristics:
Assuming ɸ to be practically constant we find that
Ta ∝ Ia.
Hence the electrical characteristics as shown in figure
2.3 practically a straight line through the origin.

Ta
Figure 2.3
 Since a heavy starting load will need a heavy starting
current, shunt motor should never be started on (heavy)
load.
2. N/Ia characteristics:
If ɸ is assumed constant, then N ∝ Eb. As Eb is also
practically constant, speed is for most purpose constant.
But strictly speaking, both Eb and ɸ decreases with
increasing load. However, Eb decreases slightly more than
ɸ so that on the whole, there is some decrease in speed.
The actual speed curve is slightly drooping as shown
by dotted line. But, for all practical purposes, shunt
motor is taken as a constant – speed motor.
 Because there is no appreciable change in the speed of
a shunt motor from no-load to full-load, it may be
connected to loads which are totally and suddenly
thrown off without any fear of excessive speed resulting.
Due to the constancy of their speed, shunt motors are
suitable for drive shafting, machine tools, lathes, woods-
working machines and for all other purposes where an
approximately constant speed is required.
3. N/Ta characteristics:
This characteristics can be deduced form the above
two characteristics as shown in figure.
Modified Speed Torque Characteristics of
DC Shunt Motor:
The most simple means of obtaining a variety of
speed-torque characteristics of dc shunt motors is to
introduce additional resistance either in the armature
circuit or field circuit.
1. Introduction of Armature Series Resistance:

Figure 2.4
The speed is given by: Eb V  I a Ra
N 
 K e
T
 T  I a ; I a 
kt 
V ( Ra  R)T (2.1)
N   
where K e K e K t 2
T - torque developed by the armature , N-m
N -  - angular speed of rotation of the armature, rad/sec.
Ke, Kt are machine constants.
Ia and Ra are armature current and armature resistance in
amps and ohms respectively.
 The equation (2.1) represents the speed torque
characteristics and is depicted by a straight line whose
slope is a function of (R + Ra) intersecting the  axis at a
value by V/Keɸ.
For different values of additional resistance R, the
speed-torque curves will be a family of straight lines.
A complete picture of motor performance is secured by
plotting the speed torque characteristics on a quadrantal
diagram, as shown in the figure 2.5.
In this diagram, two sets of identical lines, one for the
positive (or forward) speed and the other for the
negative direction of speed.
Figure 2.5
 The lines in the first quadrant (I) represents normal
motor operation in the positive direction of rotation and
the lines in the third quadrant (III) represents normal
motor action but in the opposite direction.
Quadrants II and IV represent braking action, the
motor torque is opposite in sign to that of the speed.
Those portions of the upper set of lines which extend
into the second quadrant depict generator action, or
simply regeneration.
Those portions of the same set of lines which extend
into the fourth quadrant represent plugging.
 Plugging (reverse current braking) is a type of braking
action caused by reversing the armature polarity so that
the motor torque acts in a sense opposite to that of
speed, to cause a reduction in its value.

2. Variation of Field Circuit:

Figure 2.6
Figure 2.7
 V RaT
 
K e K e K t 2
From the equation it is clear that for the same torque
on the motor, various speeds of operation are possible,
by varying field flux. Variation in field flux can be
achieved by introducing a variable resistance in the filed
circuit.
The motor speed torque curves for various values of
field resistance is shown in figure 2.7.
It may be seen that both the no load speed
(represented by the intersection on the speed axis) and
the slope of the speed torque curve change with the
variation in the filed circuit resistance.
 If the magnitude of resistance added in series with the
field is considerably large, the field flux gets reduced
significantly and hence the no load speed becomes quite
high and the slope of the speed torque curve also
increases as shown by the two lines for R = R3 and R4 in
figure.
However, in actual practice, due to the effect of
armature reaction, which becomes dominant when field
flux is weakened considerably the operation of the
motor may become unstable and commutation of the
motor will be very bad.
In fact, the maximum permissible value of the
armature current will set a limit to the magnitude of the
change in field current and hence in the additional
resistance in the field circuit.
 Quadrants I and III again represent normal motor
operation in the positive direction of rotation and in the
negative direction respectively.
Quadrant II indicates the condition where the load
drives the motor in either forward or backward direction
faster than the ideal no load speed.
In other words, quadrant II (both for the upper and
lower set of lines) represents regenerative braking
regime of the motor.
 Modified Speed Torque Characteristics of DC
Series Motor:

A greater variety of speed-torque characteristics is

obtainable with a series motor than with a shunt motor,
by means of different connections for the field and
armature circuits together with suitable series and shunt
resistors.
The commonly used connections are
1. Series resistance
2. Shunted motor connection
3. Shunted armature connection
 1. Series Resistance:

Figure 2.8

The obvious method of varying the speed of a series

motor is to use a series resistance.
The schematic diagram is shown figure 2.8 and the
resulting speed-torque curves for several values of
resistance is show in the figure 2.9.
Figure 2.9
 It may be noted that the no load motor speed
corresponding to small no load torques may be
excessively high even with a fairly large series resistance.
With an increase in the value of the series resistance,
the torque at any given speed is reduced.
A considerable increase in the series resistance can
bring the curve into the fourth quadrant, since the
induce emf can become negative with a large drop in the
motor circuit resistance and hence causing a change in
direction of rotation.
Also, the curves for operation in the reverse direction
(third quadrant) are identical with those in the first.
 2. Shunted Motor Connection:
The circuit in the figure in which resistors are
connected both in series and parallel with a series motor,
is called the shunted motor connection.

RD
ID

Figure 2.10
 0;

Figure 2.11
 This basic curve is marked RD = ∞; R = 0 in the figure.
With an increase in the value of series resistance (RD =
∞; R = 0.5 p.u.) the torque at any given speed is reduced.
A considerable reduction in the starting torque is also
observed.
A further addition in the resistance (RD = ∞; R = 1.25
p.u.) makes the curve enter deep into the fourth
quadrant.
It must be noted that these curves must be exactly
similar in nature to those obtained in the series
resistance method, since with RD = ∞, the circuit shown
in the previous method is same as this method.
 If resistances are connected both in series and parallel
with the series motor (RD = 0.5; R = 0.5 p.u.), for a given
torque, a reduction in speed, compared with the curves
for the motor connected with series resistance alone (RD
= ∞; R = 0.5 p.u.), can be observed.
This is due to the fact that for the same value of torque.
i.e., for the same value of armature current Ia, the
current drawn from the supply I1 has necessarily to be
larger in magnitude because of the presence of a shunt
resistance across the motor.
This in turn leads to a larger voltage drop across the
resistor R, thereby to a reduction in the voltage applied
across the motor terminals and hence to a reduction in
speed.
 At larger values of torque, the reduction in the applied
voltage to the motor may not be as high as to cause
significant reduction in speed.
All the characteristics obtained with different values of
RD and R tend to have infinitely large speeds at small
values of torque and therefore do not enter into the
second quadrant.
Once again, it may be seen that the corresponding
curves for operation of the motor in the reverse
direction, shown in the third quadrant, are identical
with those in the first.
A careful study of the above two conditions will
indicate that a series motor will not be build up emf as a
generator, if the armature and field circuit is simply
shunted across an external resistor.
The connections of the field with respect to the
armature have to be reversed.
The two characteristics corresponding to R = ∞, shown
in figure, have necessarily been obtained after
connecting the field in a reverse manner to that used for
the other curves in the same figure.

The salient features of the above characteristics are:

(i) Being a connection for generator operation, it is not
possible to obtain a motoring torque.
 (ii) Even, braking torque is developed only at speeds
above some minimum value.
This is due to the fact that the torque can appear only
when current flows in the machine, which in turn
requires a minimum emf to be induced and hence a
minimum speed of rotation of the machine.
The magnitude of the minimum speed becomes larger
as the resistance of the machine circuit increases, since
more emf has to be induced to overcome the voltage
drop in the machine circuit and to pass a current.
 (iii) The speed at a given value of braking torque
increases with an increase in the resistance of the
machine circuit, since the voltage drop in the circuit
increases necessitating a large induced emf to sustain
the flow of current.

The two remaining curves in the figure correspond to

the situation when the motor is disconnected from the
line, ie., R = ∞ and when the machine is functioning as a
self-excited series generator through the shunt resistor
RD.
 The motor remaining disconnected from the supply, no
emf and hence no torque can be developed at standstill
conditions of the machine and in order to develop
torque the machine must get it self induced with an emf
as a self-excited dc generator.
The following two conditions necessary for the self-
excitation of a dc machine have to be fulfilled:
(i) The total armature and filed circuit resistance must
be less than the critical value.
(ii) The field must be connected in such a way that the
field current will aid the residual magnetism and the
emf build up process takes place.
 3. Shunted armature Connection:
In this connection a resistance is placed in parallel with
the armature only.
As the value of the divertor resistance decreases, the
curves move downward as well as to the left into the
second quadrant.

Figure 2.12
Figure 2.13
 The braking torque produced by this connection is due
to the fact that the armature can now regenerate through
the divertor resistance, simultaneously drawing
excitation current form the line.
The connection that does effectively limit the no load
speed and reduce it to any desired value is the shunted
armature connection.
This field current does not tend to become zero as the
armature current tends to zero value and has a
minimum value for quadrant I operation determined by
the sum of the resistors Rf, R and RD.
 V  I f ( R f  R) V I f ( R f  R)
I f  Ia  ID  Ia   Ia  
RD RD RD
 V 
 I a  
 RD 
I f 
 ( R f  R) 
1  
 RD 
Therefore, the no load speed is limited to a desired
quantity.
This speed at which the motor torque becomes zero,
obviously occurs when the armature induced emf equals
the drop through the divertor resistance, ie., when
(V – If (Rf + R)) = E.
 When the load drives the armature of the motor at a
speed greater than its no load speed, E becomes greater
than (V – If (Rf + R)), the armature current reverses and
its effect is to increase the voltage across RD.
This results in a decrease in field current and at some
point such as the motor torque reaches a maximum
value and then decreases as the speed becomes greater.
If the load torque exceeds this maximum torque
developed by the motor the speed may then increase to
excessive values.
The characteristics corresponding to different values of
RD and R are depicted in figure 2.13. The corresponding
curves for reverse operation are also shown.
 Application of Modified Characteristics
In order to illustrate the use of various possibilities of
obtaining modified speed-torque characteristics, a
composite set of curves for a hoisting application
involving lifting and lowering heavy loads will be
considered.
The requirements of the load are that the motor and
control must be capable of raising and lowering loads
varying from no load to maximum load at low, medium
and high speeds.
A set of speed torque curves that satisfy the above
requirements are given in figure 2.14.
Figure 2.14
 Five hoisting and five lowering positions are assumed
for the hoist controller.
Hoisting direction of rotation is assumed to quadrant I
operation.
To obtain low and medium no load hoisting speeds, as
indicated by the curves H1 and H2 of figure 2.14, the
armature shunt connection (as shown in figure 2.12) is
used.
The curves H3, H4 and H5 are obtained from the
schematic circuit shown in figure 2.8 with series
resistance values of R chosen to give approximately
evenly spaced curves.
 H5 is inherent series motor speed-torque curve with R
equal to zero. From the curves shown in quadrant I, it is
seen that the hoisting requirements are satisfied.
To meet the requirements during lowering of loads, the
connection shown in figure 2.15 is used and by varying R,
R1 and R2 the different curves L1-L5 of figure 2.15 can be
obtained.
The high speed lowering position L5 is secured with R
equal to zero and R2 of such a value that the curve is
almost parallel to the curve L4.

Figure 2.15
 An inspection of these curves shows that with no load,
the empty cage can be driven down at low, medium and
high speeds as shown in quadrant III.
For the overhauling conditions in the lowering
direction, corresponding to quadrant IV operation,
heavy loads can be lowered at low, medium and high
speeds, with curves well spaced and the slopes of the
curves in each position small enough so that the speed
on a given lowering position does not change very much
from light to heavy loads.
SPEED CONTROL OF D.C. MOTORS
Factors Controlling the Speed:
D.C. machines are generally much more adaptable
to adjustable speed service.
The ready availability of D.C. motors to adjustment
of their operating speed over wide ranges and by a
variety of methods is one of the important reasons
for the strong competitive position of D.C.
machinery in modern industrial applications.
 The speed of a D.C. motor can be expressed by the
following relationship

V  I a Ra
N


Therefore, the speed of D.C. motor can be regulated by

changing ɸ, R or V, or in other words, by,
1. Field control
2. Rheostatic (armature) control
3. Voltage control.
 Field Control Method:
Field control is the most common method and forms
one of the outstanding advantages of shunt motors.
Adjustment of field current and hence the flux and
speed by adjustment of the shunt field circuit resistance
or with a solid-state control when the field is separately
excited is accomplished simply, inexpensively and
without much change in motor losses.
The speed is inversely proportional to the field current

1 1
ie. N 
If 
 The lowest speed obtainable is that corresponding to
maximum field current; the highest speed is limited
electrically by the effects of armature reaction under
weak-field conditions in causing motor instability and
poor commutation.
Since, voltage across the
motor remains constant, it
continues to deliver constant
output. This characteristic
makes this method suitable
for fixed output loads.
The performance curve of a
D.C. motor with voltage and
field control is shown in
Figure 2.16. Fig. 2.16
 The merits of this method are :
1. Good working efficiency.
2. Compact controlling equipment.
3. Capability of minute speed control.
4. The speed is not effected by load and speed control
can be performed effectively even at light loads.
5. Relatively inexpensive and simple to accomplish,
both manually and automatically.
6. Within limits, field control does not affect speed
regulation in the cases of shunt, compound, and series
motors.
 7. Provides relatively smooth and stepless control
of speed.

The demerits of field control method:

1. Inability to obtain speeds below the basic speed.
2. Instability at high speeds because of armature
reaction.
3. Commutation difficulties and possible commutator
damage at high speeds.
 Shunt Motors:
The flux of a D.C. shunt motor can be changed by changing
shunt field current (Ish) with the help of a shunt field rheostat
as shown in Fig. 2.17. Since the field current is very small, the
power wasted in the controlling resistance is very small.

In non - interpolar
machines the speed can
be increased by this
method in the ratio 2 : 1.
In machines fitted with
interpoles a ratio of
maximum to minimum
speeds of 6 : 1 is fairly
common.
Fig. 2.17
Series Motors:
In a series motor, variations of flux can be brought in
anyone of the following ways :
(i)Field divertors
(ii)Armature divertor
(iii)Tapped field control
(iv)Paralleling field coils.
 Field divertors:
A variable resistance, known
as field divertor (Fig. 2.18)
shunts the series windings.
Any desired amount of
current can be passed through
the divertor by adjusting its
resistance.
Hence, the flux can be
decreased and consequently Fig. 2.18
the speed of the motor
increased.
 Armature divertor:
In order to get speeds lower than the normal speed a
divertor across the armature can be used (Fig. 2.19).
For a given constant load torque, if Ia is reduced due to
armature divertor, then φ must increase (∵ Ta ∝ φIa).
This results in an increase
in current taken from the
supply which increases the
flux and a fall in speed (∵
N ∝ 1/φ)
The variations in speed
can be controlled by
varying the divertor Fig. 2.19
resistance.
 Tapped field control:
In this method a number of
tappings from the field winding
are brought outside, as shown in
Fig. 2.20. A number of series
field turns can be short circuited
according to the requirement.
When all field turns are in
circuit, the motor runs at lowest
speed and speed increases with
Fig. 2.20
cutting out some of the series
field urns. This method is often
employed in electric traction.
 Paralleling field coils:
In this method of speed control
several speeds can be obtained by (a)
regrouping the field coils as shown
in Fig. 2.21 (a, b, c). This method is
used for fan motors. It is seen that
for a 4-pole motor, three fixed
speeds can be obtained.

(b) (c)

Fig 2.21
 Rheostatic (armature) Control:
This method consists of obtaining reduced speeds by
the insertion of external series resistance in the
armature circuit.
It can be used with series, shunt and compound
motors; for the last two types, the series resistor must be
connected between the shunt field and the armature,
not between line and the motor.
It is common method of speed control for series motors
and is generally analogous in action to wound-rotor
induction-motor control by series rotor resistance.
This method is used when speeds below the no-load
speed is required.
Advantages:
1. The ability to achieve speeds below the basic speed.
2. Simplicity and ease of connection.
3. The possibility of combining the functions of motor
starting with speed control.
Disadvantages:
1. The relatively high cost because of large, continuously
rated, variable resistors capable of dissipating large
amounts of power (particularly at higher power ratings).
2. Poor speed regulation for any given no-load speed setting.
3. Low efficiency resulting in high operating cost.
4. Difficulty in obtaining stepless control of speed in higher
power ratings.
 Shunt motors :
In armature or rheostatic speed control method the
voltage across the armature (which in normally
constant) is varied by inserting a variable rheostat or
resistance called controller resistance, in series with the
armature circuit.

Fig 2.22 Armature resistance control for D.C. shunt motor.

 As the controller resistance is increased, the potential
difference across the armature is decreased thereby
decreasing the armature speed.
For a load of constant torque, speed is approximately
proportional to the potential difference across the
armature.

Fig 2.23. Speed-current

characteristic of D.C.
shunt motor.
 From the speed/armature current characteristic it is
seen that greater the resistance in armature, greater is
the fall in speed.
There is a particular load current for which the speed
would be zero. This is the maximum current and is
known as ‘stalling current’.
Motor stalling means that the
electric motor has more load
on it than it is designed for
and it can no longer supply
enough torque to keep it
spinning.
 This method is very wasteful, expensive and unsuitable
for rapidly changing load, because for a given value of Rt
(= Ra + R) the speed will change with load.
A more stable operation can be obtained by using a
divertor across the armature (Fig. 2.24) in addition to
armature control resistance.

Fig 2.24 Use of divertor

across the armature for
speed control of D.C.
shunt motor
 Now, the changes in armature current due to changes
in the load torque will not be so effective in changing the
potential difference across the armature and hence the
speed of the armature.
 Series motors:
Armature resistance control is the most common
method employed for D.C. series motors (Figs. 2.25 and
2.26).

Fig 2.25. Armature resistance control for D.C. series motor. Fig 2.26
 By increasing the resistance in series with the armature
the voltage applied across the armature terminals can be
decreased.
With the reduced voltage across the armature, the
speed is reduced.
Since full motor current passes through the resistance,
the loss of power is considerable.
Although terminal-voltage control by means of a
variable voltage supply would effectively control the
speed of a D.C. series motor.
 Series-parallel control:
This system is widely used in electric traction. Here
two or more similar mechanically coupled motors
are employed.

Fig. 2.26 Series-parallel control

 At low speeds the motors are joined in series as shown
in Fig. 2.26 (a).
The additional resistance is gradually cut-out by
controller as the motors attain the speed, and finally the
resistance is totally removed, then each motor has half
of line voltage.
In this arrangement, for any given value of armature
current, each motor will run at half of its normal speed.
As there is no external resistance in the circuit,
therefore there is no waste of energy and so motors
operate at an efficiency nearly equal to that obtainable
with full line voltage across the terminals of each motor.
 When the motors are connected in series and
resistance R is completely cut-out :
Voltage across each motor = V/2
Current through each motor = I
Speed ∝ (voltage/current) ∝ (V/2)/I ∝ V /2I
Torque ∝ φI ∝ I2 [Since φ ∝ I, assuming unsaturated
field]
 At high speeds the motors are joined in parallel as
shown in Fig. 2.26 (b). The variable resistance R is
gradually cut out as motors attain the speed. After the
resistance R is completely cut out each motor is
connected across the full line voltage.
When the motors are connected in parallel and
resistance R is completely cut-out:
Voltage across each motor = V
Current through each motor = I/2
Speed ∝ (voltage/current) ∝ V/(I / 2) ∝ 2V/I
Torque ∝ φI ∝ I2
T ∝ (I/2)2 ∝ I 2/4
The torque is ¼ times that produced by motors when in series
 Voltage Control Method:
When the speed is controlled by regulating the motor
terminal voltage while maintaining constant field
current, it is called voltage control.
With voltage control, the change in speed is almost
proportional to the change in voltage. as shown in Fig.
2.16.

Fig. 2.16 Torque-speed

and power speed
characteristics
 The output varies directly with speed and the torque
remains constant. Since the voltage has to be regulated
without affecting the field, the application of voltage
control is limited to separately excited motors (Fig. 2.27)
only.

Fig. 2.27 Voltage control method.

 For D.C. motors of fractional and relatively low power
rating, the variable D.C. Voltage source may be a D.C.
vacuum tube, a gas or thyratron tube, or a semi-
conductor (silicon controlled rectifier) amplifier,
operating from a three-phase or single phase A.C. supply.

Advantages:
1. Speed control over a wide range is possible.
2. This method eliminates the need for series armature
starting resistance.
3. Uniform acceleration can be obtained.
4. Speed regulation is good.
 Disadvantages:
1. Arrangement is costly as two extra machines are
required.
2. The overall efficiency of the system is low, especially
at light loads.
Applications:
In spite of the high capital cost, this method finds wide
applications in:
(i) Steel mills for reversing the rolling mills.
(ii) Seamless tube mills and shears.
(iii) High and medium speed elevators in tall buildings,
mine hoists, paper machine drives and electric shovels.
Electric rope shovels

Seamless tube mills

 Ward-Leonard System
This method of control not only gives a wide range of
operating speeds, but reduces to the very minimum the
wastage of energy that may take place at staring and
stopping.
Fig. 2.28 shows the schematic arrangement of Ward-
Leonard method.

Fig. 2.28
M = main motor whose speed is to be controlled
G = separately excited generator which feeds the
armature of the motor M
E = an exciter (a small shunt generator) which provides
field excitation to the generator G and motor M
M′ = driving motor - a constant speed motor which
drives G and E.
[If the system is to work on A.C. supply, the driving
motor M′ is a 3-phase induction motor. If the system is
to work on D.C. supply, the motor M′ is a shunt motor. In
the latter case the exciter E is not necessary because the
excitation for the generator G and motor M can be
obtained from D.C. mains. A diesel engine can also be
used in place of motor M′].
R = a potentiometer rheostat
S = a double throw switch.

The working of this system is as follows :

The motor M′ drives the generator G and exciter E at
constant speed. The voltage fed to motor M can be
controlled by varying the setting of R.
A change in voltage applied to motor M changes its
speed. The speed can be adjusted to any value from zero
to maximum in either direction by means of a rheostat R
and switch S.
 When the sliding contact of R is at extreme right, the
motor is running at full speed in one direction. To
decrease the speed the sliding contact is moved to the
left. When the sliding contact is at the extreme left
position, the speed of motor M is zero.
In order to reverse the speed of the motor, the sliding
contact is shifted to the extreme left, the switch S is
reversed and the sliding contact shifted to right again.
A modification of the Ward-Leonard system is known
as Ward-Leonard Ilgner system, which uses a small
motor-generator set with the addition of a flywheel
whose function is to reduce fluctuations in the power
demand from the supply circuit.
 When the main motor M becomes suddenly
overloaded, the driving motor M′ slows down, thus
allowing the inertia of the flywheel to supply a part of
the overload.
However, when the load is suddenly thrown off the
main motor M, then M′ speeds up thereby again storing
energy in the flywheel.
When Ilgner system is driven by means of an A.C.
motor (whether induction or synchronous) another
refinement in the form of a ‘slip regulator’ can be
usefully employed thus giving an additional control.
 One important feature of the Ward-leonard system is
its regenerative action. When a locomotive, fitted with
this system, is descending a slope, it speeds up due to the
action of gravity. The speed of motor M increases until
its back e.m.f. exceeds the applied voltage.
Motor M then runs as generator and feeds the machine
G which now works as a generator and feeds electrical
energy back into the trolley wire. This results in saving
of considerable amount of energy and a superior and
smooth braking action. Such an action is known as
regenerative braking.
 Advantages of Ward-Leonard system

1. A wide range of speed from standstill to high speeds

in either direction (10:1).
2. Rapid and instant reversal without excessively high
armature currents.
3. Starting without the necessity of series armature
resistances.
4. Stepless control from standstill to maximum speed
in either direction.
5. Larger units employing generator field reversal
eliminate the need for heavy armature conductors for
reversing.
6. The method lends itself to adaptation of intermediate
electronic, semi-conductor, and magnetic amplifiers to
provide stages of amplification for an extremely large
motor. Thus, the power in the control circuit may be
extremely small.
7. Extremely good speed regulation at any speed.
 Disadvantages

1. High initial cost.

2. Since the efficiency, neglecting the exciter efficiency,
is essentially the product of the individual efficiencies of
the two larger machines, the efficiency of this method is
not as high as rheostat speed control or the field control
method.