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Mass Production of Beneficial
Organisms

Invertebrates and Entomopathogens

SECOND EDITION

EDITED BY

Juan A. Morales-Ramos
Biological Control of Pest Research Unit, National Biological Control
Laboratory, USDA-Agricultural Research Service, Stoneville, MS, United
States

M. Guadalupe Rojas
Biological Control of Pest Research Unit, National Biological Control
Laboratory, USDA-Agricultural Research Service, Stoneville, MS, United
States

David I. Shapiro-Ilan
p
USDA-ARS, Southeastern, Fruit and Tree Nut Research Unit, Byron, GA,
United States
Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

Dedication

List of contributors

Preface

Section I

Chapter 1. Introduction

Abstract

1.1 Challenges of mass-producing beneficial organisms

1.2 Challenges of arthropod mass production for biological


control
1.3 Challenges of mass-producing pathogens for biological
control

1.4 Challenges of mass-producing invertebrates for their


products and ecological services

References

Further reading

Chapter 2. Production of coleopteran predators

Abstract

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Foods and production of predators

2.3 Rearing density and production

2.4 Temperature and production

2.5 Quality control and production

2.6 Conclusions and recommendations

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 3. Production of heteropteran predators

Abstract

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Foods
3.3 Plant materials and alternatives

3.4 Abiotic conditions

3.5 Crowding and cannibalism

3.6 Microorganisms

3.7 Breeding and colony maintenance

3.8 Mass-rearing systems

3.9 Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 4. Production of dipteran parasitoids

Abstract

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Dipteran parasitoids as biocontrol agents

4.3 Aspects of dipteran parasitoid biology of special interest for


production

4.4 Production techniques

4.5 Perspectives and concluding remarks

References

Chapter 5. Production of hymenopteran parasitoids


Abstract

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Mass rearing of aphelinid parasitoids of the silverleaf


whitefly

5.3 Laboratory culture

5.4 Outdoor field cage production

5.5 Large-scale greenhouse-based system

5.6 Final remarks

5.7 Production of Tamarixia radiata Watson parasitoid of


Diaphorina citri Kuwayama

5.8 Diaphorina citri

5.9 Tamarixia radiata

5.10 Mass production

5.11 Host plant production

5.12 Production of Murraya paniculata

5.13 Sowing

5.14 Host insect production

5.15 Parasitoid production

5.16 Breeds of Tamarixia radiata established in other countries

5.17 Production of parasitoids of muscoid flies

5.18 Host production


5.19 Parasitoid rearing and housing

5.20 Production of Catolaccus grandis (Burks) parasitoid of the


boll weevil

5.21 Final remarks and future perspective

USDA disclaimer

References

Further reading

Chapter 6. Mass-production of arthropods for biological control of


weeds: a global perspective

Abstract

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Scope of mass-rearing of biological control agents of weeds

6.3 Critical factors in the design and use of mass-rearing


protocols in biological weed control

6.4 Case studies on mass-rearing in biological weed control

6.5 Summary and conclusions

6.6 Recommendations

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 7. Mass production of predatory mites: state of the art and


future challenges
g
Abstract

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Phytoseiidae

7.3 System 1: both tetranychid prey mites and predatory mites


are produced on plants in greenhouses

7.4 System 2: tetranychid prey mites are reared on plants in


greenhouses. The predator is reared in climate rooms on
detached leaves with prey mites

7.5 System 3: tetranychid prey mites are reared on plants in


greenhouses. The predator is reared in a climate room on pure
prey mite stages

7.6 System 4: predatory mites are grown on factitious food


sources

7.7 System 5: predatory mites grown on plants or parts thereof


using pollen

7.8 System 6: predatory mites are grown on artificial diet

7.9 Prey mite

7.10 Climate management

7.11 Intraspecific competition

7.12 Contamination management

7.13 Nonphytoseiid predatory mites

7.14 Diseases

7.15 Challenges and future prospects


References

Chapter 8. Artificial diet development for entomophagous


arthropods

Abstract

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Arthropod nutrition

8.3 Determining the basic diet formulation

8.4 Presentation

8.5 Diet refining

8.6 Future perspectives

8.7 Concluding remarks

References

Chapter 9. Concepts and methods of quality assurance for mass-


reared parasitoids and predators

Abstract

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Quality assurance in the marketplace

9.3 Customer involvement in quality assurance

9.4 Building a complete quality assurance system

9.5 Quality assessments of mass-reared natural enemies


9.6 Quality assurance and control data acquisition and analysis

9.7 Quality assurance system review

9.8 Research on quality assessment for mass-reared


parasitoids and predators

9.9 Conclusion

Acknowledgements

References

Section II

Chapter 10. Production of entomopathogenic nematodes

Abstract

10.1 Introduction

10.2 In vivo production

10.3 In vitro production—solid culture

10.4 In vitro production–liquid culture

10.5 Analysis and conclusion

10.6 Conclusion

References

Chapter 11. Mass production of entomopathogenic fungi—state of


the art
Abstract

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Production methods for the important insect pathogenic


fungi

11.3 Process and quality control in mass production

11.4 Current knowledge about the effect of cultural conditions on


propagule attributes

11.5 The challenge in mass production of entomopathogenic


fungi

References

Chapter 12. Commercial production of entomopathogenic bacteria

Abstract

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Biology of commercial entomopathogens

12.3 Pathogenesis and pest control impact

12.4 Culture selection and maintenance

12.5 Inoculum preparation

12.6 Fermentation

12.7 Recovery and concentration steps

12.8 Formulation

12.9 Formulation standardization


12.10 Quality assurance methods

12.11 Conclusion

References

Chapter 13. Production of entomopathogenic viruses

Abstract

13.1 Introduction

13.2 In vivo production of baculovirus-based biopesticides

13.3 In vitro production—current status

13.4 Limitations to bioreactor production of baculovirus-based


pesticides

13.5 Future research directions for bioreactor production of


baculovirus-based pesticides

13.6 Conclusion

Acknowledgements

References

Chapter 14. Formulations of entomopathogens as bioinsecticides

Abstract

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Biological considerations

14.3 Physical considerations


14.4 Additional considerations on formulation

14.5 Conclusions and future of biopesticide formulations

USDA disclaimer

References

Chapter 15. Mass production of entomopathogens in less


industrialized countries

Abstract

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Issues and opportunities for entomopathogen uptake in


less industrialized countries

15.3 Practical constraints for entomopathogen uptake in


developing countries

15.4 Production of entomopathogens in less industrialized


countries

15.5 Production of entomopathogenic fungi

15.6 Additional examples from other countries

15.7 Other systems

15.8 Mass production of baculoviruses

15.9 Other production systems

15.10 Generic production issues


15.11 Requirements for establishing biopesticide industries in
less-industrialized countries

Acknowledgments

References

Section III

Chapter 16. Potential and challenges for the use of insects as feed for
aquaculture

Abstract

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Insects in aquafeeds: performances and digestibility

16.3 Insects and fish health

16.4 Challenges and future perspectives

16.5 Conclusions

References

Chapter 17. The role of insects for poultry feed: present and future
perspective

Abstract

17.1 Introduction

17.2 General nutrient composition of insects and insect-derived


ingredients
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