05-02-2022

U20EST117
BASIC ELECTRICAL AND
ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Presented by

Dr. M. Jayachandran
Dept. of EEE
SMVEC, Puducherry

UNIT-4
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES AND
APPLICATIONS
4.1 Introduction 4.4 Zener diode
• Semiconductor materials • Characteristics
• Doping • Application (Regulator)
• Intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor 4.5 Light emitting diode
4.2 PN junction Diode 4.6 Solar Panel
• Structure
• Characteristics
• Diffusion and Depletion capacitance
4.3 Applications of PN Diode
• Half-wave Rectifier
• Full-wave Rectifier

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4.1 INTRODUCTION

▪ The material whose electrical conductivity lie between those of

conductors and insulators are known as Semiconductors.
▪ Semiconductors can conduct electricity under preferable
conditions or circumstances
Examples
➢ Silicon (Si)

➢ Germanium (Ge)

➢ Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)

➢ Cadmium Sulfide (CdS)

➢ Lead Telluride etc…

Properties of Semiconductors

▪ Semiconductor acts like an insulator at Zero Kelvin. On

increasing the temperature, it works as a conductor.
▪ Due to their exceptional electrical properties, semiconductors
can be modified by doping to make semiconductor devices
suitable for energy conversion, switches and amplifiers.
▪ Lesser power losses.
▪ Smaller in size and possess less weight.
▪ The resistance of semiconductor materials decreases with the
increase in temperature and vice-versa.

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Intrinsic semiconductor:

▪ No impurities
▪ Pure semiconductor
▪ No semiconductors are truly pure but
less amount of impurity level
▪ For Silicon – Impurity level less than 1
part in 1012 parts
▪ For germanium – Impurity level less than
1 part in 108 parts

Extrinsic semiconductor:
▪ Making intrinsic semiconductor into useful also called as
impurity or extrinsic semiconductor.
▪ The process of adding impurities to a semiconductor is called
‘DOPING’.
▪ The purpose to add impurity to increase either number of free
electrons (or) holes in a semiconductor.

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Extrinsic semiconductor (N-Type):

▪ Small amount of pentavalent impurity is
added
➢ Antimony (Sb)
➢ Phosphorous (P)
➢ Arsenic (As)
➢ Bismuth (Bi)
▪ Free electrons are more than the holes.
▪ So electrons are majority carriers and
holes are minority carriers
▪ Current conduction is predominantly by
free electrons is called n-type
conductivity

Extrinsic semiconductor (P-Type):

▪ Small amount of trivalent impurities is
added
➢ Indium (In)
➢ Gallium (Ga)
➢ Boron (B)
➢ Aluminium (Al)
▪ Holes is more than free electrons.
▪ So holes are majority carrier and
electrons are minority carrier
▪ Current conduction is predominantly
by holes (+ve charge) is called p-type
conductivity

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Comparison between Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors

Intrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor

Pure semiconductor Impure semiconductor

Density of electrons is equal to Density of electrons is not equal

the density of holes to the density of holes

Electrical conductivity is low Electrical conductivity is high

Dependence on temperature Dependence on temperature as

only well as on the amount of impurity
Trivalent impurity, pentavalent
No impurities
impurity

4.2 PN JUNCTION DIODE

▪ A PN junction diode consists of a PN

Junction formed by either in Germanium
or Silicon crystal
▪ Two terminals namely Anode and Cathode

1N 4007

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Formation of Depletion Layer:

▪ The free electrons and holes near the junction in N-region and P-
region begin to diffuse across the junction and combine near the
junction to create Positive and Negative Charges.
▪ These two layers of Positive and Negative charges form the Depletion
Region (or) Depletion Layer.
▪ This region is thin compared to N and P region and behaves like
insulator.

P N

▪ Contains fixed rows of oppositely charged ions on its two sides

▪ Because of this charge separation, an Electric Potentaial (VB) is
established across the junction even before external voltage.
▪ This Electrical Potential is called Potential Barrier.

Note: The barrier potential is 0.7V for Si and 0.3V for Ge.

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Biasing the PN-Junction

▪ The term Bias in electronics refers to the use of DC voltage to
establish certain operating condition for an electronic device.
▪ A PN Junction connected to an external voltage source is called
Biased PN Junction
▪ The width of the depletion region is controlled by an external voltage
across the PN junction
▪ Resistance is controlled to control the flow of current.

Two types of biasing

1. Forward biasing
2. Reverse biasing

Biasing the PN-Junction

Forward biasing:

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▪ DC voltage positive terminal connected to the p-region and negative

to the n-region.
▪ Under this forward bias condition the applied positive potential repels
the holes in P-type region so that the holes move towards the
junction and the applied negative potential repels the electrons in N-
type region so that the electrons move towards the junction.
▪ Width of depletion region is reduced
▪ When the applied potential is more than the internal barrier potential
the depletion region and internal potential barrier disappear.
▪ A large amount of current flows through the junction under this
condition.

Forward characteristics:
▪ It is seen that the forward current
rises exponentially with the applied
forward voltage.
Knee voltage
▪ The potential barrier at the junction
completely disappears and hence,
the holes cross the junction from P
to N type and electrons cross the
junction to opposite direction,
resulting large current flow in
external circuit.
▪ The voltage at which the diode starts
conducting, is called a knee voltage
(or) cut-in voltage (or) threshold Cut-in voltage for Si=0.7 volt and Ge=0.3 volt.
voltage.

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Biasing the PN-Junction

Reverse biasing:

▪ DC voltage negative terminal connected to the p-region and positive to the

n-region.
▪ The holes from the majority carriers of the P side move towards the
negative terminal of the battery and electrons which from the majority
carrier of the N side are attracted towards the positive terminal of the
battery.
▪ Hence, the width of the depletion region which is depleted of mobile charge
carriers increases. Depletion region widens until its potential difference
equals the bias voltage, majority-carrier current ceases.
▪ Thus, the electric field produced by applied reverse bias, is in the same
direction as the electric field of the potential barrier.
▪ Hence the resultant potential barrier is increased which prevents the flow of
majority carriers in both directions. The depletion width W is proportional
to under reverse bias.

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Reverse characteristics:
▪ It is seen that as reverse voltage is
increases from zero; the reverse
current quickly rises to its maximum
or saturation value. Breakdown voltage

▪ This leakage current is due to

minority carrier in terms of μA
▪ As reverse voltage reach certain
value, avalanche breakdown occurs
and generates large current is
termed as reverse breakdown.
▪ The minimum reverse voltage at
which PN junction breaks down with
sudden rise in reverse current is Note: Majority-carrier current ceases. However, there
is still a very small current produced by minority
know as reverse breakdown voltage.

Depletion layer capacitance

▪ When P-N junction is reverse biased the depletion region act as
an insulator or as a dielectric medium and the p-type an N-type
region have low resistance and act as the plates. Thus this P-N
junction can be considered as a parallel plate capacitor. This
junction capacitance is called as transition capacitance (CT) .
▪ Since reverse bias causes the majority charge carriers to move
away from the junction, so the thickness of the depletion
region denoted as W increases with the increase in reverse bias
voltage.
The capacitance formed in
𝑑𝑄
▪ This incremental capacitance CT may be defined as 𝐶𝑇 = ,
junction area is called ‘Depletion
𝑑𝑉
where dQ is the increase in charge and dV is the change or region capacitance’ and denoted
increase in voltage. by CT
▪ The depletion region increases with the increase in reverse Space charge capacitance, (or)
bias potential the resulting transition capacitance decreases. Transition region capacitance,
𝐴𝜀 (or) Junction capacitance
The formula for transition capacitance is given as 𝐶𝑇 = ,
𝑊
where A is the cross sectional area of the region, and W is the
width.

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Diffuse capacitance
▪ When the junction is forward biased, a capacitance comes into play, that is known as diffusion
capacitance denoted as CD. It is much greater than the transition capacitance.
▪ During forward biased the potential barrier is reduced. The charge carriers moves away from the
junction and recombine.
▪ The density of the charge carriers is high near the junction and reduces or decays as the distance
increases.
▪ Thus in this case charge is stored on both side of the junction and varies with the applied
potential.
▪ So as per definition change in charge with respect to applied voltage results in capacitance which
here is called as diffusion capacitance.
𝜏𝐼𝐷
▪ The formula for diffusion capacitance is 𝐶𝐷 = , where τ is the mean life time of the charge
𝜂𝑉𝑇
carrier, ID is the diode current and VT is the applied forward voltage, and η is generation
recombination factor.
▪ The diffusion capacitance is directly proportional to the diode current.
▪ In forward biased CD >> CT . And thus CT can be neglected.
▪ Capacitance that exists in a forward biased junction is called ‘Diffusion Capacitance or Storage
Capacitance’ and denoted by CD. It arises due to arrangement of minority carrier density and
larger than Depletion region capacitance.

4.3 APPLICATIONS OF PN JUNCTION DIODE

▪ A circuit which uses one or more diodes to convert the AC Voltage

into DC Voltage.

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1. Half wave rectifier

▪ Circuit consists of a single diode in series with load resistor

▪ In the positive half cycles

when the input AC power is
given to the primary winding
of the step down transformer,
we will get the decreased
voltage at the secondary
winding which is given to the
diode.
The diode will eliminate the
▪ During positive half cycle variations in the supply and give the
terminal A is positive with pulsating DC voltage to the load
resistance RL.
respect to terminal B. So,
diode is forward biased, IL
flows through the load RL

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▪ During negative half cycle,

terminal A is more negative
than B. So, the diode
becomes reverse biased, and
diode will not conduct, no
current flow in the circuit
(IL=0).
▪ Only small amount of reverse
current is flown from the
diode but this current is
almost negligible. And voltage
across the load resistance is
also zero.

Characteristics of Half Wave Rectifier:

▪ Rectification Efficiency: The efficiency is defined as the ratio of input
AC to the output DC. η=40%
▪ Ripple factor: It is defined as the amount of AC content in the output
DC. 𝜸=1.21
▪ Peak Inverse Voltage: It is defined as the maximum voltage that a
diode can with stand in reverse bias. PIV=Vm
▪ Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF): The TUF is defined as the ratio
of DC power is delivered to the load and the AC rating of the
transformer secondary. TUF=0.287
▪ DC Output Voltage: Average or dc value of voltage across the load is
given as Vdc=Vm/𝝅

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Advantages:
▪ Simple (lower number of components)
▪ Cheaper up front cost (as their is less equipment.)
▪ Easy to construct

Disadvantages:
▪ Only allow a half-cycle through per sinewave, and the other half-cycle
is wasted. This leads to power loss.
▪ Produces a low output voltage.
▪ The output current we obtain is not purely DC, and it still contains a
lot of ripple (i.e. it has a high ripple factor)
▪ Efficiency is quite low

2. Full wave rectifier

▪ A Full wave rectifier is a circuit arrangement which makes use of both

half cycles of input alternating current (AC) and converts them to
direct current (DC).
Types of Full wave Rectifier
a) Full wave rectifier with centre tapped transformer
b) Bridge type rectifier

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a) Full wave rectifier with centre tapped transformer

▪ Two diodes are used – feed a common load RL with the help of center tapped
transformer.
▪ A Full wave rectifier is a circuit arrangement which makes use of both half
cycles of input alternating current (AC) and converts them to direct current
(DC).
▪ Full wave rectifier conducts during positive and negative half cycles of
input.

Working of Centre-Tap Full Wave Rectifier

Note:
• Load current flows in both the half cycles and in
same direction.
• The two diodes does not conduct simultaneously
• Ripple content in the output

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An AC input is applied to the primary coils of the transformer. This input makes the secondary ends A and B
become positive and negative alternately.

▪ During positive half cycle terminal A is

positive with respect to terminal B.
Diode D1 is forward biased and hence
will conduct the current, while D2 will
be reverse biased and will act as open
circuit. Load current is supplied
through D1 alone.

▪ During negative half cycle, polarity is

reversed and terminal A becomes –ve
and B becomes +ve. Therefore D2 is
forward biased and conducts the
current, while D1 does not conduct
being reverse biased. In this case,
diode D2 supplies the load current.

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Characteristics of Full Wave Rectifier:

▪ Rectification Efficiency: The efficiency is defined as the ratio of input
AC to the output DC. η=81.2%
▪ Ripple factor: It is defined as the amount of AC content in the output
DC. 𝜸=1.11
▪ Peak Inverse Voltage: It is defined as the maximum voltage that a
diode can with stand in reverse bias. PIV=2Vm
▪ Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF): The TUF is defined as the ratio
of DC power is delivered to the load and the AC rating of the
transformer secondary. TUF=0.67
▪ DC Output Voltage: Average or dc value of voltage across the load is
given as Vdc=2Vm/𝝅

Advantages:
▪ DC output voltage and current are twice than those of half wave
rectifier
▪ Efficiency is twice (81.2%) that of half wave rectifier (40.6 %)

Disadvantages:
▪ The output voltage is half of the secondary voltage
▪ PIV of diode is twice that of diode used in half wave rectifier
▪ Cost of center tapped transformer is higher

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b) Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

▪ Bridge Rectifier is a Full wave rectifier circuit using four diodes

▪ The main advantage of this circuit is that it does not require center
tapped transformer

Working of Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

Note:
• Load current flows in both the half cycles and in
same direction.
• The two diodes does not conduct simultaneously
• Ripple content in the output

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An AC input is applied to the primary coils of the transformer. This input makes the secondary ends A and B
become positive and negative alternately.

▪ During positive half cycle, point A

of the secondary becomes positive.
D1 and D2 will be forward biased
while D3 and D4 are reverse biased.
The two diodes D1 and D2 conduct
in series with the load and load
current flows.
▪ During negative half cycle, point B
of the secondary becomes positive.
D3 and D4 will be forward biased
while D1 and D2 are reverse biased.
The two diodes D3 and D4 conduct
in series with the load and load
current flows.

Characteristics of Full Wave Bridge Rectifier:

▪ Rectification Efficiency: The efficiency is defined as the ratio of input
AC to the output DC. η=81.2%
▪ Ripple factor: It is defined as the amount of AC content in the output
DC. 𝜸=0.48
▪ Peak Inverse Voltage: It is defined as the maximum voltage that a
diode can with stand in reverse bias. PIV=Vm
▪ Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF): The TUF is defined as the ratio
of DC power is delivered to the load and the AC rating of the
transformer secondary. TUF=0.81
▪ DC Output Voltage: Average or dc value of voltage across the load is
given as Vdc=2Vm/𝝅

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Advantages:
▪ Need for centre tapped transformer is eliminated.
▪ The output is twice that of the centretap circuit for the same
secondary voltage.
▪ PIV is one half that of the centre tap circuit.

Disadvantages:
▪ It requires four diodes, power loss will be higher.

4.4 ZENER DIODE

▪ Zener diode, junction formed by combining highly
doped PN semiconductors.
▪ Heavily doped semiconductor devices so its
depletion part has less area.
▪ It works on the principle of Zener breakdown and
is operated in reverse breakdown region.
▪ In reverse breakdown region high current flow
through the diode leading to high power
dissipation. It is also called as Voltage reference
diode, Voltage regulator diode, or Breakdown
diode.
Note:
PN junction diode does not operate in the reverse biased condition but Zener diodes are specially
manufactured for reverse-biased operation.

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Zener effect:
▪ When the voltage across its terminals
is reversed and the potential reaches
the Zener Voltage (knee voltage), the
junction will break down and the
current flows in the reverse
direction.
▪ This effect is known as the Zener
Effect.

Break down mechanism:

▪ The following two processes cause
junction breakdown due to the
increase in reverse bias voltage,
➢ Zener Breakdown
➢ Avalanche Breakdown

Zener Diode Operation:

▪ Operates like normal diode in forward
bias. But in reverse bias, as the reverse
voltage (VR) is increased, the reverse
current (IR) remains extremely small up
to the “knee” of the curve. The reverse
current is also called the zener current
(IZ).
▪ At this point, the breakdown effect
begins; the internal zener resistance (or)
zener impedance (ZZ), begins to decrease
as the reverse current increases rapidly.
▪ From the bottom of the knee, the zener
breakdown voltage (VZ) remains
essentially constant although it
increases slightly as IZ, increases.
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Zener Breakdown:
▪ This type of break-down appears in the high doping
diode like Zener, as this diode has less depletion
area due to higher doping.
▪ When the voltage provided to the diode increases, in
thin depletion area highly effective electrical field
established.
▪ When the reversed polarity voltage almost equals
the Zener voltage, the electric field in depletion
portion is such strong that it pulls out the electrons
from their valance shells.
▪ The outermost shell electron that gets enough
power from the field will break out from the effect of
the mother atom and will move freely.
▪ Due to the free drift of this election, the reverse
current will flow in the diode.
▪ The less increment in the voltage will cause to move
current very fastly at the Zener breakdown portion.

Avalanche Breakdown:
▪ This type of break-down not only exits in the
Zener diode but also in the general diode due
to higher voltage in reversed biased
conditions.
▪ When the diode is in the reversed biased
condition the minority charge carriers get
larger energy from the source and move
fastly.
▪ The high-speed charge carriers collide with
the other particles and remove more
electrons from the atom.
▪ Due to the larger quantity of electrons, the
backwards current will flow from cathode to
anode, in some condition the general diode
can be damaged.

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Difference between Zener and Avalanche breakdown:

Zener Breakdown Avalanche Breakdown
• Zener break-down occurs only in the • This type of break-down not only exits
Zener diode (high doping diodes) as they in the Zener diode but also in the
have less area of depletion portion due general diode (low doping diodes) due to
to less value of revered biased voltage. higher reversed biased voltage.
• It is observed in Zener diodes having Vz • The avalanche breakdown is observed in
5 to 8 volts. the Zener Diodes having Vz greater than
• The breakdown occurs within the 8 V.
depletion region. • The breakdown occurs outside the
• The valence electrons are pulled into depletion region.
conduction due to very intense electric • The valence electrons are pushed into
field appearing across the narrow conduction band due to the energy
depletion region. imparted by colliding accelerated
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minority carriers.

Advantages:
▪ Small in size, so used in smaller circuits, less expensive
▪ Can be used as controlling, regulating and stabilizing the voltage in
circuit
▪ Compatibility with other device, so used for regulating voltage

Applications:
▪ Used in Voltage Stabilizers (or) Voltage Regulators
▪ Used in Over voltage protection circuits
▪ Used in switching applications.

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Zener diode as a Voltage Regulator:

▪ A device that regulates the voltage level.
▪ It essentially steps down the input voltage to the desired level
and keeps it in that same level during the supply. This ensures
that even when a load is applied the voltage doesn’t drop.
▪ The voltage regulator is used for two main reasons and they are:
➢ To vary or regulate the output voltage
➢ To keep the output voltage constant at the desired value in spite of
variations in the supply voltage.

▪ Voltage regulators are used in computers, power generators,

alternators to control the output of the plant

▪ Zener is connected in parallel or shunt

with load, therefore also called as
shunt regulator.

▪ Regulation with varying input voltage

(Vin is variable & RL is fixed)

▪ Regulation with varying load resistance

(Vin is fixed & RL is variable)

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4.5 LIGHT EMITTING DIODE

▪ A Light Emitting Diode (LED) is a special type of PN junction diode.
▪ The light emitting diode is specially doped and made of a special type of
semiconductor.
▪ This diode can emit light when it is in the forward biased state.
▪ Older LED technologies used gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP), gallium
phosphide (GaP), and aluminum gallium arsenide (AlGaAs). Aluminum indium
gallium phosphide (AlInGaP) and indium gallium nitride (InGaN) are two of
the most commonly used semiconductors for LED technologies.
▪ LEDs generate visible radiation by electroluminescence phenomenon when a
low-voltage direct current is applied to a suitably doped crystal containing a
p-n junction.
Note: For LEDs, Si and Ge are not used as their forbidden gaps don't allow light emission in the
visible spectrum. Thus LEDs are made up of GaAs, GaP, etc

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Working of LED:
▪ The doping is typically carried out
with elements from column III and V
of the periodic table.
▪ When a forward biased current (IF),
energizes the p-n junction, it emits
light at a wavelength ( 𝝀) under the
influence of an electric field, defined
by the active region energy gap, Eg.

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▪ When the forward biased current (IF) is applied through the p-n junction of the
diode, electrons in N region are injected into the p-region.
▪ Photon emission occurs due to electron-hole recombination in the p-region.
▪ Electron energy transitions across the energy gap, called radiative
recombinations, produce photons (i.e., light), while shunt energy transitions,
called non-radiative recombinations, produce phonons (i.e., heat).
▪ The luminous efficacies of typical AlInGaP LEDs and InGaN LEDs for different
peak wavelengths are shown in the table below

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▪ The color of an LED device is expressed in terms of the dominant wavelength

emitted, λd (in nm).
▪ AlInGaP LEDs produce the colors red (626 to 630 nm), red-orange (615 to 621
nm), orange (605 nm), and amber (590 to 592 nm). InGaN LEDs produce the
colors green (525 nm), blue green (498 to 505 nm), and blue (470 nm).
▪ The color and forward voltage of AlInGaP LEDs depend on the temperature of
the LED p-n junction. As the temperature of the LED p-n junction increases, the
luminous intensity decreases, the dominant wavelength shifts towards longer
wavelengths, and the forward voltage drops.
▪ The variation in luminous intensity of InGaN LEDs with operating ambient
temperature is small (about 10%) from − 20°C to 80°C. However, the dominant
wavelength of InGaN LEDs does vary with LED drive current; as the LED drive
current increases, dominant wavelength moves toward shorter wavelengths.

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▪ Luminous efficacy of LED is defined as the emitted luminous flux (in lm) per
unit electrical power consumed (in W).
➢ Blue LEDs have a rated internal efficacy in the order of 75 lm/W;
➢ Red LEDs, approximately 155 lm/W; and
➢ Amber LEDs, 500 lm/W.
▪ Taking into consideration losses due to internal re-absorption, the luminous
efficacy is on the order of 20 to 25 lm/W for amber and green LEDs.
▪ This definition of efficacy is called external efficacy and is analogous to the
definition of efficacy typically used for other light source types.

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Advantages:
▪ Very low voltage (1-2 volts) and current (5-20mA) are enough to drive the
LED.
▪ Total power output will be less than 150 mill watts.
▪ The response time is very less – only about 10 nanoseconds.
▪ Available in different spectral colors.
▪ It has longer life span (more than 20 years) compared to lamps.
▪ Small in size and hence light weight.
▪ It can be easily integrate with other electronic circuits.
▪ Operating speed is high (take 1µs to turn ON or OFF).
Disadvantages:
▪ Output power and waveleng ae affected by changes in temperature.
▪ Luminous efficiency of LED is low.
▪ LED gets easily damaged due to overcurrent.
Applications of LED:
▪ Signals, Indicators, Signs, Displays, Indoor lighting, Road lighting applications.

4.6 SOLAR PANEL

▪ A solar cell (also known as a photovoltaic cell or PV cell) is defined as an
electrical device that converts light energy into electrical energy through the
photovoltaic effect.
▪ A solar cell is basically a p-n junction diode.
▪ Solar cells are a form of photoelectric cell, defined as a device whose
electrical characteristics – such as current, voltage, or resistance – vary when
exposed to light.
▪ Individual solar cells can be combined to form modules commonly known as
solar panels.
▪ The common single junction silicon solar cell can produce a maximum open-
circuit voltage of approximately 0.5 to 0.6 volts. By itself this isn’t much –
but remember these solar cells are tiny. When combined into a large solar
panel, considerable amounts of renewable energy can be generated.

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1.Silicon.
2.GaAs.
3.CdTe.
4.CuInSe2

1.Must have band gap from 1ev to 1.8ev.

2.It must have high optical absorption.
3.It must have high electrical conductivity.
4.The raw material must be available in abundance
and the cost of the material must be low.
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▪ Photovoltaic effect: When sunlight hits the solar panel, generation of charge
carriers (electrons and holes) in a light absorbing material and separation
charge carriers to conductive contact, that will transmit electricity.

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Working principle of Solar cell:

▪ When light reaches the p-n junction, the light photons can easily enter in the junction,
through very thin p-type layer. The light energy, in the form of photons, supplies
sufficient energy to the junction to create a number of electron-hole pairs.
▪ The incident light breaks the thermal equilibrium condition of the junction.
▪ The free electrons in the depletion region can quickly come to the n-type side of the
junction. Similarly, the holes in the depletion can quickly come to the p-type side of
the junction. Once, the newly created free electrons come to the n-type side, cannot
further cross the junction because of barrier potential of the junction.
▪ Similarly, the newly created holes once come to the p-type side cannot further cross the
junction became of same barrier potential of the junction. As the concentration of
electrons becomes higher in one side, i.e. n-type side of the junction and concentration
of holes becomes more in another side, i.e. the p-type side of the junction.
▪ The p-n junction will behave like a small battery cell. A voltage is set up which is
known as photo voltage. If we connect a small load across the junction, there will be a
tiny current flowing through it
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V-I Characteristics of a Photovoltaic Cell:

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Advantages:
▪ It is a renewable energy.
▪ It is clean and non-polluting.
▪ They have long time.
▪ They require less maintenance.
Disadvantages:
▪ Expensive and less efficient
▪ They require large area of land to generate power in large-scale.
▪ They cannot generate power consistently, due to intermittent nature
of sun.
Applications:
▪ Clean power generation.

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