Model

A model is an informative representation of an object, person, or

system. The term originally denoted the plans of a building in late
16th-century English, and derived via French and Italian
ultimately from Latin modulus, a measure.[1]

Models can be divided into physical models (e.g. a ship model or a

fashion model) and abstract models (e.g. a set of mathematical
equations describing the workings of the atmosphere for the
purpose of weather forecasting). Abstract or conceptual models
are central to philosophy of science.[2][3]

In scholarly research and applied science, a model should not be Model of a molecule, with coloured
confused with a theory: while a model seeks only to represent balls representing different atoms
reality with the purpose of better understanding or predicting the
world, a theory is more ambitious in that it claims to be an
explanation of reality.[4]

Model in specific contexts

As a noun, model has specific meanings in certain fields, derived from its original meaning of
"structural design or layout":

Model (art), a person posing for an artist, e.g. a 15th-century criminal representing the biblical
Judas in Leonardo da Vinci's painting The Last Supper
Model (person), a person who serves as a template for others to copy, as in a role model, often in
the context of advertising commercial products; e.g. the first fashion model, Marie Vernet Worth in
1853, wife of designer Charles Frederick Worth.[5][6]

Model (product), a particular design of a product as displayed in a catalogue or show room (e.g.
Ford Model T, an early car model)
Model (organism) a non-human species that is studied to understand biological phenomena in
other organisms, e.g. a guinea pig starved of vitamin C to study scurvy, an experiment that would
be immoral to conduct on a person
Model (mimicry), a species that is mimicked by another species
Model (logic), a structure (a set of items, such as natural numbers 1, 2, 3,..., along with
mathematical operations such as addition and multiplication, and relations, such as ) that
satisfies a given system of axioms (basic truisms), i.e. that satisfies the statements of a given
theory[7]
Model (CGI), a mathematical representation of any surface of an object in three dimensions via
specialized software
 Model (MVC), the information-representing internal component of a software, as distinct from its
user interface

Physical model
A physical model (most commonly referred to simply as a model
but in this context distinguished from a conceptual model) is a
smaller or larger physical representation of an object, person or
system. The object being modelled may be small (e.g., an atom) or
large (e.g., the Solar System) or life-size (e.g., a fashion model
displaying clothes for similarly-built potential customers).

The geometry of the model and the object it represents are often
similar in the sense that one is a rescaling of the other. However,
Part of the one-ninth scale model of
in many cases the similarity is only approximate or even
Bourton-on-the-Water at Bourton-
intentionally distorted. Sometimes the distortion is systematic, on-the-Water, Gloucestershire,
e.g., a fixed scale horizontally and a larger fixed scale vertically England
when modelling topography to enhance a region's mountains.

An architectural model permits visualization of internal relationships within the structure or external
relationships of the structure to the environment. Another use is as a toy.

Instrumented physical models are an effective way of investigating fluid flows for engineering design.
Physical models are often coupled with computational fluid dynamics models to optimize the design
of equipment and processes. This includes external flow such as around buildings, vehicles, people, or
hydraulic structures. Wind tunnel and water tunnel testing is often used for these design efforts.
Instrumented physical models can also examine internal flows, for the design of ductwork systems,
pollution control equipment, food processing machines, and mixing vessels. Transparent flow models
are used in this case to observe the detailed flow phenomenon. These models are scaled in terms of
both geometry and important forces, for example, using Froude number or Reynolds number scaling
(see Similitude). In the pre-computer era, the UK economy was modelled with the hydraulic model
MONIAC, to predict for example the effect of tax rises on employment.
 Water-powered Female model Model of a war scene Guinea pig used as
model of the UK demonstrating — Australian War animal model for
economy – MONIAC brassiere for Memorial, Canberra studying human
in the Science similarly-built leptospirosis
Museum, London potential buyers

NASA wind tunnel

with the scale model
of an aeroplane

Conceptual model
A conceptual model is a theoretical representation of a
system, e.g. a set of mathematical equations
attempting to describe the workings of the atmosphere
for the purpose of weather forecasting.[8] It consists of
concepts used to help understand or simulate a subject
the model represents.

Abstract or conceptual models are central to

philosophy of science,[2][3] as almost every scientific
theory effectively embeds some kind of model of the
physical or human sphere. In some sense, a physical
model "is always the reification of some conceptual
model; the conceptual model is conceived ahead as the
blueprint of the physical one", which is then
Weather models use differential equations based
on the laws of physics, and a coordinate system
which divides the planet into a 3D grid.
constructed as conceived.[9] Thus, the term refers to models that are formed after a conceptualization
or generalization process.[2][3]

Examples
Conceptual model (computer science), an agreed representation of entities and their
relationships, to assist in developing software
Economic model, a theoretical construct representing economic processes
Language model a probabilistic model of a natural language, used for speech recognition,
language generation, and information retrieval
Large language models are artificial neural networks used for generative artificial intelligence
(AI), e.g. ChatGPT
Mathematical model, a description of a system using mathematical concepts and language
Statistical model, a mathematical model that usually specifies the relationship between one or
more random variables and other non-random variables
Model (CGI), a mathematical representation of any surface of an object in three dimensions
via specialized software
Medical model, a proposed "set of procedures in which all doctors are trained"
Mental model, in psychology, an internal representation of external reality
Model (logic), a set along with a collection of finitary operations, and relations that are defined on
it, satisfying a given collection of axioms
Model (MVC), information-representing component of a software, distinct from the user interface
(the "view"), both linked by the "controller" component, in the context of the model–view–controller
software design
Model act, a law drafted centrally to be disseminated and proposed for enactment in multiple
independent legislatures
Standard model (disambiguation)

Properties of models, according to general model theory

According to Herbert Stachowiak, a model is characterized by at least three properties:[10]

1. Mapping
A model always is a model of something—it is an image or representation of some natural or
artificial, existing or imagined original,[11] where this original itself could be a model.
2. Reduction
In general, a model will not include all attributes that describe the original but only those that
appear relevant to the model's creator or user.
3. Pragmatism
A model does not relate unambiguously to its original. It is intended to work as a replacement for
the original
a) for certain subjects (for whom?)
b) within a certain time range (when?)
c) restricted to certain conceptual or physical actions (what for?).
For example, a street map is a model of the actual streets in a city (mapping), showing the course of
the streets while leaving out, say, traffic signs and road markings (reduction), made for pedestrians
and vehicle drivers for the purpose of finding one's way in the city (pragmatism).

Additional properties have been proposed, like extension and distortion[12] as well as validity.[13] The
American philosopher Michael Weisberg differentiates between concrete and mathematical models
and proposes computer simulations (computational models) as their own class of models.[14]

See also
Conceptual framework
Metamodeling
Model aircraft
Model car
Model house
Model railway
Model rocket
Rail transport modelling
Scale model
Scientific model

References
1. Oxford English Dictionary (https://doi.org/10.1093/OED/3984201854), Oxford University Press,
doi:10.1093/OED/3984201854 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2FOED%2F3984201854), retrieved
1 July 2023
2. Merriam-Webster, Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (http://unabridged.merriam-webster.co
m/collegiate/), Merriam-Webster.
3. Tatomir, A.; et al. (2018). "Conceptual model development using a generic Features, Events, and
Processes (FEP) database for assessing the potential impact of hydraulic fracturing on
groundwater aquifers" (https://doi.org/10.5194%2Fadgeo-45-185-2018). Advances in
Geosciences. 45: 185–192. Bibcode:2018AdG....45..185T (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/201
8AdG....45..185T). doi:10.5194/adgeo-45-185-2018 (https://doi.org/10.5194%2Fadgeo-45-185-20
18). hdl:20.500.11820/b83437b4-6791-4c4c-8f45-744a116c6ead (https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11
820%2Fb83437b4-6791-4c4c-8f45-744a116c6ead).
4. Wunsch, G. (1994). "Theories, models, and data". Demografie. 36 (1): 20–29. PMID 12346076 (ht
tps://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12346076).
5. "modelworker.com" (https://web.archive.org/web/20071017020950/http://www.modelworker.com/hi
story.html). Archived from the original (http://www.modelworker.com/history.html) on 2007-10-17.
6. Walker, Harriet (4 May 2009). "Fabulous faces of fashion: A century of modelling" (https://web.arch
ive.org/web/20110528025946/http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/fashion/features/fabulous-fa
ces-of-fashion-a--century-of-modelling-1678417.html). The Independent. Archived from the
original (https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/fashion/features/fabulous-faces-of-fashion-a--cen
tury-of-modelling-1678417.html) on 2011-05-28. Retrieved 2017-09-05.
7. Chang and Keisler, p. 1 (https://books.google.com/books?id=uiHq0EmaFp0C&pg=PA1)
8. Forecast models (https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/services/government/defence-and-security/model
s), Met Office.
 9. Ibrahim A. Halloun, Modeling Theory in Science Education (2007), p. 36.
10. Herbert Stachowiak: Allgemeine Modelltheorie, 1973, S. 131–133.
11. "TRICK: An Easy Acronym to Conceptualize Digital Twin" (https://www.automation.com/en-us/artic
les/february-2024/trick-easy-acronym-conceptualize-digital-twin?listname=Automation%20&%20C
ontrol%20News%20&%20Articles#authorInfo). automation.com. Retrieved 2024-11-05.
12. Thalheim: Towards a Theory of Conceptual Modelling. In: Journal of Universal Computer Science,
vol. 16, 2010, no. 20, S. 3120
13. Dietrich Dörner: Thought and Design – Research Strategies, Single-case Approach and Methods
of Validation. In: E. Frankenberger et al. (eds.): Designers. The Key to Successful Product
Development. Springer-Verlag, Berlin et al. 1998, S. 3–11.
14. M. Weisberg: Simulation and Similarity - using models to understand the world. Oxford University
Press, New York 2013

External links
Media related to Physical models at Wikimedia Commons

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