Unit 3: Motivation:

Motivation:
forces acting either on or within a person to initiate behavior. The word is derived from the Latin term
motives (“a moving cause”), which suggests the activating properties of the processes involved in
psychological motivation.

Psychologists study motivational forces to help explain observed changes in behavior that occur in an
individual. Thus, for example, the observation that a person is increasingly likely to open the refrigerator
door to look for food as the number of hours since the last meal increases can be understood by invoking
the concept of motivation. As the above example suggests, motivation is not typically measured directly
but rather inferred as the result of behavioral changes in reaction to internal or external stimuli. It is also
important to understand that motivation is primarily a performance variable. That is, the effects of
changes in motivation are often temporary. An individual, highly motivated to perform a particular task
because of a motivational change, may later show little interest for that task as a result of further change
in motivation.

Motives are often categorized into primary, or basic, motives, which are unlearned and common to both
animals and humans; and secondary, or learned, motives, which can differ from animal to animal and
person to person. Primary motives are thought to include hunger, thirst, sex, avoidance of pain, and
perhaps aggression and fear. Secondary motives typically studied in humans include achievement, power
motivation, and numerous other specialized motives.

Motives have also sometimes been classified into “pushes” and “pulls.” Push motives concern internal
changes that have the effect of triggering specific motive states. Pull motives represent external goals
that influence one’s behavior toward them. Most motivational situations are in reality a combination of
push and pull conditions. For example, hunger, in part, may be signaled by internal changes in blood
glucose or fat stores, but motivation to eat is also heavily influenced by what foods are available. Some
foods are more desirable than others and exert an influence on our behavior toward them. Behavior is,
thus, often a complex blend of internal pushes and external pulls.

Technical Definition of Motivation:

Here are six technical definitions of motivation according to different psychological perspectives:

1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (1943):

Motivation is the process by which individuals are driven to fulfill a hierarchy of needs, starting with
basic physiological needs and advancing toward self-actualization. Maslow’s theory suggests that people
are motivated to satisfy unmet needs, progressing from survival-based needs to psychological and self-
fulfillment needs.

Reference: Maslow, A. H. (1943). A Theory of Human Motivation. Psychological Review, 50(4), 370–396.

2. Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985):

Motivation is the process through which an individual is driven by the need for autonomy, competence,
and relatedness. Motivation can be intrinsic (driven by internal satisfaction) or extrinsic (driven by
external rewards), and it is stronger when activities align with an individual's sense of autonomy.

Reference: Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human
behavior. Springer Science & Business Media.

3. Drive Theory (Hull, 1943):

Motivation is an internal state of tension that is triggered by physiological needs. According to this
theory, when an organism’s needs are not met, it experiences a drive that motivates it to perform
actions to reduce the tension and restore homeostasis.

Reference: Hull, C. L. (1943). Principles of behavior. Appleton-Century-Crofts.

4. Vroom’s Expectancy Theory (1964):

Motivation is a cognitive process where individuals decide how to act based on the expected outcomes
of their actions. People are motivated to act if they expect that their efforts will lead to desirable
outcomes, which are valued.

Reference: Vroom, V. H. (1964). Work and motivation. Wiley.

5. Attribution Theory (Weiner, 1985):

Motivation is influenced by how individuals attribute causes to their successes and failures. People are
motivated to succeed when they attribute their achievements to internal, controllable factors (e.g.,
effort) and failures to external, uncontrollable factors.

Reference: Weiner, B. (1985). An attributional theory of achievement motivation and emotion.

Psychological Review, 92(4), 548–573.

6. Self-Efficacy Theory (Bandura, 1977):

Motivation is influenced by an individual’s belief in their ability to successfully perform a task. People are
more motivated to take on challenges and persist in difficult situations if they believe they have the skills
and resources to succeed.

Reference: Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change.

Psychological Review, 84(2), 191–215.

Factors of motivation:
Lots of factors of motivation we need during our work period here we explain according to employs
Keeping employees motivated is the biggest challenge for companies for
ensuring that they give a high productive output at work and help in
achieving company goals. A positive motivation amongst employees helps
drive the business positively & enhances creativity. On the other hand, a
demotivated employee will not contribute efficiently and slowdown progress
at workplace. The key elements & top factors which influence employees in
business or people in general are as follows:

1. Salary:
Monetary compensation & benefits like gross salary, perks, performance
bonuses etc. are the biggest motivation factors. The better the salary and
monetary benefits, the higher is the motivation level & passion of a person
towards a job.

2. Recognition:
Rewards, recognition, accolades etc. are important for ensuring high enthusiasm levels for an employee.
If the hard work of an individual is appreciated, it keeps them motivated to perform better.

3. Work Ethics:
Ethical working environment, honesty etc. are important factors for any individual. Good work ethics in a
company helps keep employees motivated at work place.

On the other hand, if the work environment is not ethical, then the workforce might be demotivated.

4. Transparency with Leadership:

The leadership in an organization helps in employee motivation if there are transparent discussion and
flatter hierarchies. The senior management has to ensure that all subordinates are happy, focused &
motivated.

5. Culture at Work:
A good, vibrant, positive culture at workplace is always an important factor.

People from different backgrounds, religions, countries etc. working together helps create a social bond
at workplace.

6. Learning and Development:

Another factor influencing is the training and development opportunities that a person gets. L&D helps
individuals develop more skills and have better opportunities in their professional career.

7. Work Life Balance:

Having a good quality of work life (QWL) helps in the motivation of people. A good work life balance
ensures that a person can give quality time to both office work as well as family.
8. Career Growth Opportunities:
Career development opportunities have a positive influence on the motivation of any person. If a person
knows their future & career path is secure, they tend to work with more passion.

9. Health Benefits:
Health benefits, insurance & other incentives act as a source of motivation for people. If the medical
bills, hospitalization charges etc. are taken care of by the company, it helps build a strong trust.

10. Communication:
A positive & transparent communication between managers and subordinates gives a sense of belonging
and adds to the employee’s motivation. Discussion related to work as well as personal life help make a
friendly bond at workplace.

There are not finite factors influencing positive attitude of an employee. These keep on changing
depending upon the type of environment, job responsibility, experience in life etc. Hygiene Factors of
motivation are also given by the Hygiene Theory.

Type Of Motivation:
It is driven by several factors which influences the behavior and
attitude of an individual. Based on the different factors and the kind of
impact it has on a person, there are different types of motivation. The
different types of motivation in people are:

1. Intrinsic Motivation:
This type comes from within a person to do a task or achieve a
particular goal. It is a feeling of being self-driven and achieving objectives for oneself. Intrinsic motivation
is driven by motives like social acceptance, eating food, desires to achieve goals, biological needs etc.

2. Extrinsic Motivation:
This type drives an individual due to external forces or parameters. Some other person or organization
motivates the individual to work hard to achieve certain goals or tasks. Extrinsic motivation is driven by
motives like financial bonus, rewards, appreciation, promotion, punishment, demotion etc.

3. Positive Motivation:
This type drives an individual by offering positive accolades and rewards for performing a task. In this
type of motivation, the individual is rewarded by monetary benefits, promotions etc. which drives an
individual to work hard.

4. Negative Motivation:
This is where fear and threat are used as a parameter to get the work done. In this type of motivation,
individuals are threatened with things like demotion, reducing benefits, withdrawing merits etc.
For every individual, all the types are interlinked based on which he or she takes an action. The resultant
behavior of any person is basis the motivation types he or she has been influenced by.

Motivation Theories:
Motivation theory is a way of looking at the motivation of a person and how this influences their
behavior, whether for personal or professional reasons. It's important to every aspect of society but is
especially relevant to business and management. Motivation is the key to more profitable employees, as
a motivated employee is more productive.

Motivation is a huge field of study. Psychologists have proposed many different theories of motivation.
Some of the most famous motivational theories include the following:

1. Maslow’s Theory of Hierarchical Needs

Abraham Maslow postulated that a person will be motivated when all
his needs are fulfilled. People do not work for security or money, but
they work to contribute and to use their skills. He demonstrated this
by creating a pyramid to show how people are motivated and
mentioned that ONE CANNOT ASCEND TO THE NEXT LEVEL UNLESS
LOWER-LEVEL NEEDS ARE FULFILLED. The lowest level needs in the
pyramid are basic needs and unless these lower-level needs are
satisfied people do not look at working toward satisfying the upper-
level needs.

Below is the hierarchy of needs:

 Physiological needs: are basic needs for survival such as

air, sleep, food, water, clothing, sex, and shelter.

 Safety needs: Protection from threats, deprivation, and other dangers (e.g., health, secure
employment, and property)

 Social (belongingness and love) needs: The need for association, affiliation, friendship,
and so on.

 Self-esteem needs: The need for respect and recognition.

 Self-actualization needs: The opportunity for personal development, learning, and

fun/creative/challenging work. Self-actualization is the highest-level need to which a human
being can aspire.

The leader will have to understand at what level the team members are currently, and seek out to help
them to satisfy those specific needs and accordingly work to help fulfil those needs. This will help the
team members perform better and move ahead with the project. A PMP certification will help you better
understand this concept. Also, as their needs get fulfilled, the team members will start performing, till
the time they start thinking of fulfilling the next upper level of need as mentioned in the pyramid.
2. Hertzberg’s two-factor Theory
Hertzberg classified the needs into two broad categories; namely hygiene factors and motivating factors:

 poor hygiene factors may destroy motivation but improving them under most circumstances will
not improve team motivation

 hygiene factors only are not sufficient to motivate people, but motivator factors are also
required

Herzberg’s two-factor principles

Influenced by Hygiene Factors Improving motivator factors Influenced by motivator factors

(Dis-satisfiers) increases job satisfaction (Satisfiers)

 Working condition Improving the hygiene factors  Achievements

decreases job dissatisfaction
 Coworker relations  Recognition

 Policies & rules  Responsibility

 Supervisor quality  Work itself

 Personal growth

3. McClelland’s Theory of Needs:

McClelland affirms that we all have three motivating drivers, which do not depend on our gender or age.
One of these drives will be dominant in our behaviour. The dominant drive depends on our life
experiences.

The three motivators are:

 Achievement: a need to accomplish and demonstrate own competence. People with a high
need for achievement prefer tasks that provide for personal responsibility and results based on
their own efforts. They also prefer quick acknowledgment of their progress.

 Affiliation: a need for love, belonging and social acceptance. People with a high need for
affiliation are motivated by being liked and accepted by others. They tend to participate in social
gatherings and may be uncomfortable with conflict.

 Power: a need for controlling own work or the work of others. People with a high need for
power desire situations in which they exercise power and influence over others. They aspire for
 positions with status and authority and tend to be more concerned about their level of influence
than about effective work performance.

4. Vroom’s Theory of Expectancy

Vroom’s expectancy theory of motivation says that an individual’s motivation is affected by their
expectations about the future. In his view, an individual’s motivation is affected by –

 Expectancy: Here the belief is that increased effort will lead to increased performance i.e., if I
work harder then it will be better. This is affected by things such as:

o Having the appropriate resources available (e.g., raw materials, time)

o Having the appropriate management skills to do the job

o Having the required support to get the job done (e.g., supervisor support, or correct
information on the job)

 Instrumentality: Here the belief is that if you perform well, then the outcome will be a
valuable one for me. i.e., if I do a good job, there is something in it for me. This is affected by
things such as:

o A clear understanding of the relationship between performance and outcomes – e.g.,

the rules of the reward ‘game’

o Trust in the people who will take the decisions on who gets what outcome

o Transparency in the process decides who gets what outcome

 Valence: is how much importance the individual places upon the expected outcome. For
example, if someone is motivated by money, he or she might not value offers of additional time
off.

Motivation = V * I * E
The three elements are important when choosing one element over another because they are clearly
defined:

 E>P expectancy: our assessment of the probability that our efforts will lead to the required
performance level.

 P>O expectancy: our assessment of the probability that our successful performance will lead
to certain outcomes.

5. McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y

Theory X and Theory Y were first explained by McGregor in his book, "The Human Side of Enterprise,"
and they refer to two styles of management – authoritarian (Theory X) and participative (Theory Y).

Theory X:
Managers who accept this theory believe that if you feel that your team members dislike their work,
have little motivation, need to be watched every minute, and are incapable of being accountable for
their work, avoid responsibility and avoid work whenever possible, then you are likely to use an
authoritarian style of management. According to McGregor, this approach is very "hands-on" and usually
involves micromanaging people's work to ensure that it gets done properly.

Theory Y:
Managers who accept this theory believe that if people are willing to work without supervision, take
pride in their work, see it as a challenge, and want to achieve more, they can direct their own efforts,
take ownership of their work and do it effectively by themselves. These managers use a decentralized,
participative management style.

6. Alderfer’s ERG Theory:

C. P. Alderfer, an American psychologist, developed Maslow’s hierarchy of needs into a theory of his
own.

His theory suggests that there are three groups of core needs: existence (E), relatedness (R), and growth
(G). These groups are aligned with Maslow’s levels of physiological needs, social needs, and self-
actualization needs, respectively.

Existence needs:
Concern our basic material requirements for living, which include what Maslow categorized as
physiological needs such as air, sleep, food, water, clothing, sex and shelter and safety-related needs
such as health, secure employment, and property.

Relatedness needs
Have to do with the importance of maintaining interpersonal relationships. These needs are based on
social interactions with others and are aligned with Maslow’s levels of love/belonging-related needs such
as friendship, family, and sexual intimacy and esteem-related needs such as gaining the respect of
others.

Growth needs:
Describe our intrinsic desire for personal development. These needs are aligned with the other part of
Maslow’s esteem-related needs such as self-esteem, self-confidence, and achievement, and self-
actualization needs such as morality, creativity, problem-solving, and discovery.

Alderfer is of the opinion that when a certain category of needs is not being met, people will redouble
their efforts to fulfil needs in a lower category.

Maslow’s theory is very rigid and it assumes that the needs follow a specific and orderly hierarchy and
unless a lower-level need is satisfied, an individual cannot proceed to the higher-level need i.e., an
individual remains at a particular need level until that need is satisfied.

Whereas, according to Alderfer’s theory, if a higher-level need is aggravated, an individual may revert to
increasing the satisfaction of a lower-level need. This is called the frustration-regression aspect of ERG
theory. ERG theory is very flexible as Alderfer perceived the needs as a range/variety instead of
perceiving them as a hierarchy i.e., an individual can work on growth needs even if his existence or
relatedness needs remain unsatisfied.

For e.g., when growth needs aggravate, then an individual might be motivated to accomplish the
relatedness need and if there are issues in accomplishing relatedness needs, then he might be motivated
by the existence needs. Hence in this manner, frustration or aggravation can result in regression to a
lower-level need.

Another example could be, if someone’s self-esteem is suffering, he or she will invest more effort in the
relatedness category of needs.

Implications of the ERG Theory

All managers must understand that an employee has various needs that must be satisfied at the same
time. According to the ERG theory, if the manager focuses solely on one need at a time, then this will not
effectively motivate the employee. The frustration-regression aspect of ERG Theory has an added effect
on workplace motivation. For e.g., if an employee is not provided with growth and advancement
opportunities in an organization, then he or she might revert to related needs such as socializing needs.

To meet those socializing needs, if the environment or circumstances do not permit it, he might revert to
the need for money to fulfil those socializing needs. By the time the manager realizes and discovers this,
they will take more immediate steps to fulfil those needs which are frustrated until such time that the
employee can again pursue growth.

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Conclusion:
Motivation is the state of mind which pushes all human beings to perform to their highest potential, with
good spirits and a positive attitude. The various motivation theories outlined above help us to
understand what are the factors that drive motivation. It is a leader’s job to ensure that every individual
in the team and the organization is motivated, and inspired to perform better than their best. This is
neither quick nor easy, but in the long-term, the gains that are derived from happy employees far
outweigh the time and effort spent in motivating them!