LECTURE NOTES ON GENERAL SCIENCE

LECTURER – ANTHONY F. ADJIVON

COURSE TITLE – GENERAL SCIENCE
COURSE CODE – SCI 101 SEMESTER HOUR: 3 HOURS
LEVEL OF COURSE: 100 SEMESTER: FIRST SESSION: 2022- 2023

THIS MODULE CONTAINS FIVE (5) UNITS

Definition: Science the intellectual and practical activity encompassing the systematic study of the
structure and behaviour of the physical and natural world through observation and experiment.
Natural Sciences are a group of disciplines that study the physical world and all the phenomena in
nature. Natural Sciences have two main branches: Physical Sciences, like Chemistry, Physics, Mathematics
and Biological Sciences, like Biology,
PHYSICS ASPECT - UNIT 1
NATURE AND CHARACTER OF SCIENCE
Learning Objectives.
After studying this unit, you should be able to explain
1. what is Physics and what it studies.
2. why we need to study physics.

SCIENCE IN TODAY’S WORLD

What is physics? Physics is a branch of pure science together with Biology and Chemistry.
It is an incredibly rich discipline, which provides us not only with the basic understanding of the lanes of nature
but it is the basics of most of modern high technology.

Like other sciences, physics starts with observation in the world around us or from laboratory experiments
designed to obtain facts. The investigation of electricity for example, started when it was noticed that amber
(a glass like fossil) attracts small light objects, when it is rubbed with a cloth.
Why do we need to study physics? Physics is one of the most fundamental of the sciences. Scientists from
all disciplines make use of the ideas of physics. Physics is also the foundation of all engineering and
technology. No engineer could design any kind of practical device without first understanding the basic
principles involved. To design a car or even a mouse trap, one must understand the basic laws of physics.
Studying physics is also an adventure. It is sometimes frustrating, occasionally painful, and often richly
rewarding and satisfying. Presently, our study of physics is based on the foundations built by great scientists
such as Galileo, Newton, Maxwell and Einstein. Do you know that Einstein was a refugee?

The study of physics can

1. Promote a knowledge and understanding of the world around us, making it a more interesting place.
Encourage an appreciation of the importance of physics and its applications in technology and perhaps enable
us to use our discoveries and inventions more effectively.
2. Create an awareness of the social, economic and environmental implications of science and hopefully help
us to make well informed judgements on such matters such as nuclear power, the impact of computers on
employment and
3. Be a source of enjoyment, satisfaction and intellectual stimulation.

Concepts of physics
To help make sense of the facts of physics and explain the behaviour of the physical world, physicists invent
terms called concepts. These concern quantities that can be measured. Some such as length are very basic and
easily measured while others, like electric current and potential difference or voltage in electricity are less
concrete and require more sophisticated measuring instruments.
 UNIT 2
MEASUREMENTS
Learning Objectives: After this unit, students will know and should be able to
➢ Explain the need for measurements
➢ Recognize SI units and their importance for measurement
➢ Identify the instruments used for measuring length, mass and time
➢ Distinguish between accuracy, precision and error.
➢ Define the term “motion” and list the types of motion giving examples
➢ State Newton’s Laws of motion
➢ Define the terms: speed, velocity and acceleration
➢ List the equations of motion with uniform acceleration

MEASUREMENT AND CONCEPTS OF SCIENCE

Scientists use exact measurements that can be reproduced. Weights and measures were among the earliest
tools invented. This was extremely important in order to bring fairness into buying and selling. The people of
earlier times measured the lengths of objects by a “rule of thumb.” What was later called an inch was in those
times the width of a man’s thumb! The old foot rule measure started out as the length of a man’s foot as was
with the then King of England. King Henry I of England, in about A.D 1120, defined a yard as the distance
from the tip of his nose to the end of his thumb when his arm was held level. In the fourteenth century, King
Edward II defined the inch as the length of three dry barleycorns, laid end to end. Can you suggest a reason
why such standards are not suitable?

Every field of science involves taking measurements, understanding them, and communicating them to others.
In other words, we all have to speak the same basic language. Whether you are a chemist, a physicist, a
biologist, an engineer, a medical doctor or even a social scientist, you need a consistent way of communicating
size, mass, shape, temperature, time, amount, energy, power, and speed.

The International System of Units (abbreviated SI, from the French Système international d’unités) is the
metric system used in science, industry, and medicine. Depending on your age and geographic location, you
might be very familiar with the “imperial” system, which includes units such as gallons, feet, miles, and
pounds. The imperial system is used for “everyday” measurements in a few places, such as the United States.
But in most of the world (including Europe) and in all scientific circles, the SI system is in common use. In
1791, the metric system of measurement was developed in France. This was an entirely new set of standards,
which Congress made legal in the United States in 1866. In 1960, a comprehensive system of measurements
was adopted by a General Conference on Weights and Measurements. This system is now called the Système
international d’unités Systeme (SI) or metric system is used by scientists all over the world. Every field of
science involves taking measurements, understanding them, and communicating them to others.

In SI Units there are (7) fundamental physical quantities and units. They are represented in the table below.

S/N NAME OF PHYSICAL QUANTITY NAME OF UNIT SYMBOL

1 Length Metre m
2 Mass Kilogram kg
3 Electric Current Ampere A
4 Time Second s
5 Temperature Kelvin K
6 Luminous Intensity Candela cd
7 Amount of substance Mole mol

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All other units are described as derived units. Some examples are given in the table below.
Quantity SI Unit Symbol Expressed in terms of SI units
-2
Force Newton N 1N = 1 kgms
Work, heat and energy Joule J 1 J= 1 Nm
Power Watt W 1 W = 1 Js-1
Quantity of electricity Coulomb C 1 C = 1 As
Electric potential (voltage) Volt V 1 V = 1 WA-1
Electric resistance Ohm Ω 1 Ω = 1 VA-1
Frequency Hertz Hz 1 Hz = 1s-1
3 3
Density kilogram/ metre kg/m
Electric charge Coulomb C 1 C = 1s⋅A

Numbers in SI units can be written in multiples and sub- multiples in base ten or the decimal system. There
are 20 accepted prefixes. Some examples of the preferred SI prefixes are given below. Note that they are in
multiples of 1000 or 103

Name of prefix Symbol Meaning

Peta P × 1015
Tera T × 1012
Giga G × 109
Mega M × 106
Kilo k × 103
Milli m × 10-3
Micro μ × 10-6
Nano n × 10-9
Pico p × 10-12
Femto f × 10-15
It can be seen that the prefix “centi” is not a preferred SI prefix but it is sometimes used because of convenience.

Measurement of Time, Length, and Mass

1) Time: - All events which happen in Nature involve the idea of time. It is measured by a chronometer eg.
clock, watch, stopwatch or stop clock. Quartz and electronic digital clocks and watches give a high degree of
accuracy. There are also non contacinfrared thermometer that became popular diring the COVID 19 pandemic.
Time is measured in seconds. There is an exact definition for a second, but this is beyond the scope of our
study.

2) Length:-
Length is measured in metres. The basic unit of length in the metric system is the metre.
A metre is about the length of an ordinary broom handle. Scientists have defined the metre exactly, and
this definition has been agreed upon by the countries of the world. Large distances are measured by means of
tapes, graduated in metres. Shorter distances by a metre rule or callipers.

These measure to the nearest 0.1cm. Smaller lengths (diameter of a rod, thickness of a plate) are measured

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using Vernier Calipers with an accuracy of 0.01cm.

The diameter of a small ball or wire or thickness of paper is better measured using a micrometer screw
guage.

This measures to an accuracy of 0.001cm.

Curved lines are measured with opisometers

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and the radius of a spherical surface such as a curved mirror or egg shell is measured with a spherometer.
Rulers- Rulers are the most often used length measurement tool that we find in offices, schools, and home. It
can measure objects up to 30 centimeters with sufficient precision of 1 millimetre.
The laser measure – This is a linear measurement tool that is by means of not touching the object
physically; not like a tape measure that needs to stick out the blade onto the surface of something being
measured. Its high precision, speed, and simplicity are exceptional features that laser measure has. It is used
extensively in sports to measure field events and is even more more important during the present COVID-19
pandemic to measure lengths without touching the object.
Wheel measure or hodometer - Surveyors use it to measure the distance of two separated points on open
land.
3) Mass: - The mass of a body is a measure of the quantity of matter it contains. It is measured usually by
using a balance. There are different types of balances such as the chemical balance, lever balance, direct
reading balance, dial spring balance and the beam balance. These are delicate instruments and should be
handled with care. They give an accuracy of between 0.001grams and 1 gram depending on their sensitivity.

OTHER MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

i. Electrical current – Ammeter
ii. Electric potential (Potential difference) – Voltmeter
iii. Temperature – Thermometer

Weight: - Weight is a measure of force. It is a measure of the pull between the earth and an object. It is
measured in Newtons. W=mg. The weight of an object depends on two things.
1) The distance of the object above the surface of the earth. The higher the object is above the earth, the
less the force of gravitational attraction and
2) The amount of matter in the object.
It is measured using a spring balance and a spring scale.
Physical quantities are classified into two main types: Scalar and Vector.
Scalar:-A scalar quantity has only magnitude (size) e.g. time, temperature, speed, pressure, density,
volume, distance, energy, work, power. The unit of measurement must also be given.
Vector:-A vector quantity has both magnitude and direction. e.g. velocity, acceleration, force, momentum,
impulse, weight and displacement. The unit of measurement must also be included.

Accuracy and precision: Accuracy and precision are used in context of measurement.
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Accuracy is how close a measurement is to the true, correct or absolute value for that measurement, while the
precision of a measurement system is refers to how close the agreement is between repeated measurements
(which are repeated under the same conditions
Measurements can be both accurate and precise, accurate but not precise, precise but not accurate, or neither.
In other words, the precision of an experiment, object, or value is a measure of the reliability and
consistency. The accuracy of an experiment, object, or value is a measurement of how closely results agree
with the true or accepted value. Both accuracy and precision are terms used in the fields of science,
engineering, and statistics. A good measuring instrument must have both accuracy and precision. Both of
them are about the quality of the measurement. We have to understand the difference between them.
Accuracy is about close to the real value, while precision is about close to the first value no matter it’s near
or far from the real value.
Error: All measurements are subject to error, which contributes to the uncertainty of the result. Errors can
be classified as human error or blunder or technical error. A blunder, is an outright mistake. A person may
record a wrong value, misread a scale, forget a digit when reading a scale or recording a measurement, or
make a similar blunder. These blunder should stick out like sore thumbs if we make multiple measurements
or if one person checks the work of another. Blunders should not be included in the analysis of data. Perhaps
you are transferring a small volume from one tube to another and you don’t quite get the full amount into the
second tube because you spilled it: this is human error. Technical error can be broken down into two
categories: random error and systematic error. Random error, as the name implies, occur periodically, with
no recognizable pattern. Random errors are positive and negative fluctuations that cause about one-half of
the measurements to be too high and one-half to be too low. Sources of random errors cannot always be
identified. Systematic Errors are due to identified causes and can, in principle, be eliminated. Errors of this
type result in measured values that are consistently too high or consistently too low. Systematic errors may
be of four kinds:
1. Instrumental.
2. Observational.
3. Environmental.
4. Theoretical.
MOTION
Motion involves a change of position of a body.
We usually say that a force is a push or a pull. If it is so, then a force can:
1. Cause an object to start moving or to move faster
2. Cause a moving object to change direction
3. Cause an object to slow down or to stop moving
4. Change the shape of an object
While these actions occur, time marches on. Rate describes these events by how fast or how slowly they
happen.
Rate is a general term. It is defined by using time as one of the factors. Rates usually measure how fast or how
slowly often something happen.
We will only consider the following rates: speed, velocity, acceleration and power.
There are four types of motion
1. Random Motion: This motion does not follow any definite pattern. It is completely erratic and it is
impossible to predict the position at one instant from the position at a previous instant. A butterfly might
exhibit this type of motion if several of them are sucking nectar from a limited number of flowers. Random
motion is more commonly observed at molecular level. Some physical properties of matter can be
explained by assuming that certain particles undergo random motion. This assumption is used in the Kinetic
Theory of gases.
2. Rotational motion: It is the motion of a body in circular path about some point fixed in the body or fixed
in a space, e.g. a bicycle wheel turning about its axis or the second hand of a clock rotating about its pivot.
Another example is the motion of the blades of a ceiling fan. Also called circular motion.

3. Oscillatory motion: This is when a body moves to and fro about a given point just like a simple pendulum
motion or a vertical loaded spring when displaced. Other examples include plucked guitar string and a
drum, which has been struck. This can also be called simple harmonic motion (SHM) or vibration motion.
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4. Translational motion: This is a movement along a continuous path away from the starting position such
that all parts of it undergo the same type of motion, e.g. motor car moving along the road and an athlete
running a 100-metre race or moving from our homes to the class.
Motion in a straight line. This is a form of translational motion
When describing motion in a straight line four parameters are required –
time (t), speed or velocity (v), acceleration(a) and distance or displacement(s)
Speed is defined as the rate of change of distance with time.
Speed = distance travelled, m/s
Time taken
The SI units are metres/second (ms-1). But at times km/h is also used for convenience. Not all speeds are the
same. A snail moves at 0.001 m/s, a paving machine spreading asphalt (tar) as our roads are being resurfaced
moves at about 0.025 m/s. Human beings normally walk at about 1 m/s to 2m/s but a car moving down our
roads is limited to 60 km/h (17 m/s) . Imagine, an orbiting communication satellite moves at 3000m/s and light
travels in a vacuum at 300000000 m/s. Speed does not tell us in which direction motion takes place, therefore
it is a scalar quantity. But if the direction is specified, then we now talk about velocity.
Therefore: Velocity (v) is defined as the rate of change of displacement or distance moved in a specified
direction with time.
Velocity = distance travelled in a specified direction = displacement , m/s
Time taken Time taken
The SI unit of measurement is m/s but units such as km/h is sometimes used if the distance travelled is
very large. The direction must be specified e.g. East, West, North, South or a combination of them. Directions
such as upward, downward, leftward or rightward can also be used. Velocity is therefore a vector quantity.
ACCELERATION: This is defined as the change in velocity with time.
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Acceleration a = change in velocity , m/s
Time taken
If acceleration is the change in velocity with time, then the following situations are possible:
1) If the final velocity is greater than the initial velocity i.e. (Positive change), acceleration is said to take
place.
2) If the final velocity is less than the initial velocity i.e. (Negative change), deceleration or retardation takes
place. It must be noted that deceleration leads to the stopping of the moving object.
3) If the final and initial velocities are the same i.e. (no change). This type of motion is known as constant
velocity or no acceleration.

EQUATIONS OF LINEAR MOTION WITH UNIFORM ACCELERATION

If a body starts with an initial velocity u, accelerates uniformly along a straight line with an acceleration
a, covers a distance s, in a time t, when the velocity reaches a final velocity v, then the following equations are
used.
1) v = u + a t
2) s = ut + ½ a t2
3) v2 = u2 + 2as
In a distance – time graph. The gradient of the graph is the speed (velocity).

Sir Isaac Newton working on Galilei Gailileo’s work on motion formulated three laws, which became known
as Newton’s Laws of Motion. These laws can be formulated as:-
1. A body will continue in its state of rest or if moving, will continue in its straight line unless acted upon by
an external force.
2. This establishes a relationship between force and acceleration.
The rate of change of momentum is proportional to the applied force and takes place in the direction of the
force. This leads us to the famous expression: F = ma
where F = force, N
m = mass, kg
a = acceleration, m/s2
3. To every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. In other words, action and reaction are equal
and opposite.
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 UNIT 3
WORK, ENERGY, POWER, EFFICIENCY AND MACHINES
OBJECTIVES
After reading through this unit, learners shouls be able to
➢ Define work, energy, power and efficiency and give their SI units
➢ Establish a relationship between work and energy
➢ Distinguish between potential and kinetic energy.
➢ State the forms of energy and identify areas where energy is converted from one form to
another.
➢ Know what machines are and how to classify them.

Work: - Work is done when a force moves its point of application along its line of action. It is equal to the
product of the force and the distance moved.
For example, work is done if a body is lifted vertically upward against the downward pull of the Earth; or if a
spring is stretched, compressed or bent against the elastic resistance to deformation; or if a body is
accelerated against the reluctance or inertia which all matter shows to change of its motion (even
horizontally)
The SI unit of work is the Joule (J)
When work is done, energy is converted to or from some form of mechanical energy including kinetic
energy and potential energy, either gravitational or elastic strain energy or it may be converted into heat
energy or electrical energy.

Work = force × displacement

Though force and displacement are both vector quantities, work is a scalar quantity.
Work done can be positive, negative or zero.
Work done is positive if the applied force moves in the direction of motion, e.g. moving an object lying on
the floor.
Negative work is done by frictional and other resistive forces.
No work is done by the force of gravity if the object is moving horizontally.

Energy: - Energy is usually defined is the ability or capacity to do work.

If an electric motor is supplied with energy, it can do work. The energy in an electric motor can be used to turn
a fan.
If you have energy stored in your body, you can also do work. You can move things from one position to
another or do some other forms of work. This explains why you are able to lift or move items from one position
to another. The energy you use to do work is stored in your muscles. Sometimes when you use energy to do
work, the work you do results in a different form of energy. An example is when a pump lifts water from a
lake to a water tower; work is done by the pump. The work is stored in the water that has been moved to a
higher position. This stored energy can be used later to do work, e.g. to produce electrical energy.
Energy is an important part of our daily lives. We use energy to power our cars, to pump water into our homes,
to operate many electrical devices we use every day, e.g. this module could not have been prepared without
using a computer which uses electrical energy. We also use energy to cook our food. We must also not forget
that the cost of energy is significant these days and also supply is short at times. Therefore if we rely on the
use of energy, we must try to use it efficiently and also to pay our bills at the recommended time so as to
prevent energy interruptions.
In today’s world, most of the energy used to do work comes from burning fossil fuels such as coal or oil. In
this process of burning, stored chemical energy, originally provided by the sun, is changed into heat energy.
Other sources of energy that are used to do work include water power, solar energy and nuclear energy.
There are two (2) kinds of energy:
a) Potential energy and b) Kinetic energy
If a force is applied and work is done to change an object’s vertical position, the object has gained potential
energy. It is called Potential because the energy is stored and can be used at a later time. This type of stored
energy is better known as Gravitational Potential Energy.
Other types of potential energy include
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a) Energy stored in stretched springs or compressed springs. This is also known as elastic strain energy.
b) Energy stored when a clock or watch is wound. Note! This does not include quartz watches and clocks.
Types of potential energy include: -

• Gravitational potential energy

• Chemical energy
• Nuclear energy
• Elastic potential energy, also called spring energy or elastic strain nergy
• Electrical potential energy especially in a capacitor
If something is moving, it has kinetic energy. However, work must be done to get the object to move. The
work shows up as energy – in the form of motion.
The word kinetic comes from the Greek language. It means motion or movement. Kinetic energy can be
found in moving fluids, such as in water or steam. This energy can be used to produce electricity in hydro-
electric power stations.
The units of work and energy are the same. In SI units, work and energy are measured in Newton.metre (N.m)
or Joules (J).

FORMS OF ENERGY
There are various forms of energy but all of them can be classified either as kinetic or potential energy by
nature or from its source. These forms of energy include the following:
1. Heat or Thermal energy
2. Electrical energy
3. Chemical energy
4. Sound energy
5. Mechanical energy i.e. Potential energy and kinetic energy are what make up mechanical energy.
6. Light and radiation energy
7. Nuclear or Atomic energy.

THE LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

This is one of the most fundamental laws in nature. It tells us that a system’s total energy remains constant.
While energy can be transferred or transformed, the total amount of energy does not change – this is
called energy conservation.
The Law states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed but can be converted or transformed
from one form to another.
If this Law is not properly looked at, then we will think that if a ball is dropped from a height then it must
bounce back to the same height and this process should continue forever. We must take into account that there
will be some energy ‘losses’. In fact what is termed here as energy losses are merely energy converted into
some other forms that we do not usually consider. Every time the ball touches the ground some energy will be
converted into heat and also sound and in some cases even light. These are also forms of energy. Some energy
will also be used to overcome the effects of air resistance. Therefore it will be noticed that the ball will bounce
back to a height lower than the previous height in each case and sooner or later it will not rise at all. The ball
will eventually stop.
In real life situations, energy is converted from one form to another depending on a lot of factors e.g. We know
that electrical energy is the most practical and transportable of all energies. It is widely used in life not in the
electrical form but in some other form.
Examples of energy conversions in real life situations include:
➢ Electrical energy to mechanical energy. This takes place in electric motors found in electric fans,
electric sewing machines, drilling machines etc.
➢ Mechanical energy to electrical energy. This occurs in generators and dynamos and especially in hydro-
electric power stations.
➢ Mechanical energy (kinetic energy) to heat energy. Occurs when friction is being overcome, eg. when
stopping a moving vehicle.
➢ Heat energy to electrical energy. Occurs in solar cells and in some electric generating power plants.

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 ➢ Electrical energy to heat energy. Occurs in electric kettles, electric irons, electric soldering irons,
electric hair dryers etc.
➢ Sound energy to electrical energy. Occurs in microphones.
➢ Electrical energy to sound energy. Occurs in telephone earpiece and speakers.
➢ Chemical energy to electrical energy. Occurs in batteries.
➢ Electrical energy to chemical energy. Occurs when charging a battery.
➢ Chemical energy to heat energy. This occurs when fossil fuels and products from crude oil and gas,
coal, wood are burnt. The heat released is used to drive cars etc, cook our foods, heat our homes when
it is cold or even to produce electricity in our petrol or diesel generators etc.
➢ Electrical energy to light and heat energy. This occurs in filament lamps.
➢ Nuclear to heat and electrical energy. This takes place in the reactors of a nuclear power plant during
fusion or fission process. This process is very important as a lot of heat and subsequently produced.
The process must be carefully controlled because of the high risk of radiation and consequently
tremendous environmental catastrophe.
➢ The Sun transforms nuclear energy into heat and light energy.
➢ Our bodies convert chemical energy in our food into mechanical energy for us to move

➢ Lightning converts electrical energy into light, heat and sound energy
➢ Thermoelectric (Heat → Electrical energy)
➢ Geothermal power (Heat→ Electrical energy)
➢ Heat engines, such as the internal combustion engine used in cars, or the steam engine (Heat →
Mechanical energy)
➢ Ocean thermal power (Heat → Electrical energy)
➢ Hydroelectric dams (Gravitational potential energy → Electrical energy)
➢ Electric generator (Kinetic energy or Mechanical work → Electrical energy)
➢ Fuel cells (Chemical energy → Electrical energy)
➢ Fire (Chemical energy → Heat and Light)
➢ Wave power (Mechanical energy → Electrical energy)
➢ Windmills (Wind energy/ Mechanical → Electrical energy)
➢ Photosynthesis (Light & radiation → Chemical energy)

3) Power (P)
This is defined as the rate of doing work or the rate of conversion or transfer of energy.
It is measured in Watts (W)
Power = Energy = Work , W
Time Time
4) Efficiency η – This is the ratio of energy output to energy input. It has no units but is usually expressed
as a percentage.
Efficiency η = Energy output × 100%
Energy input
Efficiency can also be expressed in terms of mechanical advantage and velocity ratio.
Mechanical Advantage (M.A) = Force of the load over Force of the effort
Velocity Ratio (V.R) = distance moved by effort over distance moved by load
Efficiency η = M.A / V.R
The efficiency of a machine is never equal to unity or 100%. This is so because machines have moving parts
and therefore some energy will be used to overcome friction. The efficiency of machines can be increased
therefore by reducing friction. This can be done by lubricating the moving parts or by using ball or roller
bearings. In general a lot of energy is wasted or simply converted into other forms that cannot be considered
as useful e.g. the heat or sound produced by friction is not useful at all. They are forms of energy and are given
out to the environment thereby reducing the output energy.

Mechanical advantage is a measure of the ratio of output force to input force in a system, used to analyze the
forces in simple machines like levers and pulleys. Despite changing the forces that are applied
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the conservation of energy is still true and the output energy is still equal to the input energy.. Mechanical
advantage is always less than 1. It is also called speed multiplier lever.

Velocity ratio is The ratio of the distance moved by the point at which the effort is applied in a simple
machine to the distance moved by the point at which the load is applied, in the same time.

5. Machines
A machine is a device by means of which work can be done more conveniently.
The principle of conservation of energy (and specifically the Second law of thermodynamics) limits the
maximum work, which the machine can do. Machines may receive energy in different forms. A simple
machine takes energy basically mechanical and gives out mechanical energy e.g. Levers. A machine
which accepts one form of energy and gives out energy in a different form is a complex machine e.g. an
Electrical generator receives mechanical energy, and gives out electrical energy. Our study will be limited
only to simple machines.
There are different classes of simple machines which include the following:
1. The lever.
2. The screw and screw jack
3. The inclined plane
4. Pulleys
5. The wheel and axle
6. Wedge
These six have very specific features and do unique jobs, even though some may work in similar ways. In
fact, some simple machines may be a combination of simple machines.

Important: Simple machines, unlike complex ones, do not work on their own. They only increase the pull or
push, (force or effort) that a person uses, increase or decrease the distance, or change the direction of a
movement so that more work can be done. They can:
transfer a force from one place to another
change the direction of a force
increase the magnitude of a force
increase the distance or speed of a force

Features of a simple machine

They do not use electricity
They have one or fewer moving parts
They give us mechanical advantage
Even though they make work easier for us, they still need input (force or effort) from a person.
They make tough jobs easier by changing the force, direction or speed of a movement

Complex Machines
Simple machines are different from complex (or compound machines). Complex machines, like trucks or
wagons, or bicycles use many moving parts. They combine many simple machines such as levers, pulleys,
and gears to get work done.

A lever is a rigid body pivoted about a point called the fulcrum (F). An effort (E) is applied at one on the
lever and this overcomes a load (L) at some other point.
There are three (3) classes or orders of levers.
Levers are classified by the relative positions of the fulcrum, effort and resistance (or load). It is common to
call the input force the effort and the output force the load or the resistance. This allows the identification of
three classes of levers by the relative locations of the fulcrum, the load and the effort.

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 ➢ 1st Class — Fulcrum between the effort and load: The effort is applied on one side of the fulcrum and
the resistance (or load) on the other side, for example, Examples include claw hammer, crowbar,
pliers, scissors, seesaw, handle of common water pump, bicycle hand brakes etc a seesaw,
a crowbar or a pair of scissors, a common balance, a claw hammer. Mechanical advantage may be
greater than, less than, or equal to 1.
➢ 2nd Class — load between the effort and fulcrum: The effort is applied on one side of the resistance
and the fulcrum is located on the other side, e.g. in a wheelbarrow, a nutcracker, a bottle opener or
the brake pedal of a car, door knob, hand flour grinder etc. the load arm is smaller than the effort arm,
and the mechanical advantage is always greater than one. It is also called force multiplier lever.
➢ 3rd Class— Effort between the fulcrum and or load is on one side of the effort and the fulcrum is
located on the other side, for example, a pair of tweezers, a hammer, a pair of tongs, fishing rod,
Examples include sugar tongs, laboratory tongs, the forearm of a human body, boat paddle, broom,
fishing rod, stapler, forceps etc. Tongs are used to pick up cubes of sugar especially in restaurants and
drop them into our tea cups or coffee cups or can be used also to pick up pieces of meat or chicken.
This prevents one’s hand to contact the food and thereby making the process of serving food very
hygienic and safe as there is no physical contact between the food and our hands or fingers. The same
can also be said about specimens in the laboratory.

Examples of simple machines:-

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Pulley- A pulley consists of a wheel with a groove along its circumference, and a rope that is placed inside the
groove of the wheel. It uses the principle of applying force over a longer distance, and also the tension in the
rope or cable, to amplify the magnitude of the applied force.
The drive element of a pulley system can be a rope, cable, belt, or chain that runs over the pulley inside the
groove.
If we want to use even less force over an even greater distance, we can use a block and tackle. "A block and
tackle is a combination of pulleys which reduces the amount of force required to lift something. The trade-
off is that a longer length of rope is required for a block and tackle to move something the same
distance."Pulleys can be of many types- fixed pulley, movable pulley, compound pulley.

Pulleys are used on ships to raise and lower sails, in industry to raise and lower heavy cargo, or on cranes for
use in moving heavy construction equipment. Elevators also use pulleys to move the car up and down from
floor to floor.
Wheel and Axle- The wheel is considered the most important invention in the history of the world. And the
introduction of the axle to the wheel changed the course of world history. An axle is a rod or pole centred in
the wheel in such a way that it allows the wheel to turn around it. The wheel and axle rotate together and
transfer force from one to the other.
Sometimes, there may be two wheels attached to both ends of the axle. The wheel is considered to be one of
the most significant inventions in the history of the world. "Before the invention of the wheel in 3500 B.C.,
humans were severely limited in how much stuff we could transport over land, and how far. Wheeled carts
facilitated agriculture and commerce by enabling the transportation of goods to and from markets, as well as
easing the burdens of people traveling great distances,
The wheel greatly reduces the friction encountered when an object is moved over a surface. The great
innovation, though, was in mounting a wheel on an axle. The wheel could be attached to an axle that was
supported by a bearing, or it could be made to turn freely about the axle. This led to the development of
carts, wagons and chariots.
In addition to reducing friction, a wheel and axle can also serve as a force multiplier. If a wheel is attached to
an axle, and a force is used to turn the wheel, the rotational force, or torque, on the axle is much greater than
the force applied to the rim of the wheel. Alternatively, a long handle can be attached to the axle to achieve a
similar effect.
Gears are a form of the wheel and axle. An electric motor, electric fan, car, bicycle, a Ferris wheel are all
examples of uses of wheel and axle.
Inclined Plane- An inclined plane does not have any moving parts. It is simply a surface with an even slope.
Sliding a heavy load over the slope makes it easier for us to move that load to a higher or lower surface, than
if we tried to just lift the load directly upwards. The inclined plane is simply a flat surface raised at an angle,
like a ramp. An inclined plane is a way of lifting a load that would be too heavy to lift straight up. The angle
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(the steepness of the inclined plane) determines how much effort is needed to raise the weight. The steeper
the ramp, the more effort is required. According to historical evidence, ancient Egyptians used inclined
planes to carry heavy stones to build pyramids.

The most common example of an inclined plane is a ramp used in houses and public spaces to move
wheelchairs or trolleys loaded with shopping.
Wedge- A wedge is technically an inclined plane or two inclined planes put together to form a pointed triangle
that moves to exert a force along the lengths of the sides. Axes, knives, and chisels are all wedges.
The longer and thinner a wedge is, i.e. the sharper it is, the more work it does with little effort.
Wedges have been used by man for millions of years. The earliest tools used by man, such as sharp stones
used as spears to hunt and cut trees, were forms of wedges. Modern cars, bullet trains, speed boats and jets
also use the concept of wedges. All these have wedge-shaped pointed noses that help them to cut through air
and water. "Wedges are moving inclined planes that are driven under loads to lift, or into a load to split or
separate." A longer, thinner wedge gives more mechanical advantage than a shorter, wider wedge, but a
wedge does something else: The main function of a wedge is to change the direction of the input force. For
example, if we want to split a log, we can drive a wedge downward into the end of the log with great force
using a sledgehammer, and the wedge will redirect this force outward, causing the wood to split. Another
example is a doorstop, where the force used to push it under the edge of the door is transferred downward,
resulting in frictional force that resists sliding across the floor.
Screw- "A screw is essentially a long incline plane wrapped around a shaft, so its mechanical advantage can
be approached in the same way as the incline," Many devices use screws to exert a force that is much greater
than the force used to turn the screw. These devices include bench vices and lug nuts on automobile wheels.
They gain a mechanical advantage not only from the screw itself but also, in many cases, from the leverage
of a long handle used to turn the screw.
A screw is simply an inclined plane wrapped around a cylindrical shaft. The inclined plane is in the form of
helical grooves or ridges called threads that wrap around the cylindrical shaft on the outside.
Screws are of utmost importance in construction as they can hold things together. Additionally, they can be
used to lift very heavy objects and tighten things. Corkscrews, taps, light bulbs, bottle caps all make use of the
concept of screws to work.
A drill bit becomes a powerful tool that can drill holes in hard materials like metal and stones when attached
to an electric drill machine.
Evaluation
➢ Where do we use the inclined plane and why is it called a simple machine?
➢ How do pulleys work?
➢ Where do we use the wedge in our community?
➢ Give at least one example each of the three classes of levers different from the examples stated
above.
➢ Why is the forearm of a human body, a third class lever? Give a sketch if possible.

UNIT 4
FRICTION
OBJECTIVES
After this Unit, students should know and be able to
➢ Define and explain the nature of friction
➢ State the laws of friction and
➢ Explain the advantages and disadvantages of friction and how friction can be reduced.

DEFINITION OF FRICTION
Friction is a resistive force acting between bodies that tend to oppose and damp out motion. It occurs in all
moving parts of a machine. Friction is usually distinguished as being either static friction (the frictional force
opposing placing a body at rest into motion) and kinetic friction (the frictional force tending to slow a body
in motion). In general, static friction is greater than kinetic friction.

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The force due to kinetic friction is generally proportional to the applied force, so "a coefficient of kinetic
fiction" is defined as the ratio of frictional force to the normal force on the body.
There are two coefficients of friction, namely, Coefficient of Static or Limiting friction, Fs and Coefficient of
Sliding or Dynamic or Kinetic friction Fd.
It has been shown that Fd is usually less than Fs.
The frictional force F is parallel to the surfaces and its magnitude is proportional to the normal reaction
between the surfaces. This can be expressed mathematically as:
F=μN where μ is the coefficient of friction. It depends on the nature of the two surfaces and it is not affected
by the size of the areas in contact.
N is the normal reaction and it is the force exerted by the surface on the block and it is always normal to the
surface.
Laws of friction: There are five laws of friction and they are:

➢ The friction of the moving object is proportional and perpendicular to the normal force.
➢ The friction experienced by the object is dependent on the nature of the surface it is in contact with.
➢ Friction is independent of the area of contact as long as there is an area of contact.
➢ Kinetic friction is independent of velocity.
➢ The coefficient of static friction is greater than the coefficient of kinetic friction.

ADVANTAGES OF FRICTION
Friction plays a vital role in our daily life. Without friction we are handicap.
1. It is becomes difficult to walk on a slippery road due to low friction. When we move on ice, it becomes
difficult to walk due to low friction of ice or walking on a slippery floor.
2. We cannot fix nail, screw in the wood or wall if there is no friction. It is friction which holds the nail.
3. A horse cannot pull a cart unless friction furnishes him a secure Foothold.
4.Friction belts or belt drive are used in machines. This can be found in the fan belts of car engines and also
chains in bicycles.
5. The grindstone which is a very rough surface is used to wear away metal surfaces to sharpen knives and
chisels.
6. Friction between a rubber belt and pulley wheels is used to enable a pulley wheel connected to the engine
to drive a pulley wheel connected to the fan.
7. We can write on a paper or on a board due to friction
8. Friction helps in stopping a vehicle on applying the brakes.
9. It helps in generating heat when we rub our hands together
10. Asteroids burn in the atmosphere before reaching the earth due to friction and saves lives on earth.

DISADVANTAGES OF FRICTION
Despite the fact that the friction is very important in our daily life, it also has some disadvantages.
• Friction produces heat that causes objects to wear out. Energy is wasted to overcome friction and heat
is generated. This heat is usually not useful as it is given out to the atmosphere or environment. It
causes wear especially on shoes, brake lining materials and bearings.
• Friction makes work tedious. Because of the resistance workers need to exert more effort and energy
both to accomplish their work and to overcome resistance. It uses up energy and reduces the efficiency
of machines. Energy is wasted when motion occurs through air. (it is much easier to cycle or run with
the wind rather than against it. It must be noted also that world records are not recognized if the sprinter
is running with a wind and the wind speed exceeds a certain value).
• Friction also causes sparks, overheating and machine breakdown.
• Friction reduces speed. Even airplanes cannot fly as fast as they are able because of air friction.
• Friction can also make speeding objects to tumble down and cause accidents.
• Racing cars and other vehicles consume more energy to run fast and overcome the resistance of the
roads. Due to friction, engines of automobiles consume more fuel which is a money loss.
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 • Due to friction, noise is also produced in machines.

METHODS OF REDUCING FRICTION

Friction can be reduced by
1. Making the surfaces smooth. This can be done by:
• Grinding: A hard substance is used to grind and break the irregularity on the soft surface. Examples
including polishing of wooden surfaces, tiles, marbles, etc.
• Sandpaper: It is also a type of grinding, used for fine adjustments.
• Chemical etching: Harsh chemical treatments are done to reduce irregularities on surfaces.

2) Lubricating the surfaces which are sliding over each other with a liquid or grease or graphite. Usually oils
are used. It must be noted that oils lubricate better when hot.
3) In machines where possible, sliding friction can be replaced by rolling friction by using ball bearing.
4) Using graphite
5) Using talc (powder)
6) Streamlining. Friction can be reduced by changing the design of fast moving objects (streamling). The front
of vehicles are made oblong to minimize friction.
7) Polishing the surface(s)

Evaluation
1. Justify the reason for the shape of aeroplanes
2. Why do fastening devices rely on friction? Explain giving an example
3. Explain the reason why oils can be used for lubricating in certain areas whereas greases are used in other
areas.

UNIT 5 MAGNETS

OBJECTIVES
The students after completing this unit should be able to answer the following questions:
1. What are magnets and what types of materials are used to make magnets?
2. What are temporary magnets?
3. What are permanent magnets?
4. What are electromagnets?
5. What is the Rule of magnetism?
6. What are some uses of magnets?

What is a magnet and what type of materials are used to make magnets?
A magnet is a material or object that produces a magnetic field and attract metals like iron, nickel and cobalt.
This magnetic field is invisible but is responsible for the most notable property of a magnet: a force that pulls
on other ferromagnetic materials, such as iron, and attracts or repels other magnets.
The magnetic field's lines of force exit the magnet from its north pole and enter its south
pole. Permanent or hard magnets create their own magnetic field all the time. Temporary or soft magnets
produce magnetic fields while in the presence of a magnetic field and for a short while after exiting the
field. Electromagnets produce magnetic fields only when electricity travels through their wire coils.
A permanent magnet is an object made from a material that is magnetized and creates its own persistent
magnetic field. An everyday example is a refrigerator magnet used to hold notes on a refrigerator door.
Materials that can be magnetized, which are also the ones that are strongly attracted to a magnet, are called
ferromagnetic. These include iron, nickel, cobalt, some alloys of rare earth metals, neodymium
gadolinium and dysprosium (when at a very low temperature) and some naturally occurring minerals such
as iron ore. Although ferromagnetic materials are the only ones attracted to a magnet strongly enough to be

16
commonly considered magnetic, all other substances respond weakly to a magnetic field, by one of several
other types of magnetism.
Ferromagnetic materials can be divided into magnetically "soft" materials like annealed iron, which can be
magnetized but do not tend to stay magnetized, and magnetically "hard" materials, which do. Permanent
magnets are made from "hard" ferromagnetic materials such as alnico and ferrite that are subjected to special
processing in a powerful magnetic field during manufacture, to align their internal microcrystalline structure,
making them very hard to demagnetize.

Magnets can be made by placing a magnetic material such as iron or steel, in a strong magnetic field.
Permanent, temporary and electromagnets can be made in this manner.
Soft iron and certain iron alloys, such as permalloy (an alloy of iron and nickel) can be easily magnetized, even
in a weak field. However as soon as the field is removed, the magnetism is lost. These materials make excellent
temporary magnets that are used in telephones and electric motors etc.
Other kinds of alloys such as alnico (an alloy of aluminium, nickel, iron, cobalt) make excellent permanent
magnets. Small amounts of other elements are added to enhance the properties of the magnet. Ferrites and
other materials made from iron oxide, nickel and cobalt also make excellent permanent magnets. These
magnets are very difficult to demagnetize even after the magnetic field has been removed.
Some magnets are straight and are called bar magnets. Others are shaped like a horse shoe and some are round.
Some magnets are even shaped like a pencil.

List of Properties of Magnet:

Attractive Property – Magnet attracts ferromagnetic materials like iron, cobalt, and nickel.
Repulsive Properties – Like magnetic poles repel each other and unlike magnetic poles attract each other.
Directive Property – A freely suspended magnet always points in a north-south direction.
FERROMAGNETISM
Certain metallic materials possess a permanent magnetic moment in the absence of an external field, and
manifest very large and permanent magnetizations. These are the characteristics of ferromagnetism, and they
are displayed by the transition metals iron, cobalt, nickel, and some of the rare earth metals such as gadolinium
(Gd).

Paramagnetism: Paramagnetic materials / atoms can be weakly attracted to magnetic fields. Diatomic
oxygen, Cl2 is a good example of paramagnetic material.
Diamagnetism: Diamagnetic substances are weakly repelled by a magnetic field eg. Water, plastics
WHAT ARE ELECTROMAGNETS AND WHERE ARE THEY USED?
An electromagnet is made from a coil of wire that acts as a magnet when an electric current passes through it
but stops being a magnet when the current stops. Often, the coil is wrapped around a core of "soft"
ferromagnetic material such as steel, which greatly enhances the magnetic field produced by the coil.
Electromagnets are used when really strong magnets are required. Electromagnets are produced by placing a
metal core (usually an iron alloy) inside a coil of wire carrying an electric current. The electricity in the coil

17
produces a magnetic field. Its strength depends on the strength of the electric current and the number of coils
of wire. Its polarity depends on the direction of the current flow. While the current flows, the core behaves like
a magnet, but as soon as the current stops, the magnetic properties are lost. Electric motors, televisions, maglev
trains, telephones, computers and many other modern devices use electromagnets.

ATTRACTING AND REPELLING PROPERTIES AND THE RULES OF MAGNETISM

Magnets will pull some things towards them. We say, the things have been attracted to the magnet. The things
which are attracted to magnets are all made of metal. They are made of iron and steel. Magnets attract things
made of the metals, nickel and cobalt.
The pull of a magnet is strongest at its ends or poles. One magnet sometimes attracts another magnet. If the
north pole of the one magnet is pointed towards the south pole of another, they will attract each other. But if
you point the south pole of one magnet towards the south pole of another, they will not attract each other. The
two magnets push each other away. We say the two magnets repel each other.
In the same way, the north pole of one magnet will repel the north pole of another. Therefore two south poles
repel each other and two north poles repel each other, but a north and South Pole attract each other. We say
like poles repel, unlike poles attract.
The rules can thus be stated as
1. Like poles repel and
2. Unlike poles attract

The Compass & the Earth as a magnet

Hundreds of years ago Chinese sailors use pieces of magnetite, made into needles, to help them find their way
if they were lost. A piece of magnetite, or a bar magnet, when freely suspended, generally comes to rest
pointing in a north – south direction (a compass needle is a magnet). The Earth is like a giant magnet and
behaves as if there is a huge bar magnet in the centre. The north and south ends of the earth are called the north
and south poles. Because of the Earth’s iron-nickel core, the Earth behaves like a magnet. The Earth’s magnetic
poles are near the geographic poles.
A compass needle is also a magnet, with north and south poles one poles of needle is north-seeking and is
marked “N”, that is, it always points to the Earth’s magnetic north pole. Similarly, the other pole of the compass
needle, marked “S”, is south seeking and always points to the Earth’s south magnetic pole.

Making and destroying magnets

Making magnets: One way to make a magnet is to use a piece of steel e.g. sewing or knitting needle. Strike
the needle with one end of a magnet. Repeat the process in the same direction several times. The more you
strike the needle the powerful the magnet will be. A magnet will retain its magnetic properties as long as it is
used carefully.
Secondly, electromagnets are produced by placing a metal core (usually an iron alloy) inside a coil of wire
carrying an electric current. The electricity in the coil produces a magnetic field. Its strength depends on the
strength of the electric current and the number of coils of wire.
Destroying magnets: If you drop a magnet several times on a hard surface or hammer it, it will cease to be
become a magnet altogether. Magnets can also be destroyed by heating them red hot and leaving them to cool
in the East – West direction.

USES OF MAGNETS
The discovery of magnets was very important as they are used to make electric motors and generators.
1. Magnetic recording media: VHS tapes contain a reel of magnetic tape. The information that makes up the
video and sound is encoded on the magnetic coating on the tape. Common audio cassettes also rely on
magnetic tape. Similarly, in computers, floppy disks and hard disks record data on a thin magnetic coating. It
is difficult these days to come across video cassettes, floppy discs and audio tapes and recorders.
2. Credit, debit, and automatic teller machine cards: All of these cards have a magnetic strip on one side. This
strip encodes the information to contact an individual's financial institution and connect with their account(s).
3. Common televisions and computer monitors: TV and computer screens containing a cathode ray
tube employ an electromagnet to guide electrons to the screen. Plasma screens and LCDs use different
technologies. Every time you use a computer, you're using magnets. A hard drive relies on magnets to store
18
data, and some monitors use magnets to create images on the screen. If your home has a doorbell, it probably
uses an electromagnet to drive a noisemaker.
4. Speakers and microphones: Most speakers employ a permanent magnet and a current-carrying coil to
convert electric energy (the signal) into mechanical energy (movement that creates the sound).
5. Electric guitars use magnetic pickups to transduce the vibration of guitar strings into electric current that
can then be amplified.
6. Electric motors and generators: Some electric motors rely upon a combination of an electromagnet and a
permanent magnet, and, much like loudspeakers; they convert electric energy into mechanical energy. A
generator is the reverse: it converts mechanical energy into electric energy by moving a conductor through a
magnetic field.
7. Medicine: Hospitals use magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to spot problems in a patient's organs without
invasive surgery or to verify the age of young sportsmen and women to avoid cheating (under 19)
8. Compasses: A compass (or mariner's compass) is a magnetized pointer free to align itself with a magnetic
field, most commonly Earth's magnetic field.
9. Art: Vinyl magnet sheets may be attached to paintings, photographs, and other ornamental articles, allowing
them to be attached to refrigerators and other metal surfaces.
10. Magnets can be used to make jewelry. Necklaces and bracelets can have a magnetic clasp, or may be
constructed entirely from a linked series of magnets and ferrous beads.
11. Magnets can pick up magnetic items (iron nails, staples, tacks, paper clips) that are either too small, too
hard to reach, or too thin for fingers to hold. Some screwdrivers are magnetized for this purpose.
12. Magnets can be used in scrap and salvage operations to separate magnetic metals (iron, cobalt, and nickel)
from non-magnetic metals (aluminum, non-ferrous alloys, etc.). The same idea can be used in the so-called
"magnet test", in which an auto body is inspected with a magnet to detect areas repaired using fiberglass or
plastic putty.
13. Magnetic levitation transport, or Maglev, is a form of transportation that suspends, guides and propels
vehicles (especially trains) through electromagnetic force. The maximum recorded speed of a maglev train is
581 kilometers per hour.

Evaluation
1. Where does the word ‘magnet’ come from?
2. List examples of ferromagnetic, paramagnetic, diamagnetic materials
3. Name five things in your homes or in your possession which contain magnets

CHEMISTRY ASPECT
Learning Objectives.
After studying this unit, students should know
1. What is Chemistry and what does it study?
2. Evidences that matter is composed of particles
3. The basic terms used in chemistry.
4. Separation techniques of mixtures

Chemistry deals with the study of matter and its changes.

Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. Since everything around including ourselves have mass
and occupy space, that is, they are composed of matter, therefore Chemistry can be said to be the central
science. It is therefore very important to study chemistry.
Chemistry deals with solutions in which the nature of a substance is changed by altering its composition so
that entirely new substances are synthesized or particular properties of existing substances are enhanced.

Evidences for the particulate nature of matter

The existence of particles in matter can be explained by certain observations. They include:
i. Evaporation and sublimation:- We cannot see the departing liquid (evaporation) or solid
(sublimation), this shows that they must be leaving as tiny invisible particles
ii. Diffusion:- Diffusion of gases and liquids is the movement from regions of higher concentration to
regions of lower concentration, this is possible only if these two forms of matter contain tiny mobile
19
 particles, especially since we cannot see the moving gas or liquid particles.
iii. Osmosis: -This is the passage of a liquid through a membrane. A liquid which can pass through a
membrane must contain particles small enough to go through the membrane.
iv. Dissolution of solids in liquids:- The disappearance of the solid shows that it is made up of tiny
particles which disperse into the solvent. Also, the solvent must have spaces into which the solute
particles can enter. This shows that both the solvent and the solute are made up of many separate
tiny particles.
v. Brownian motion:- This is the zig-zag motion of tiny particles of smoke, pollen grains, etc,
observed with the aid of powerful microscopes. This is explained as resulting from the uneven
bombardment of these particles by other particles which make up the gaseous or liquid media in
which these are observed. This shows that these media contain tiny particles of matter.
vi. Tyndall Effect:- This is the scattering of white light by a sol. This is explained on the basis of the
particles in the sol causing the scattering because they are not homogeneously dispersed. In this
case, the particles of the sol are larger than the particles in a solution.
vii. Dilution of coloured solutions:- As the dilution is continued, the colour of the solution fades,
indicating that the particles in the solution are becoming further apart.

BASIC TERMS IN CHEMISTRY

1. A pure substance is one with constant composition. Pure substances contain compounds (combination of
elements) or free elements.
2. A compound is a substance with constant composition that can be broken down into elements by chemical
processes.
3. A chemical change is one in which a given substance becomes a new substance or substances with different
properties or different composition.
4. Elements are substances that cannot be decomposed into simpler substances by chemical or physical
means.
5. A chemical symbol identifies an element. Each element has a symbol. A symbol is a shorthand way of
writing the name of the element.
6. Chemical formulae. These are used to identify compounds by showing the kind and number of atoms that
are present.
7. Chemical equations. This is a better way of describing a chemical change. Such equations state what
elements or compounds enter into a chemical change and what elements or compounds are produced by
chemical change.
8. Solvent. A solvent is a liquid, which can be used to dissolve things.
9. Solute. A solute is a substance, which dissolves in a solvent to make a solution.
10. Matter exists in 3 states a) Solid b) liquid and c) gas
Any substance can exist in each of these three states depending on the conditions of temperature and pressure.
When a solid is heated it melts and forms a liquid. The temperature at which both solid and liquid can exist is
called the melting point or freezing point. When a liquid is heated to its boiling point, it boils and forms a gas
(or vapour). Matter can be converted from one form to another by either heating or cooling and also changing
the pressure.
The properties of solids, liquids and gases are summarized in the following table.
Property Solid Liquid Gas
Shape Definite shape No definite shape, takes the No definite shape
shape of the container
Volume Definite volume Definite volume No definite volume.
Occupies the entire
space available
Packing of particles Packed closely to each Not as closely packed as in Particles are far apart
other solids from each other
Movement of particles Only vibrate about their Particles slide over each other Particles move freely
positions
Compressibility Cannot be compressed Can be slightly compressed Can be easily
but with difficulty compressed
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Mixtures and separation techniques: Most of the time the substances around us are not in their pure form.
They are basically a mixture of two or more substances. Interestingly, mixtures tend to also come in different
forms. Therefore, there are several types of separation techniques that are used in separating a mixture of
substances. As for the need for separation, it is usually done to remove all the unwanted materials and obtain
useful components.

Methods Of Separating Mixtures. Some of the common methods of separating substances or mixtures are:
• Handpicking
• Threshing
• Winnowing
• Sieving
• Evaporation
• Distillation
• Fractional distillation
• Centrifugation
• Filtration or Sedimentation
• Separating Funnel
• Magnetic Separation
• Extraction
• Chromatography

Handpicking

This method involves simply picking out all the unwanted substances by hand and separating them from
useful ones. For example – if you separate beans from rice from a mixture of the two.

Threshing

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This method is mostly done during the harvesting of crops. Normally, the stalks of the rice are dried once it
is harvested. The grain is then separated from the stalks and grounded into the floor by beating the dry stalks
to shake off the dried grains.

Winnowing

When the grains are collected from the process of threshing, it needs to be cleared out of husks and chaffs
before it is turned into flour. Normally the separation of the mixture is carried out with the help of wind or
blowing air. The husk and chaff are blown away by the strong wind when the farmers drop the mixture from
a certain height to the ground. The heavier grains are collected at one place.

Sieving

It is done to separate mixtures that contain substances mostly of different sizes. The mixture is passed
through the pores of the sieve. All the smaller substances pass through easily while the bigger components of
the mixture are retained.

Evaporation

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Evaporation is a technique that is used in separating a mixture, usually a solution of a solvent and a soluble
solid. In this method, the solution is heated until the organic solvent evaporates where it turns into a gas and
mostly leaves behind the solid residue.

Distillation

When mixtures consist of two or more pure liquids than distillation is used. Here the components of a liquid
mixture are vaporized, condensed and then isolated. The mixture is heated and the component which is
volatile evaporates first. The vapour moves through a condenser and is collected in a liquid state.

Filtration or Sedimentation

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The most common method of separating a liquid from an insoluble solid is the filtration. Take, for example,
the mixture of sand and water. Filtration is used here to remove solid particles from the liquid. Various
filtering agents are normally used like filtering paper or other materials.

Sedimentation is a process by which heavier impurities present in liquid normally water settle down at the
bottom of the container containing the mixture. The process takes some amount of time.

Separating Funnel

Separating funnel is used mainly to segregate two immiscible liquids. The mechanism involves taking
advantage of the unequal density of the particles in the mixture. Oil and water can be easily separated using
this technique.

Magnetic Separation

24
When one substance in the mixture has some magnetic properties then this method is quite useful. Strong
magnets are commonly used to separate magnetic elements.
What are two types of mixtures? Two types of mixtures exist: heterogeneous and homogeneous. Two or
more ingredients (or phases, regions with standardised structure and properties) intermingle in heterogeneous
mixtures but remain physically distinct. Example of a homogenous mixture sugar and water. Example of a
heterogenous mixture - salad

UNIT 2
Learning Objectives.
After studying this unit, you should be able to explain
1. the Atomic Theory and describe the structure of an atom
2. what isotopes are and give some examples
3. Radioactivity, types of emissions; uses and dangers associated with radioactivity and radioisotopes
ATOMIC THEORY
Dalton's Atomic Theory
In 1808 Dalton published A new system of chemical philosophy, in which he presented the theory of atoms.
He postulated that: -
1. Each chemical element is composed of minute, indivisible particles called atoms. Atoms can be neither
created nor destroyed during a chemical change.
2. All atoms of an element are alike in mass (weight) and other properties, but the atoms of one element are
different from those of all other elements.
3. In each of their compounds, different elements combine in a simple numerical ratio, for example, one
atom of A to one of B (AB), or one atom of A to two of B (AB2)

The concept of atoms was clearly a good idea and this question arise; - what is an atom made of, and how do
the atoms of the various elements differ?

A MODERN VIEW OF ATOMIC STRUCTURE

The simplest view of the atom is that it consists of a tiny nucleus (with a diameter of about 10-13 cm) and
electrons that move about the nucleus with an average distance of about 10-8cm from it.
The nucleus is assumed to contain protons, which have a positive charge equal in magnitude to the electron's
negative, and neutrons, which have virtually the same mass as a proton but no charge.

An important question to consider is - if all atoms are composed of these components why do different atoms
have different chemical properties?
The answer is - The atoms of different elements, which have different numbers of protons and electrons, show
different chemical behaviour because atoms greatly affect ability to interact with other atoms.

25
What are isotopes? Isotopes are atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons,
35 37
Cl Cl
i.e. they have the same atomic number but different masses. Examples include 17 or Chlorine -35 and 17
1 2 3
H H H
or Chlorine – 37. Hydrogen has three isotopes 1 or hydrogen, 1 or deuterium and 1 or tritium.
Since isotopes are alike chemically, no chemical method can be used to separate them. Instead, a method that
depends on their differences in mass (a physical property) is used.
A
E
In general an element is represented by Z , where the atomic number Z (number of protons) is written as a
subscript and the mass number A (the total number of protons and neutrons) written as a superscript. In
nature most elements are mixtures of isotopes. Usually all the isotopes of an element share the same name
and atomic symbol. The exception is hydrogen. The two isotopes are called deuterium (symbol D), and
tritium (T).

THE NUCLEUS: This part of the atom is very small, spherical and very dense. It carries all the mass of the
atom and has a positive charge. It occupies the centre of the atom. The nucleus of an atom of any element is
made up of particles of two types: protons and neutrons. The only exception to this is an atom of the commonest
form (isotope) of the element hydrogen. Its nucleus contains a proton only.
The proton has a positive (+ ve) charge. The mass of a proton is almost equal to the mass of a neutron. A
proton is represented by the symbol p. In an atom, the number of protons is equal to the number of electrons.
Atoms of different elements have different numbers of protons. It is the number of protons in the atom of an
element that indicates which element it is and gives the element its identity.
The neutron has no electrical charge, so it is neutral. It's mass is almost the same as that of the proton. A
neutron is represented by the symbol n.

The electron: This particle has a negative (- ve) charge, equal but opposite to the charge on a proton. The
atom is electrically neutral. The atom contains equal numbers of protons and electrons therefore the numbers
of positive and negative charges are equal. The symbol for the electron is e. Electrons occupy all the space in
the atom except the part occupied by the nucleus. They are said to revolve constantly around the nucleus.
These paths are sometimes represented by a series of circles, or shell. Bohr developed this model.
When drawing the electronic configuration of an atom the following rules apply: -
1. Shells fill up in order starting with the one nearest the nucleus
2. The maximum number of electrons, which can be placed in a shell, is given by the formula 2n2 where
n is the number of the shell. The shells are numbered in sequence with the first shell (n=1) nearest to the
nucleus.
Atomic number is the special name given to the number of protons in the nucleus of a neutral atom of an
element. Symbol is Z or proton number.
Mass number is the special name given to the mass of the atom. Mass number is equal to the number of protons
plus the number of neutrons. The symbol is A.

Note that electrons take part in chemical reactions and in doing so the elements taking part do not loose their
identities ie. the number of protons in each element remains the same. In nuclear reactions, the nucleus is
involved and elements usually change their identities, i.e. new elements are formed.

Radioactivity
Definition: Radioactive decay: Radioactive decay is the process in which an unstable atomic nucleus loses
energy by emitting particles or electromagnetic waves. These emitted particles or electromagnetic waves are
called radiation.
When a nucleus undergoes radioactive decay, it emits radiation and the nucleus is said to be radioactive. We
are exposed to small amounts of radiation all the time. Even the rocks around us emit radiation! However some
elements are far more radioactive than others. Even within a single element, there may be some isotopes that
are more radioactive than others simply because they contain a larger number of neutrons. These radioactive
isotopes are called radioisotopes.
There are many sources of radiation. Some sources are natural and others are man-made.

26
 • Natural sources of radiation include cosmic and terrestrial radiation.
• Man-made sources of radiation include televisions, smoke detectors, X-rays and radiation therapy.
Radiation can be emitted in different forms. There are three main types of radiation: alpha, beta and gamma
radiation. The properties of alpha & beta particles, and gamma rays are summarized in the following Table:

Particle Mass charge Nature Change Penetrating Stopped Electric field Magnetic
or ray/ number in power by field
Field element
Alpha 4 +2 Helium Yes Low Air attracted Away from
nuclide towards field
α-particle Piece of cathode: towards
paper negative pole viewer
Beta 0 -1 Electron Yes Medium Thin attracted Away from
aluminium towards field from
β-particle foil anode: viewer
positive pole
Gamma 0 0 High No High Thick Unaffected Unaffected
energy concrete
γ- ray photon or lead
(electroma
gnetic
energy)
The Dangers of Radiation
Natural radiation comes from a variety of sources such as the rocks, sun and from space. However, when we
are exposed to large amounts of radiation, this can cause damage to cells. Radiation is particularly dangerous
because it is able to penetrate the body, unlike α- and β- particles whose penetration power is less. Some of
the dangers of radiation are listed below:
• Damage to cells:- Radiation is able to penetrate the body, and also to penetrate the membranes of the cells
within our bodies, causing massive damage. Radiation poisoning occurs when a person is exposed to large
amounts of this type of radiation. Radiation poisoning damages tissues within the body, causing symptoms
such as diarrhoea, vomiting, loss of hair and convulsions.
• Genetic abnormalities:- When radiation penetrates cell membranes, it can damage chromosomes within the
nucleus of the cell. The chromosomes contain all the genetic information for that person. If the chromosomes
are changed, this may lead to genetic abnormalities in any children that are born to the person who has been
exposed to radiation with defects such as babies born with missing limbs and abnormal growths.
• Cancer:- Small amounts of radiation can cause cancers such as leukemia (cancer of the blood)

The Uses of Radiation/ Radioisotopes

However, despite the many dangers of radiation, it does have many powerful uses, some of which are listed
below:
• Medical Field: - Radioactive chemical tracers emitting rays can give information about a person’s internal
anatomy and the functioning of specific organs. The radioactive material may be injected into the patient, from
where it will target specific areas such as bones or tumours. As the material decays and releases radiation, this
can be seen using a special type of camera or other instrument. The radioactive material that is used for this
purpose must have a short half-life so that the radiation can be detected quickly and also so that the material is
quickly removed from the patient’s body. Using radioactive materials for this purpose can mean that a tumour
or cancer may be diagnosed long before these would have been detected using other methods such as X-rays.
Radiation may also be used to sterilize medical equipment.
Radioactivity is used for
1. Preservation of food grains and seeds
2. Radio phosphorous is used for studying the rate of phosphorous assimilation by the plant.
27
3. It is used for finding out the faults in metal structures.
4. It is used for preparing synthetic elements (artificial transmutation)
5. In breeder reactors radiations are used to prepare the fuel / fissile material and to produce electricity in
Nuclear power plants.
6. Natural radioisotopes such as C-14 can be used to determine the age of organic remains. All living
organisms (e.g. trees, humans) contain carbon. Carbon is taken in by plants and trees through the process of
photosynthesis in the form of carbon dioxide and is then converted into organic molecules. When animals
feed on plants, they also obtain carbon through these organic compounds. Some of the carbon in carbon
dioxide is the radioactive C-14, while the rest is a non-radioactive form of carbon. When an organism dies,
no more carbon is taken in and the amount of C-14 in the body stops increasing. From this point onwards, C-
14 begins its radioactive decay which reduces the amount of C-14 in the body. When scientists uncover
remains, they are able to estimate the age of the remains by seeing how much C-14 is left in the body relative
to the amount of non-radioactive carbon. The less C-14 there is, the older the remains because radioactive
decay must have been taking place for a long time. Because scientists know the exact rate of decay of C-14,
they can calculate a relatively accurate estimate of the age of the remains. Carbon dating has been an
important tool in building up historical records.

Radioactive decay rates are normally stated in terms of their half-lifes, and the half-life of a given nuclear
species is related to its radiation risk. It is defined as the time it takes a radioactive nuclide to decay to half of
its original mass. The half-life of an element is the time it takes for half the atoms of a radioisotope to decay
into other atoms.

There are 2 types of nuclear reactions:- Nuclear fission & nuclear fusion
• Nuclear fission is the splitting of an atomic nucleus into smaller fission products. Nuclear fission produces
large amounts of energy, which can be used to produce nuclear power and to make nuclear weapons.
• Nuclear fusion is the joining together of the nuclei of two atoms to form a heavier nucleus. In stars, fusion
reactions involve the joining of hydrogen atoms to form helium atoms. These reactions take place in the Sun.

UNIT 3 - CHEMICAL BONDING

OBJECTIVES
1. To introduce basic ideas of bonding in molecules (covalent, ionic, hydrogen bonding, polar and coordinate
bonding, metallic bonding)
2. To introduce the concept of intermolecular forces of attraction and explain how they affect the properties
of compounds, molecules.

The forces that hold atoms together in compounds are called chemical bonds. One way that atoms can form
bonds is by sharing electrons. These bonds are called covalent bonds, and the resulting collection of atoms
is called a molecule.

Molecules can be represented in several different ways but the simplest method is the chemical formula, in
which the symbols for the elements are used to indicate the types of atoms present and subscripts are used to
indicate the relative numbers of atom, e.g. CO2, H2SO4
More information about a molecule is given by its structural formula, in which individual bonds are shown.
e.g. H- O-H. Water is a good example of a molecule formed by the sharing of electrons. Oxygen needs 2
electrons to complete its outer shell. Hydrogen needs one electron to complete its outer shell. The electron
from each of the hydrogen atoms and the 2 electrons from the single oxygen atom are shared by the outer shells
of both atoms.
Covalent bonds are usually formed when elements (usually non- metals) share outer shell electrons with each
other

A second type of chemical bond results from attractions among ions.

An ion is an atom or a group of atoms that has a net positive or negative charge. In other words, when the
number of protons and electrons in a particle are different, then it has an overall charge which is not equal to

28
zero.
A positive ion is called a cation e.g. Na+, Ca2+
2Na 2Na+ + 2 e-
An ion with a negative charge is called an anion e.g Cl-
Cl2 + 2e- 2 Cl-
Because anions and cations have opposite charges, they attract each other. This force of attraction between
oppositely charged ions is called ionic bonding or electrovalent bonding.
e.g 2Na+ + 2Cl- 2NaCl
An ionic bond is formed when two atoms transfer electrons. This type of bond is formed usually when a metal
transfers one or more electrons from its outer shell to another element (usually non - metal).
A solid consisting of oppositely charged ions is called an ionic solid, or a salt. Ionic solids can consist of simple
ions, as in sodium chloride, or in polyatomic ions, as in ammonium nitrate NH4 NO3

Which elements make ionic compounds? Two atoms are necessary - one atom, which can easily loose one
or more of its electrons and one that can accept them. The metals in group 1 and II of the periodic table have
the highest tendency to lose electrons and turn into positive ions. The non-metals of groups VI and VII have
the greatest affinity for electrons and readily change into negative ions.

PROPERTIES OF IONIC COMPOUNDS

1. High melting and boiling points
2. The energy needed to separate the particles is high
3. They are usually crystalline
4. Many are soluble in water
5. They do not conduct electricity when solid but are good conductors when molten or in solution.

POLAR BONDS AND ELECTRONEGATIVITIES

Hydrogen Chloride is a good example of a polar molecule. This is so because of its uneven distribution of
charge. One end of the molecule has a slightly positive charge and the other a slight negative charge.
H  - Cl 
+ −

Note that the bond is covalent. It’s small  and  charges do not make it an ionic substance.
− +

One way of predicting whether a molecule is polar is to use values of electronegativity. Electronegativity is a
measure we use to tell us how an element attracts electrons in a bond. The elements - fluorine and chlorine
tend to attract electrons to themselves very strongly. These elements have high values of electronegativity. On
the other hand, metals like sodium and potassium very rarely form negative ions. They tend to lose an electron
to make positive ions. These have low electronegativities.
Electronegativity increases across a Period and decreases down a Group.

What is coordinate bonding? Now consider the ammonia molecule. We know this to be a slightly distorted
tetrahedron, with a lone pair of electrons on the nitrogen atom. It so happens that ammonia and a hydrogen
proton combine with each other. The resulting molecule has a shape resembling two tetrahedra joined together.
There is an empty 1s orbital on the hydrogen (proton) atom, which could contain two electrons. It can gain
them by this orbital overlapping with the lone pair on the nitrogen atom in ammonia. We say that the nitrogen
donates its pair of electrons to the hydrogen atom. The name of the bond they make is a coordinate bond.
In some books the term dative covalent bond is used instead of coordinate bonding.

The Lewis theory of bonding describes a covalent bond as the sharing of a pair of electrons, but this does not
necessarily mean that each atom contributes an electron to the bond. A covalent bond in which a single atom
contributes both of the electrons to a shared pair is called a coordinate bond or a dative covalent bond.

METALLIC BONDS
The nature of the metallic bond: The structure of a metallic bond is quite different from covalent and ionic
bonds. In a metal bond, the valence electrons are delocalised, meaning that an atom’s electrons do not stay

29
around that one nucleus. In a metallic bond, the positive atomic nuclei (sometimes called the ’atomic kernels’)
are surrounded by a sea of delocalised electrons which are attracted to the nuclei
Definition: Metallic bond
Metallic bonding is the electrostatic attraction between the positively charged atomic nuclei of metal atoms
and the delocalised electrons in the metal.
The properties of metals
Metals have several unique properties as a result of metallic bonding:
• Thermal conductors: Metals are good conductors of heat and are therefore used in cooking utensils such as
pots and pans. Because the electrons are loosely bound and are able to move, they can transport heat energy
from one part of the material to another.
• Electrical conductors: Metals are good conductors of electricity, and are therefore used in electrical
conducting wires. The loosely bound electrons are able to move easily and to transfer charge from one part of
the material to another.
• Shiny metallic luster: Metals have a characteristic shiny appearance and are often used to make jewellery.
The loosely bound electrons are able to absorb and reflect light at all frequencies, making metals look polished
and shiny.
• Malleable and ductile: This means that they can be bent into shape without breaking (malleable) and can be
stretched into thin wires (ductile) such as copper, which can then be used to conduct electricity. Because the
bonds are not fixed in a particular direction, atoms can slide easily over one another, making metals easy to
shape, mould or draw into threads.
- Sonorous. Metals ring when struck with a hard object.
• Melting point: Metals usually have a high melting point and can therefore be used to make cooking pots and
other equipment that needs to become very hot, without being damaged. The high melting point is due to the
high strength of metallic bonds.
• Density: Metals have a high density because their atoms are packed closely together.

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
• There are three main types of Van der Waal’s forces. These are dipole-dipole, ion-dipole and London forces
(momentary dipole).
• Dipole-dipole forces exist between two polar molecules, for example between two molecules of hydrogen
chloride.
• Ion-dipole forces exist between ions and dipole molecules. The ion is attracted to the part of the molecule
that has an opposite charge to its own. An example of this is when an ionic solid such as sodium chloride
dissolves in water.
• Momentary dipole forces occur between two non-polar molecules, where at some point there is an unequal
distribution of charge in the molecule. For example, there are London forces between two molecules of carbon
dioxide.
• Hydrogen bonds are possible only with certain hydrogen-containing compounds because all atoms other than
H have inner-shell electrons to shield their nuclei from attraction by lone-pair electrons of nearby atoms. Only
F, O, and N easily meet the requirements for hydrogen-bond formation. Weak hydrogen bonding is
occasionally encountered between an H atom of one molecule and a Cl or S atom in a neighboring molecule.
Hydrogen bonds occur between hydrogen atoms and other atoms that have a high electronegativity such as
oxygen, nitrogen and fluorine. The hydrogen atom in one molecule will be attracted to the nitrogen atom in
another molecule, for example. There are hydrogen bonds between water molecules and between ammonia
molecules.
• Intermolecular forces affect the properties of substances. For example, the stronger the intermolecular forces,
the higher the melting point of that substance, and the more likely that substance is to exist as a solid or liquid.
Its boiling point will also be higher.
• In liquids, properties such as surface tension, capillarity and evaporation are the result of intermolecular
forces.
SUMMARY
A hydrogen bond is made between a hydrogen atom and a highly electronegative atom such as fluorine,
oxygen, chlorine or nitrogen. The hydrogen atom itself must be bonded to an atom with a high
electronegativity.
30
Hydrogen bonds are responsible for:
1. The relatively high melting and boiling points of water and hydrogen fluoride.
2. Holding the strands of DNA together.
Intermolecular hydrogen bonds occur between different molecules, e.g. between water and alcohol molecules,
or between ethanoic acid dimers.
Intermolecular hydrogen bonds occur between groups in the same molecule, e.g. in 2-nitrophenol
A coordinate bond (dative covalent bond) is a covalent between two atoms in which one of them provides
both electrons. The lone pair on an ammonia molecule is often used in coordinate bonding, e.g. to a hydrogen
ion as in NH4+

UNIT 4 - ACIDS AND BASES

OBJECTIVES
1. To give different definitions of acid and bases
2. To know what is an alkali.
3. To look at simple reactions between acids and bases to give salts.
4. To know what acid - base indicators are and when they can be used.
5. To explain the term pH and its importance

The standard definition of an acid in introductory chemistry books is: -

An acid will
(I) Give hydrogen with active metal,s
(ii) Neutralise a base to give a salt and water only, and
(iii) Give carbon dioxide with carbonates
This summarises a great deal of information about the properties of acids, but does not tell us anything about
their chemical structures except that they contain hydrogen as one of their elements.

DEFINITIONS OF ACIDS & BASES: There are different definitions of acids and bases. These include:
➢ Arrhenius definition: Acids dissociate in water releasing H3O+ ions; bases dissociate in water
releasing OH- ions.
➢ Brønsted-Lowry definition: Acids are proton (H+) donors; bases are proton acceptors. Includes the
Arrhenius definition.
➢ Lewis definition: Acids are electron-pair acceptors; bases are electron-pair donors. Includes the
Brønsted-Lowry definition.
BASES: These are hydroxides or oxides of metals, e.g. sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and potassium hydroxide
(KOH). They are obtained from nature when some plants are burnt to ash and the ash dissolved in water.
There is a special group of bases called alkalis identified because of their solubility in water. They are the
opposites of acids. They are used in homes to neutralize acids, remove greases and fats and powerful cleaning
detergents contain NaOH or KOH

ACID - BASE INDICATORS: Acid - base indicators change colour in acidic, alkaline or neutral conditions.
This allows them to be used to classify a substance dissolved in water as an acid, a base or a neutral substance.
Acid - base indicators can be natural or synthetic such as litmus, methyl orange and phenolphthalein.
Litmus turns red in any acid solution.
They are used to tell us when proper amounts of the acid or base have been added to give a neutral solution or
indicates colour change to show whether a solution is acidic, basic or neutral. The procedure is known as
titration.

Combination Suitable indicator Colour change

In acid In alkali
Strong acid + strong base Methyl orange Red Yellow
Strong acid + weak base Methyl red / orange Red Yellow
Weak acid + strong base Phenolphthalein Colourless Pink
31
 Weak acid + weak base Not suitable for titration

Strong acids: - Hydrochloric acid, Nitric acid and Sulphuric acid

Weak acids: - Acetic acid and phosphoric acid
Strong base: - Sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide
Weak base: - ammonia solution
SALTS
A salt is defined as a compound made up of the positive ions of a base and the negative ions of an acid.
Acids react with bases to give salt and water only.
e.g HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O
H2SO4 + Ca(OH)2 CaSO4 + 2H2O
Salts of sulphuric acid are called sulphates: salts of nitric acid- nitrates and hydrochloric acid - chlorides

ORGANIC ACIDS:- These are acids that have a carbon skeleton. They are produced by plants and animals.
Many of them are found in living things. They dissociate partially in neutral aqueous solutions and are
considered as weak acids.
Sources of these acids include:-

Acids Origin Acids Origin

Citric acid Citrus fruits eg. oranges and lemons Ascorbic acid Present in citrus fruits as Vitamin C
Tartaric acid Fruits eg. Grapes and tamarinds Methanoic acid Ant and nettle sting
Oxalic acid Tomato juice Uric acid Urine discharge
Lactic acid Sour milk Ethanoic acid Vinegar
Palmittic acid Palm oil Butanoic acid Rancid butter
Stearic acid Animal fat/ Tallow Oleic acid Olive oil
Arachidic acid Groundnut oil

pH scale
The pH scale is a number scale which shows the acidity or alkalinity of a solution in water. Most laboratory
solutions have pH values in the range 0 -14.
The scale ranges from 0 - 14. A pH of 1, for example, shows a strong acid solution. This means a very high
number of hydrogen ions present in the solution. A pH of 14 shows a strong basic solution having a very high
level of hydroxide ions. Pure water is neutral and has a pH of 7.
A solution with a pH less than 7 is acidic, having an excess of hydrogen ions. With a pH greater than 7, a
solution is basic, having an excess of hydroxide ions. A solution with a pH of 2 is more acidic than that with
a pH of 3 and a solution with a pH of 12 is more basic than that with a pH of 10.
The pH of a solution can be found using a Hydrion paper or liquid Universal indicator. This paper or liquid
changes colour when moistened with the solution. It is then compared with the colour scale. When the colours
match, the pH number can be read directly from the scale. A pH meter is also used and is more accurate than
the hydrion paper or Universal indicator
The approximate pH values of several common liquids are shown in the following table.
The approximate pH values of several common liquids are shown in the following table.

Liquid pH
Battery acid, hydrochloric acid 0
Gastric (stomach) juice 1
Lemon juice 2
Orange juice, soft drinks, vinegar 3
Tomato juice, acid rain 4
Black coffee, bananas 5
Urine, milk, distilled water 6
Pure water, tears 7
Sea water, egg white 8
32
 Baking soda 9
Milk of magnesia, toothpastes, detergents 10
Ammonia solution 11
Soapy water, lime water, sodium bicarbonate 12
Bleach, oven cleaner 13
Caustic soda 14

Exercise
1. A suspension of magnesium hydroxide in water is known as milk of magnesia. What is it used for
and why is it used?
2. Suggest a reason based on chemistry why the pH of toothpastes so high?

UNIT 5 - TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Objectives
1. To introduce the term chemical reaction and study several types of chemical reactions.
2. To look at some simple chemical reactions.
A chemical reaction is a process that always results in the interconversion of chemical substances. The
substance or substances initially involved in a chemical reaction are called reactants. Chemical reactions are
usually characterized by a chemical change, and they yield one or more products which are, in general,
different from the reactants. Classically, chemical reactions encompass changes that strictly involve the motion
of electrons in the forming and breaking of chemical bonds, although the general concept of a chemical
reaction, in particular the notion of a chemical equation, is applicable to transformations of elementary
particles, as well as nuclear reactions.
Different chemical reactions are used in combinations in chemical synthesis in order to get a desired product.
In order to make sense of all these reactions, we need some system for grouping reactions into classes.
Although there are many different ways to do this, we will use the system most commonly used by practicing
chemists.

REACTION TYPES
The large diversity of chemical reactions and approaches to their study results in the existence of several
concurring, often overlapping ways of classifying them. Below are examples of widely used terms for
describing common kinds of reactions.
1. Isomerisation, in which a chemical compound undergoes a structural rearrangement without any
change in its net atomic composition.
2. Direct combination or synthesis, in which 2 or more chemical elements or compounds unite to form
a more complex product:
N2 + 3 H2 → 2 NH3
3. Chemical decomposition or analysis, in which a compound is decomposed into smaller compounds
or elements:
2 H2O → 2 H2 + O2
4. Single displacement or substitution, characterized by an element being displaced out of a compound by a
more reactive element:
2 Na (s) + 2 HCl (aq) → 2 NaCl (aq) + H2 (g)
5. Metathesis or Double displacement reaction, in which two compounds exchange ions or bonds to form
different compounds:
NaCl (aq) + AgNO3 (aq) → NaNO3 (aq) + AgCl (s)
6. Acid-base reactions, broadly characterized as reactions between an acid and a base. An acid - base reaction
is often called a neutralization reaction. When just enough base is added to react exactly with the acid in a
33
solution, then it is said that the acid has been neutralized.
In all acid -base reactions, the following takes place.
H+ (aq) + OH- (aq) H2O (l)
e.g. HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O

7. Oxidation - Reduction reactions. Redox reactions are reactions in which changes in oxidation numbers
of atoms in involved species occur. Reactions, in which one or more electrons are transferred, are called
oxidation - reduction reactions or redox reactions. The concept of oxidation states (or oxidation numbers)
provides a way to keep track of electrons in oxidation reduction reactions, particularly redox reactions
involving covalent substances.

In general - oxidation is an increase in the oxidation state (loss of electrons)

Reduction is a decrease in oxidation state (a gain of electrons)
2Na (s) + Cl2 2NaCl (s)
Sodium is oxidized and chlorine is reduced. Chlorine is called the oxidizing agent (electron acceptor) and
sodium is the reducing agent (electron donor)
CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) CO2 (g) + 2H2O (g)
i.e. Carbon is oxidized
Oxygen is reduced
CH4 is the reducing agent
O2 is the oxidizing agent
8. Combustion, a kind of redox reaction in which any combustible substance combines with an oxidizing
element, usually oxygen, to generate heat and form oxidized products. The term combustion is usually used
for only large-scale oxidation of whole molecules, i.e. a controlled oxidation of a single functional group is
not combustion.
9. Precipitation reactions
When two solutions are mixed, an insoluble substance sometimes forms; that is, a solid forms and separates
from the solution. Such a reaction is called a precipitation reaction, and the solid that form is called a
precipitate. For example, a precipitation reaction occurs when an aqueous solution of Potassium Chromate,
K2Cr2O7 (aq), which is yellow, is added to a colourless aqueous solution containing Barium Nitrate, Ba(NO3)2
(aq), a yellow precipitate forms.
What is corrosion and how can it be prevented?
Definition: Corrosion is the slow but continuous eating away of metallic components by chemical or Electro
chemical attack. It is an oxidation – reduction reaction.
Corrosion prevention processes are not able to eliminate the inevitable failure of a component by corrosion
but, before this occurs, the treatment can have slowed down the corrosion process to a point where the
component will have worn out or been discarded for other reasons. Most of the cost of corrosion and its
prevention is related to atmospheric corrosion. When exposed to atmospheric conditions any metal becomes
covered with a thin film of moisture. This moisture film is then contaminated by solids and gases dissolved
in the atmosphere and these increase the rate of corrosion.
Rate of corrosion: - Marine < Rural < Urban < Industrial < chemical
Note: - rusting will not take place in dry air or in water free from dissolved air (boiled water).
CORROSION PROTECTION
Since non- ferrous metals form oxides, which protect the metals from further corrosion, the corrosion
prevention methods below apply to iron and steel.

For short-term protection: - Iron and steel components may be coated with oil or grease. For long time
protection this is not used. Instead the following can be used:-
1. Electroplating – using nickel, chromium, copper
2. Galvanising – using zinc
3. Anodising – using aluminium or
4. Painting: Protection using paint is one of the most common methods. This is effective if the surface is
free from corrosion and clean when the paint is applied and continues as long as it excludes air and moisture.
34
Paint acts not only as to prevent corrosion but also provides a decorative appearance.

EXERCISE: Name three other oxidizing agents and three other reducing agents.
List three applications of redox reactions in the industry.

UNIT 6 - ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

Objectives
1. To distinguish between the properties of organic and inorganic compounds
2. To explain the reason for the existence of a very large number of carbon compounds
3. To understand and define the following terms
• Saturated and unsaturated straight-chain and branched-chain hydrocarbons
• Isomers
• Fuels, Gasoline and Octane rating
4. To compare the products formed by complete and incomplete combustion of a hydrocarbon fuel
5. To study the uses of Petroleum products and natural gas.

Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds but not all carbon compounds are termed organic. The
name organic chemistry originated from the fact that all the compounds initially studied were all isolated from
living organisms. Nowadays, most organic compounds are synthetic.
Carbon compounds make up the structure of all living things.
The basic laws of chemistry hold both for organic and inorganic compounds. There are however, a few
differences in the reactions of organic compounds compared with inorganic compounds. In general, these
differences are-:
1. Most organic compounds are insoluble in water. They will however dissolve in organic liquids such
as alcohol, ether, etc. Most inorganic compounds dissolve, more or less readily in water.
2. Organic compounds will decompose on heating more readily than inorganic compounds. Some even
vaporize without breaking down.
3. Reactions involving organic compounds proceed at a much slower rate than do reactions between
inorganic compounds.
4. Organic compounds, existing as molecules are formed from the elements by covalent bonding, i.e.
sharing of electrons. Most inorganic compounds are formed as a result of ionic bonding i.e. transfer of
electrons.
Types of organic compounds:- Hydrocarbons made up the largest and simplest group of organic
compounds. These are compounds that are composed only of hydrogen and carbon. Other important organic
groups include -: Alcohols, Aldehydes, Organic acids, Ketones, Esters, Ethers, amines, amino acids etc. These
contain other elements such as oxygen and nitrogen. Compounds in each of these basic groups have similar
properties and molecular structure. Other organic compounds found in foods are proteins, carbohydrates, fats,
oils and vitamins.
The hydrocarbons include many important compounds. These hydrocarbons are placed into series. The
simplest and most abundant series of hydrocarbons is called the alkane series. They differ from one another
chiefly in the number of links in the chain. The first compound in this series is the gas - methane (CH4) or
marsh gas, which is the main component of natural gas.
Structural formulae are used to represent organic compounds. In many organic compounds, several
arrangements of atoms in a molecule are possible. For this reason, a number of carbon compounds have the
same simple chemical formula. To avoid confusion, chemists often show the arrangement of atoms in a
molecule by means of a structural formula.
Hydrocarbons can be saturated i.e. every carbon atom in the compound shares a single bond with another
carbon atom or hydrogen atom. They are said to be unsaturated if double or triple bonds exists in the compound.
In such cases more hydrogen atoms can be added to the compound.
In certain hydrocarbons, the carbon atoms are linked or bonded together in long, straight chains. However,
many hydrocarbons starting with butane (C4H10) also form chains, or branched chains. The carbon atoms can
be attached in either a straight chains or a branched chain. Carbon atom forms a branched chain bonding on to
the middle carbon atom.
35
Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but are not identical. The greater the number of
carbon atoms in a chain, the more isomers the compound is likely to have.
Arenes or aromatic hydrocarbons are another important group of hydrocarbon compounds which contain
benzene (C6H6), the first member. The general formula for this series is CnH2n-6
Gasoline contains many hydrocarbons. It is a complex mixture of compounds of the alkane series. Octane is
one of the important hydrocarbons in gasoline the amount and kind of isomers in gasoline affect its quality.
Gasoline with branched chain hydrocarbons burns more slowly than compounds. Petrol is a mixture of gasoline
and other substances to improve on its performance. Sometimes the mixture of gasoline and air burns too
quickly in a car engine. This results in blows which are called knockings and can result in engine damage.
Knocking can be prevented by
a) using a slower burning fuel and
b) by adding catalyst to the gasoline.
The ability of a gasoline to resist knocking is expressed by a rating called the octane number the higher the
octane number; the more knock resistant the gasoline.

Anything that burns gives out heat. A fuel is a substance that can be burned to produce heat at a reasonable
cost. Fuels contain potential energy that is locked within their chemical bonds.
The word petroleum is derived from the Latin "Petra" - rock and ' Oleum' - Oil. Crude oil is a slippery mixture
with a strong odour made up of thousand of compounds. Crude oil is separated in to a large number of products
by refining (fractional distillation and vacuum distillation) to give fractions such as.
Gases - used as fuel and raw material for the industry
Gasoline and naphtha – used to make the fuel known as petrol and solvent
Kerosene - fuel, jet fuel and raw material for the industry
Light gas oil - diesel and light generator fuel and raw material for the industry
Heavy gas oil - to make lubricants and also as heavy fuels for furnaces and generators eg. NAWEC
Residue –on further processing produces
Wax- for candles, polishes etc
Residual oil – heavy fuel for furnaces etc and
Asphalt – for road construction and roofing
Many homes and hotels in the Gambia use Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) as a fuel for cooking and heating.
This is somehow different from natural gas which is almost entirely made up of the hydrocarbon called marsh
gas (methane) because it is found bubbling from the water in warm, marshy areas. In developed countries,
natural gas is used and is supplied through pipes the same way as water is supplied in the Gambia. Methane
and the other petroleum gases are colourless and odourless gases and therefore tiny amounts of pungent
smelling substances such as ethanethiol are added to these gases by Law before delivery to consumers so that
leakages can be easily detected.

Complete combustion takes place when a fuel burns with enough oxygen to support the burning process.
Under this condition, carbon dioxide, water and energy are products formed. The colour of the flame is blue.
CH 4 + 2O2 → CO2  +2 H 2O + energy
When there is a shortage of oxygen, incomplete combustion occurs and the resulting products are carbon
monoxide, water energy. Carbon monoxide is a poisonous gas. The colour of the flame is red or yellow.
2CH 4 + 3O2 → 2CO  +4 H 2O + energy
1. Compare the burning of natural gas to that of kerosene, charcoal and firewood.
2. Explain why kerosene lamps and candles produce smoke whereas a gas lighter does not.
3. What is Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)?
4. Why is it necessary to add pungent smelling substances to methane and LPG?
UNIT 7
WATER & THE ENVIRONMENT –POLLUTION & GLOBAL WARMING
Objective:
• To explain why water is a good solvent and why it exists in a liquid phase at room temperature.
• To explain the uses of water

36
• To explain Global Warming and depletion of the Ozone Layer
• To explain present environmental concerns and pollution

WATER: AN EVER-PRESENT COMPOUND: Water has some remarkable properties. Pure water is a
liquid that has no colour, or taste. You have seen that it exists in all three phases: solid, liquid and gas. Under
normal conditions, water freezes at 0oC and boils at 100oC.
In many ways, water is a most remarkable compound. Almost all liquids shrink when they freeze. For instance
when a beaker full of melted wax is allow to cool, a hollow will form in the center where the freezing liquid
shrinks. Unlike wax, water expands when it freezes. When a tank full of water freezes, it exerts about 20 000
Newtons (N) of force on each square centimeter of the tank. A tightly sealed container filled with water may
burst when the water freezes, even if it is quite strong. Water pipes and car radiators are likely to burst in winter
if the water in them freezes. When water at 0°C is warmed, it shrinks until the temperature reaches 4°C. At
4°C, water reaches its greatest density. Then, as it is warmed further, the water slowly expands.
Chemically, water is a very stable compound. Thus, water does not break apart until it is heated to about
2700oC. Water is a good solvent. Water is covalent molecule that is formed when an oxygen atom shares a
pair of electrons with each of two hydrogen atoms. It has been shown that a water molecule has a bent structure.
The angle of bonding, or bond angle, is 105°. Water is a polar solvent, that is, it contains small positive and
negative charges caused by the slight movement of electrons in the covalent bonds.
Like all molecules, water molecules are electrically neutral. However, the hydrogen ends are somewhat
positive. The oxygen atom at the opposite end is somewhat negative. A lopsided molecule of this type is called
a polar molecule. The polar, covalent property of the water molecule is one of the main reasons why water is
such a good solvent. Because of its polar nature, the water molecule can attract other molecules or ions of a
solute, surround them, and pull them into as CO2 (O = C = O), is a symmetrical, or nonpolar covalent molecule.

Water molecules are attracted to each other by weak forces. Water molecules are held to each other by the
attraction of the positive hydrogen ends of each water molecule to negative oxygen ends of other water
molecules. Thus, a weak but effective hydrogen bond is formed. Water is not simply a group of separate H2O
molecules, but rather a large number of H2O molecules linked together. Water is a liquid at room temperature
because of the formation of molecular groups by hydrogen bonding. If hydrogen bonding did not exist, water
would be a gas at room temperature.
Hydrogen bonds play an important part in fixing the melting and boiling points of many substances. These
bonds cause the open structure of ice crystals. This open structure accounts for the fact that ice has a lower
density than water. Hydrogen also forms similar bonds with fluorine (hydrogen fluoride -HF) and with nitrogen
(Ammonia-NH3)
IMPORTANCE OF WATER IN THE INDUSTRY
Many industries use large quantities of water and are therefore situated alongside rivers or on the coast. The
water may be used for different reasons. These include as:-
- As an essential ingredient in the product, soft drinks, beer etc
- For water to cool parts of the process e.g. making electricity in a oil-or coal fired power station
- As a source of energy e.g. making electricity in a hydroelectric power station
- As a raw material which is removed during the process e.g., paper making

EXERCISE: Why is carbon dioxide a nonpolar compound whereas water is polar? How does this affect the
physical properties of these two compounds?

Greenhouse gases and global warming

The heating of the atmosphere: The distance of the earth from the sun is not the only reason that temperatures
on earth are within a range that is suitable to support life. The composition of the atmosphere is also critically
important. The earth receives electromagnetic energy from the sun in the visible spectrum. There are also small
amounts of infrared and ultraviolet radiation in this incoming solar energy. Most of the radiation is shortwave
radiation, and it passes easily through the atmosphere towards the earth’s surface, with some being reflected
before reaching the surface. At the surface, some of the energy is absorbed, and this heats up the earth’s surface.
But the situation is a little more complex than this.
A large amount of the sun’s energy is re-radiated from the surface back into the atmosphere as infrared
37
radiation, which is invisible. As this radiation passes through the atmosphere, some of it is absorbed by
greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, water vapour and methane. These gases are very important because
they re-emit the energy back towards the surface. By doing this, they help to warm the lower layers of the
atmosphere even further. It is this ’re-emission’ of heat by greenhouse gases, combined with surface heating
and other processes (e.g. conduction and convection) that maintain temperatures at exactly the right level to
support life. Without the presence of greenhouse gases, most of the sun’s energy would be lost and the Earth
would be a lot colder than it is!
Many of the greenhouse gases occur naturally in small quantities in the atmosphere. However, human activities
have greatly increased their concentration, and this has led to a lot of concern about the impact that this could
have in increasing global temperatures. This phenomenon is known as global warming. Because the natural
concentrations of these gases are low, even a small increase in their concentration as a result of human
emissions, could have a big effect on temperature. But before we go on, let’s look at where some of these
human gas emissions come from.
• Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Carbon dioxide enters the atmosphere through the burning of fossil fuels (oil, natural gas, and coal), solid
waste, trees and wood products, and also as a result of other chemical reactions (e.g. the manufacture of cement,
aluminium, iron etc). Carbon dioxide can also be removed from the atmosphere when it is absorbed by plants
during photosynthesis.
• Methane (CH4): -Methane is emitted when coal, natural gas and oil are produced and transported. Methane
emissions can also come from livestock and other agricultural practices and from the decay of organic waste.
• Nitrous oxide (N2O): -Nitrous oxide is emitted by agriculture and industry, and when fossil fuels and solid
waste are burned.
• Fluorinated gases (e.g. hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, and sulfur hexafluoride). These gases are all
synthetic, in other words they are man-made. They are emitted from a variety of industrial processes.
Fluorinated gases are sometimes used in the place of other ozone-depleting substances (e.g. CFC’s). These are
very powerful greenhouse gases, and are sometimes referred to as High Global Warming Potential gases (’High
GWP gases’).
Overpopulation is a major problem in reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and in slowing down global
warming. As populations grow, their demands on resources (e.g. energy) increase, and so does their production
of greenhouse gases.
Global warming is a very controversial issue. While many people are convinced that the increase in average
global temperatures is directly related to the increase in atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide, others
argue that the climatic changes we are seeing are part of a natural pattern. One way in which scientists are able
to understand what is happening at present, is to understand the earth’s past atmosphere, and the factors that
affected its temperature. One method that is used is ice core drilling.
Carbon dioxide emissions are a major problem worldwide. The Kyoto Protocol was signed in Kyoto, Japan in
December 1997. Its main objective was to reduce global greenhouse gas emissions by encouraging countries
to become signatories to the guidelines that had been laid out in the protocol. These guidelines set targets for
the world’s major producers to reduce their emissions within a certain time. After Kyoto, there have been
numerous Treaties to reduce Global warming but the debate still goes on.
Recently, World leaders gathered in 2015 in Paris to find ways and means of tackling global warming.

ISSUES OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERN

Our environment consists of natural systems that have operated in a delicate balance for a long period of time.
Although we can manipulate many natural systems, there are commonly many unforeseen consequences.
Natural systems adjust to artificial changes in ways that cannot be anticipated.
ENVIRONMENTAL INTERVENTION: The forces of nature and the activities of man modifying the
natural existence of the component of the eco system.
TYPES OF ENVIRONMENTAL INTERVENTION: These include:-
Natural intervention, Desert encroachment, Tectonic movement, Volcanic eruption, Earthquakes, Climate
changes
MAN MADE INTERVENTION: They include: Deforestation, Pollution, Hunting, Urbanization, Farm
activities & Construction
ENVIRONMENT BALANCE: This is the way of recycling matter and the flow of energy within an eco
38
system in other to ensure continuous supply
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION: Environmental pollution is the introduction of harmful
pollutants into a certain environment that makes an environment unhealthy to live in. The widespread
pollutants are usually chemicals, garbage, and wastewater. Environmental pollution is happening in
multifold parts of Earth usually in the form of air and water pollution.
Environmental pollution is causing massive damage to the ecosystem that organisms depend upon the health
of this environment to live in. Air and water pollution can cause death of myriad organisms in given
ecosystem, including humans.
In many developed countries laws have been introduced to regulate multifarious types of pollution and to
palliate the adverse effects of pollution. Pollution levels must be controlled at all the time if we want to keep
our environment safe and healthy. Without proper pollution control, the environment soon becomes
unhealthy and nothing will be able to live in it. Preventing introduction of pollutants into the environment is
the best way to protect the environment from pollution. To do this it is important to develop ecological
conscience of nearby communities and manage waste by recycling.
A healthy environment is prerequisite of healthy life and fighting pollution is definitely the best way to keep
the environment healthy.
What is pollution? Pollution is the introduction of a contaminant into the environment. It is created mostly
by human actions, but can also be a result of natural disasters. Pollution has a detrimental effect on any
living organism in an environment, making it virtually impossible to sustain life.
The three main types of pollution are:
1. Land Pollution: Land pollution is pollution of the Earth’s natural land surface by industrial, commercial,
domestic and agricultural activities. Some of the main contributors to land pollution are: Chemical and
nuclear plants, Industrial factories, Oil refineries, Human sewage, Oil and antifreeze leaking from cars,
Mining, Littering, Overcrowded landfills,(Banjul, Bakoteh & Brikama Dump sites), Deforestation &
Construction debris

NUCLEAR WASTE: The uses of nuclear reactors lead to two important environmental problems. The first
is that nuclear reactors produce by-products that are dangerously radioactive for many years. No satisfactory
way has been found for the safe storage or disposal of these nuclear wastes. The second problem is the chance
of an accident at the nuclear plant. Such accidents can have awful results. There may be immediate injuries
and the radioactivity may make the area around the plant unfit for people and animals for many years.

TOXIC WASTE: Toxic wastes are extremely poisonous by-products of some industrial process. Unlike
pollution, these substances do not enter the environment directly but are deposited at specific locations. Unless
deposed of with care, these waste pollutes the solid around them and any water body they come in contact
with. For many years toxic waste were dumped with little care, and their locations where not located and this
is a serious threat to health.
MINING WASTE: The waste products from mining operations include: 1. Tailing and Dumping, 2. Altered
terrains, 3. Changes in the composition of the surface, and 4. Soil, liquid and gaseous wastes produced by
refining.
SOLID WASTE: Solid wastes are disposed of in many ways, including land filling, incinerating, composite,
open dumping, animal feed, fertilizing and disposing in ocean. The geological consequences include changes
in the surface of the land where the waste is deposited and changes in the environment (river, lake, oceans, and
groundwater) where the mass of waste is concentrated. The major problems with solid waste disposal involve
the disposal sites hydrological characteristic. These include the porosity and permeability of the rock in which
the fill is located and whether the waste deposit intersects the water table. The altered topography associated
and landfill is also critical because it can change the drainage and ground water condition. Perhaps the most
critical contamination problem is created as water passes through a landfill eg. Bakoteh dump site and other
dumping sites in the country, dissolve organic and inorganic compounds, and incorporate them into the
groundwater reservoirs.
2. Air Pollution: Air pollution is the accumulation of hazardous substances into the atmosphere that endanger
human life and other living matter. Some of the main contributors to air pollution are: Automobile emissions,
Tobacco smoke, Combustion (burning) of coal, burning of used tyres and some types of plastics, Acid rain,
Noise pollution from cars and construction, Power plants, Manufacturing plants, building construction, Large
39
ships, Paint fumes, Aerosol sprays, Wildfires, Nuclear weapons
3. Water Pollution: Water pollution is the introduction of chemical, biological and physical matter into
large bodies of water that degrade the quality of life that lives in it and consumes it. Some of the main
contributors to water pollution are: Factories, Refineries, Waste treatment facilities, Mining, Pesticides,
herbicides and fertilizers, Human sewage, domestic waste water (taking bath, washing bowls, cleaning our
homes), Oil spills, Failing septic systems, Soap from washing your cars, carpets, Oil and antifreeze leaking
from cars, Household chemicals, Animal waste etc.

BIOLOGY ASPECT
The study of living things
Levels of biological organization
1. The biosphere: the biosphere includes most regions of land, water bodies and the atmosphere.
2. The ecosystem: an ecosystem consists of all the living things in a particular area, along with all the non-
living components of the environment with which life interacts, example, soil, water, the atmospheric gases
and light, etc. all of earths ecosystems combined to make up the biosphere.
3. Communities: the entire array of organisms inhabiting a particular ecosystem is called a biological
community. Examples include plants, animals, fungi and other microorganisms.
4. Populations: it consists of all the individuals of a species living within a specified area.
5. Organisms: individual living things are called organisms.
6. Organ and organ systems: an organ carries out a particular function in the body. Stems and roots are the
major organs of the plants. Human organs include the brain, the heart, and the kidney. The organs of
humans, other complex animals and plants are organized into organ systems, each a team of organs that
cooperate in a specific function.
7. Tissues: a group of similar cells
8. Cells: life’s fundamental unit of structure and function.

The cell
a. Definition: - It is the structural and functional unit of a living organism. It was discovered by
Robert Hooke in 1665.
b. Classification of living things Based on the number of cells
i. Unicellular or a cellular organism: having only one cell e.g. Amoeba, euglena etc.
ii. Multicellular organism: more than one cell e.g. man, mango etc.

Structure of plant and animal cell

Functions of the organelles

1. Cell wall: - It’s the outer layer of the plant cell and it contains cellulose. It protects and supports the cell.
2. Cell membrane (plasma membrane): - It regulates what passes into and out of cell and also protect the
cell.
40
3. Endoplasmic reticulum: - They are network of internal membrane. It helps in transporting substances in
the cytoplasm.
4. Nucleus: - It’s a spherical structure which controls all the activities of the cell and stores the DNA.
5. Nucleolus: - It produces the ribosome for protein synthesis.
6. Golgi bodies: It functions in synthesis, packaging and distribution of materials.
7. Lysosomes: - They are sites for respiratory enzymes.
8. Ribosome: They are responsible for protein synthesis.
9. Mitochondria: - They are sausage like structures which is known as the power house of the cell.
10. Chloroplasts: - They contain chlorophyll which aid photosynthesis in green plants.
11. Chromosomes: - Long thread like structure which contains the DNA
12. Centrioles: - They are important in cell division.
13. Cytoplasm: It’s the transparent liquid in which all other organelles are suspended.

Similarities and difference between plant cell and animal cell

Similarities: - Both plant and animal cells have
(a) Ribosome (b) cell membrane (c) E R (d) Cytoplasm
(e) Nucleus (f) Mitochondria

Difference

Plant cell Animal cell

Chloroplast present Chloroplast absent
Cell wall present Cell wall absent
Large vacuole present Small vacuole present
Absent of centriole Centriole present
No flexible cell membrane Has flexible cell membrane

TYPES OF CELLS
1. ANIMAL CELLS
a. Sperm cells b. egg cells c. nerve cells d. muscle cell e. WBC f. RBC

2. PLANT CELLS
a. Root tip cells b. leaf epidermal cells

Movement of materials in and out of cells

1. DIFFUSION; it is the process by which molecules or ions move from a region of higher
concentration to a region of lower concentration until they are evenly distributed.

Factors affecting diffusion

a. State of matter
b. Molecular size
c. Difference in concentration
d. Temperature

Examples in plants
i. CO2 and O2 moves through the stomata in and out of leaves

ii. (H20) water vapor moves out of leaves

Examples in Animals
i. Exchange of O2 and nutrient from mother to fetus
ii. Exchange of gas in cellular organisms

2. OSMOSIS: it is the movement of water molecules from a region of dilute or a weaker solution to a
region of concentrated higher or stronger solution through a semi permeable membrane
41
Examples in plant
➢ Absorption of soil water by root hair
➢ Movement of H2O from cell to cell within a plant

Examples in animals
➢ Re absorption of water in the kidney
➢ Osmoregulation in unicellular

ASSIGNMENT 1
Discuss the following terms
i. Turgidity ii. flaccidity iii. Hemolysis iv. Plasmolysis v. hypotonic vi. Isotonic
vii. Hypertonic

3. Active Transport
It is the movement of dissolved substance from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher
concentration using energy from the cell

Examples
a. Movement of substances into the blood
b. Movement of ions into the root hairs

CELL DIVISION
There are two types of cell division namely mitosis and meiosis
a. Mitosis: this type of cell division occurs in somatic cells or body cells
Stages

i. Prophase: - Chromosomes condense and spindle fibers form between centrioles which moves
towards opposite poles
ii. Metaphase: - Spindle apparatus attaches to chromosome and they align along the spindle equator.
iii. Anaphase: - Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles.
iv. Telophase: Chromatids arrives at each pole cell division begins.

New cells
Each daughter cell receives chromosomes that are identical to those in the original nucleus (diploid cells)
Meiosis
It occurs in our gametes or sex cells

Meiosis 1
Prophase 1

❖ Homologous chromosomes condense and they pair up.

❖ Crossing over occurs
❖ Centrioles moves towards opposite poles

Metaphase 1
❖ Spindle apparatus attaches to chromosome
❖ Homologous pairs align along spindle equators

Anaphase 1
❖ Homologous pairs of chromosomes separate and moves to opposite poles

Telophase 1
❖ One set of paired chromosomes arrives at each pole and cell division begins.
42
Daughter cells
❖ It results into two daughter cells

Meiosis ii

Prophase ii
❖ Spindle fibers form and centrioles moves towards opposite poles

Metaphase ii
❖ Spindle apparatus attaches to chromosome along the equator.

Anaphase ii
❖ Sister chromatids separate and moves towards opposite poles

Telophase ii
❖ Chromatid arrives at each pole and division

Daughter cells
❖ It results into the formation of haploid cells.

Food

What is food?: - It is any substance which after consumption, digestion and absorption by the body, produces
energy, promotes growth and repair worn out tissues.

Classes of food

There are seven different classes of foods namely:

a. Carbohydrate b. proteins c. fats and oil (lipids)

d. mineral elements e. vitamins f. water g. roughages

Carbohydrates: - They contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. It may be converted as fats into the body.

Classes or types of carbohydrates

1. Monosaccharides: - They are known as simple sugar because they have a reducing action on
Benedicts and Fehling’s solution. They have a general formula of C6H12O6 E.g. galactose in milk,
glucose (blood sugar) from starchy foods, and in fruits and fructose (fruit sugar) in nectar, fruits and
honey.

2. Disaccharides: - They usually contains two monosaccharide units. They have a general formula of
C12H22O11 Eg. Sucrose in sugar cane, lactose (milk sugar) in milk and dairy products and maltose
found in grains, tubers and also cellubiose (from the partial hydrolysis of cellulose).
3. Polysaccharides: - These consist of several monosaccharide sugar joined together by chemical bonds.
Their general formula is (C6H10O5)n where n is large number e.g. starch, cellulose, glycogen, and
chitin.
Uses of carbohydrates
i. They serve as a useful source of energy eg. Glucose.
ii. They store food eg. starch in plants and glycogen in animals.
iii. They help in forming plants structure eg. Cellulose.

43
Proteins: they are extremely complex compounds of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur and
usually phosphorus eg. egg, meat, fish, milk. They are also compounds composed of many chains of amino
acids linked together by peptide linkages or bonds.

Classes of proteins
a. Animal protein: can be obtained from animals eg. Meat, egg etc.
b. Plant protein: can be obtained from plants eg. Ground nut, beans etc.

There are about 20 amino acids which must be obtained from protein in the food we eat. There are eight
essential amino acids for humans e.g lysine, valine etc. They are termed essential because the human body
cannot produce them and they must therefore be obtained from diet.
Non essential amino acids are these which can be produced by the human body from various sources, eg.
Glycine, alanine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid etc
a. Mostly fibrous protein: they are after strong and water insoluble any keratin (hair and nail) collagen
(Connective tissues) myosin (muscles)
b. Mostly globular protein: e.g enzyme, hemoglobin, insulin, antibodies.

Fats and Oils: They are organic compounds that are also insoluble in water.

Classes of lipids or fat

a. Triglycerides: they serve as energy reservoirs in vertebrates animals eg. Fats, oils, butter
b. Phospholipids: they are the main component of cell membrane eg. Lecithin.
c. Waxes: they are components of water repelling and lubricating secretion eg. Cutin.
d. Steroids: they are components cell membrane and precursors of many other molecules eg.
Cholesterol.

Function
i. They serve as energy storage
ii. They form key components of cell membrane
iii. They help to conserve water in plants
iv. They are components of animal cell membrane
v. They cushion vital internal organs in animals

Water-soluble vitamins

Nutrient Function Sources Deficiency

The 8 types of vitamin B-group vitamins help our A range of wholefoods• Weakness, tiredness,
B are: bodies use the energy- (such as meat, fish, or lightheadedness.

• thiamin (B1) yielding nutrients (such as wholegrains, fruits, • Heart palpitations and
shortness of breath.
• riboflavin (B2) carbohydrates, fat and leafy green vegetables
• Pale skin.
• niacin (B3) protein) for fuel. Some B- peanut butter, legumes,
• A smooth tongue.
• pantothenic acid group vitamins are needed poultry, enriched
(B5) • Constipation, diarrhea,
to help cells to multiply by breads and cereals,
• pyridoxine (B6) loss of appetite, or gas.
•
making new DNA. nuts, seeds, orange
biotin (B7) • Nerve problems like
• folate or ‘folic juice and liver numbness or tingling,
acid’ (B9) muscle weakness, and
• cyanocobalamin problems walking.
(B12). • Vision loss.

44
Ascorbic acid • Collagen Found only in fruits • A severe lack
formation – and vegetables, of vitamin C
(vitamin C) collagen is used in can lead to
different ways especially citrus fruits, scurvy. Factors
throughout the vegetables in the or lifestyle
body. Its primary cabbage family, issues that may
role is to strengthen strawberries, peppers, increase your
the skin, blood tomatoes, potatoes, scurvy risk.
vessels and bone. fatigue and
The body also lettuce, papayas, generally
relies on collagen mangoes, kiwifruit feeling unwell
to heal wounds. • loss of appetite
• Antioxidant • nausea
function– the and diarrhoea
metabolism of • fever
oxygen within the • painful joints
body releases and muscles
molecular • small
compounds called ‘pinpoint’
‘free radicals’, bleeding
which damage cell around hair
membranes. follicles visible
Antioxidants are in the skin.
substances that
destroy free
radicals, and
vitamin C is a
powerful
antioxidant.
• Iron absorption –
the process of iron
absorption is aided
by vitamin C,
particularly non-
haem iron (found
in plant foods such
as beans and
lentils).
• Infection fighting –
the immune
system, particularly
cells called
lymphocytes,
requires vitamin C
for proper
functioning.
• Other roles –
vitamin C is used

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 to produce other
important
substances in the
body such as brain
chemicals
(neurotransmitters).

Fat-soluble vitamins
Fat-soluble vitamins are stored in the body's cells and are not excreted as easily as water-soluble vitamins.
They do not need to be consumed as often as water-soluble vitamins, although adequate amounts are needed.
If you take too much of a fat-soluble vitamin, it could become toxic. Your body is especially sensitive to too
much vitamin A from animal sources (retinol) and too much vitamin D. A balanced diet usually provides
enough fat-soluble vitamins.

Fat-soluble vitamins

Nutrient Function Sources

Vitamin A Needed for vision, Vitamin A from animal • Increased risk of

(and its healthy skin and mucous sources (retinol): fortified infections.
• Night blindness
precursor*, membranes, bone and milk, cheese, cream, butter, and irreversible
beta-carotene) tooth growth, immune fortified margarine, eggs, liver blindness.
system health • Excessive keratin
*A precursor is Beta-carotene (from plant build-up of the
converted by sources): Leafy, dark green skin.
the body to the vegetables; dark orange fruits
vitamin. (apricots) and vegetables
(carrots, sweet potatoes,
pumpkin)

Vitamin D Needed for proper Egg yolks, liver, fatty fish, deficiency can result in a
absorption of calcium; fortified milk, fortified decline in bone density in
stored in bones adult life, increasing the
margarine. When exposed to risk of:
sunlight, the skin can make
vitamin D. • osteoporosis
• falls and bone
fractures
(especially for
older people)
• rickets (in young
children) – a
preventable bone
disease

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 Vitamin E Antioxidant; protects cell Polyunsaturated plant oils Deficiency is rare but can
walls (soybean, corn, cottonseed); happen in people with
leafy green vegetables; wheat diseases that cause fat
germ; whole-grain products; malabsorption (like cystic
liver; egg yolks; nuts and seeds fibrosis).

Vitamin K Needed for proper blood Leafy green vegetables; also Excessive bleeding.
clotting produced in intestinal tract by Vitamin K deficiency is
bacteria unlikely except when fat
is not absorbed properly
or when certain
medications are used. For
example, antibiotics can
kill the gastrointestinal
bacteria that produce
vitamin K.

Genetics

It’s the Scientific study of heredity and variation.

Hereditary or inheritance: it refers to the transmission and expression of characters or traits from parents to
offspring

Variation: it is the difference that exists between parents and offspring as well as the offspring.

Define the following

1. Gene 2. Chromosome 3. Traits 4. Gametes 5. hereditary 6. Phenotype 7. Genotype 8. Dominant gene
9. Recessive gene 10. Homozygous 11. Heterozygous 12. Hybrid 13. allele

Mendel’s First law: - (Segregation of genes)

The Law startes that a pair of homologous chromosome separates during meiosis and end up in different
gametes.

Mendel’s Second Law of independent assortment:

It states that each pair behaves as a separate unit and it is inherited independently of each other.

Monohybrid inheritance
1. Tall and short plants
2. Red flowers cross with white flowers
3. Sex linked
4. A man of blood group O married a woman of blood group A. The woman gave birth to a child of
blood group AB. With aid of a diagram, show if the man is the biological father of the child.

ASSIGNMENT 2
1. List three genetic effects in humans
2. State four importances of genetics
THANK YOU & BEST WISHES

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