Dr.

Satish Shukla 1 of 18

Engg. Math. I

Unit-I

Differential Calculus

Syllabus: Rolle’s theorem, mean value theorems, expansion of functions of one

variable, Taylors series Maclaurin series.

Rolle's Theorem. Let f be a function which is continuous everywhere on the

interval [a, b] and has a derivative at each point of the open interval (a, b). Also,
assume that
f (a) = f (b).
Then there is at least one point c in the interval (a, b) such that f 0 (c) = 0.

Proof. We prove the Rolle’s theorem geometrically.

f (a) f (b) f (a) f (b) f (a) f (b)

x=c c2
x=c c1
x=a x=b x=a x=b x=a x=b

(a) (b) (c)

Geometric Interpretation of Roll’s Theorem

Since f (a) = f (b) and function f is continuous in [a, b] we have the following three cases:

Case (a): Suppose that the function increases after point x = a. Since f (a) = f (b)
and function f is continuous, there must exists a point c such that a < c < b and f
has its maximum value at c. Therefore, we have f 0 (c) = 0.

Case (b): Suppose that the function decreases after point x = a. Since f (a) = f (b)
and function f is continuous, there must exists a point c such that a < c < b and f
has its minimum value at c. Therefore, we have f 0 (c) = 0.

Case (c): Suppose that the function increases after point x = a and then attains its
maximum values and then decreases and attains its minimum value, i.e., function
oscillates. Since f (a) = f (b) and function f is continuous, it finally returns to its
initial value. Thus, we have more than one point c1 , c2 , . . . such that a < c1 , c2 , . . . <
b and f has its maximum and minimum values at c1 , c2 , . . . . Therefore, we have
f 0 (c1 ) = f 0 (c2 ) = · · · = 0.

Thus, in each case we obtain the desired point c.

Example 1. Verify the Rolle’s theorem for f (x) = |x| in [−1, 1].
Dr. Satish Shukla 2 of 18

Sol: Here a = −1, b = 1. Given function f (x) is continuous in [−1, 1] and f (a) = f (1) =
|1| = 1, f (b) = f (−1) = | − 1| = 1, but we know that the function f (x) = |x| is not
differentiable at point x = 0, and 0 ∈ [−1, 1], therefore the Rolle’s theorem cannot be
verified. 

Example 2. Verify the Rolle’s theorem for f (x) = ex sin x in [0, π].

Sol: Here a = 0, b = π. Given function f (x) is continuous in [0, π] and f (a) = f (0) =
e0 sin 0 = 0, f (b) = f (π) = eπ sin π = 0, so f (a) = f (b). Also, the function f (x) = ex sin x
is differentiable at every point of the interval (0, π). Therefore, all the conditions of the
Rolle’s theorem are satisfied and by Rolle’s theorem, there exists 0 < c < π such that
f 0 (c) = 0. Then
d x
f 0 (x) = (e sin x) = ex sin x + ex cos x.
dx
Therefore,

f 0 (c) = 0 =⇒ ec sin c + ec cos c = 0 =⇒ ec [sin c + cos c] = 0

=⇒ sin c + cos c = 0 =⇒ (sin c + cos c)2 = 0
3π
=⇒ sin 2c = −1 =⇒ 2c =
2
3π
=⇒ c= .
4
3π
Since c = ∈ (0, π) the Rolle’s theorem is verified. 
4

h πi
Example 3. Verify the Rolle’s theorem for f (x) = sin 3x in 0, .
3
π h πi
Sol: Here a = 0, b = . Given function f (x) is continuous in 0, and f (a) = f (0) =
π 3   3
3π
sin 0 = 0, f (b) = f = sin = 0, so f (a) = f (b). Also, the function f (x) = sin 3x
3 3  π
is differentiable at every point of the interval 0, . Therefore, all the conditions of the
3  π
Rolle’s theorem are satisfied and by Rolle’s theorem, there exists c ∈ 0, such that
3
f 0 (c) = 0. Then
d
f 0 (x) = (sin 3x) = 3 cos 3x.
dx
Therefore,

f 0 (c) = 0 =⇒ 3 cos 3c = 0 =⇒ cos 3c = 0

π
=⇒ 3c =
2
π
=⇒ c= .
6
π  π
Since c = ∈ 0, the Rolle’s theorem is verified. 
6 3

h π πi
Example 4. Verify the Rolle’s theorem for f (x) = cos 2x in − , .
4 4
Dr. Satish Shukla 3 of 18

π π h π πi
Sol: Here a = − , b = . Given function f (x) is continuous in − , and f (a) =
 π  4  4   4 4
2π  π  2π
f − = cos − = 0, f (b) = f = cos = 0, so f (a) = f (b). Also, the
4 4 4 4  π π
function f (x) = cos 2x is differentiable at every point of the interval − , . Therefore,
4 4
all the
 conditions of the Rolle’s theorem are satisfied and by Rolle’s theorem, there exists
π π
c∈ − , such that f 0 (c) = 0. Then
4 4
d
f 0 (x) = (cos 3x) = −2 sin 2x.
dx
Therefore,

f 0 (c) = 0 =⇒ −2 sin 2c = 0 =⇒ sin 2c = 0

=⇒ 2c = 0
=⇒ c = 0.
 π π
Since c = 0 ∈ − , the Rolle’s theorem is verified. 
4 4

Example 5. Verify the Rolle’s theorem for f (x) = 2 + (x − 1)2/3 in [0, 2] .

Sol: Here a = 0, b = 2. Given function f (x) is continuous in [0, 2] and f (a) = f (0) =
2 + (0 − 1)2/3 = 3, f (b) = f (2) = 2 + (2 − 1)2/3 = 3, so f (a) = f (b). Note that f is not
differentiable in the interval (0, 2). Indeed:
d
2
f 0 (x) = 2 + (x − 1)2/3 = (x − 1)−1/3 .
dx 3
Therefore, f 0 (1) does not exist and since 1 ∈ (0, 2), therefore all the conditions of the
Rolle’s theorem are not satisfied, and so, it cannot be verified. 

Example 6. Verify the Rolle’s theorem for f (x) = x3 − 4x.

Sol: Here the interval where the theorem is to be verified is not given. To find the
interval put f (x) = 0, i.e.,

x3 − 4x =⇒ x(x2 − 4) = 0 =⇒ x = 0, ±2.

So we obtain the intervals [−2, 0], [0, 2] and [−2, 2]. Given function f (x) is a polynomial in
x, so, continuous and differentiable everywhere and f (−2) = f (0) = f (2) = 0. Therefore,
all the conditions of the Rolle’s theorem are satisfied and by Rolle’s theorem, there exists
c ∈ (0, 2) such that f 0 (c) = 0. Then
d
f 0 (x) = x3 − 4x = 3x2 − 4.


dx
Therefore,
2
f 0 (c) = 0 =⇒ 3c2 − 4 = 0 =⇒ c = ± √ .
3
2 2
Since c = − √ ∈ (−2, 0) and c = √ ∈ (0, 2) the Rolle’s theorem is verified. 
3 3
Dr. Satish Shukla 4 of 18

Mean Value Theorem OR Lagrange's Mean Value Theorem. Let f be

a function which is continuous everywhere on the interval [a, b] and has a derivative
at each point of the open interval (a, b). Then there is at least one point c in the
f (b) − f (a)
interval (a, b) such that f 0 (c) = .
b−a

Proof. We prove the this theorem with the help of Rolle,s theorem.

ent
Tang
B
Cord
A

f (a) f (b)

x=a x=c x=b

Geometric Interpretation of Mean Value Theorem

Define a function F (x) by
F (x) = f (x) + αx (1)
where α is an arbitrary constant. Then, we shall show that F satisfies all the conditions
of Rolle’s theorem. Then:

(I) Since f is continuous in [a, b] and αx is a polynomial so it is continuous everywhere,

and so, their sum F (x) = f (x) + αx is also continuous in [a, b].

(II) Since f is differentiable in (a, b) and αx is a polynomial so it is differentiable ev-

erywhere, and so, their sum F (x) = f (x) + αx is also differentiable in (a, b).

(III) Finally, since α was an arbitrary constant, choose α such that:

F (a) = F (b) =⇒ f (a) + αa = f (b) + αb

f (b) − f (a)
=⇒ α=− .
b − a)

Thus, F satisfies all the conditions of Rolle’s theorem. Therefore, by Rolle’s theorem
there exists c ∈ (a, b) such that

F 0 (c) = 0 =⇒ f 0 (c) + α = 0
=⇒ f 0 (c) = −α
f (b) − f (a)
=⇒ f 0 (c) = .
b − a)

Hence the proof is completes.

Example 7. Find the c of mean value theorem for the function f (x) = (x − 1)(x −
2)(x − 3) in the interval [0, 4].
Dr. Satish Shukla 5 of 18

Sol: Here a = 0, b = 4 and the function f is a polynomial, and so, it is continuous and
differentiable everywhere. Therefore, all the conditions of mean value theorem are satis-
f (b) − f (a)
fied. By mean value theorem there exists a point c ∈ (0, 4) such that f 0 (c) = .
b−a
Now

f 0 (x) = (x − 2)(x − 3) + (x − 1)(x − 3) + (x − 1)(x − 2) = 3x2 − 12x + 11.

Therefore,
f (b) − f (a) f (4) − f (0)
f 0 (c) = =⇒ 3c2 − 12c + 11 =
b−a 4−0
6 − (−6)
=⇒ 3c2 − 12c + 11 =
4
=⇒ 3c2 − 12c + 11 = 3
=⇒ 3c2 − 12c √
+8=0
2 3
=⇒ c=2± .
3
√
2 3
Since c = ∈ (0, 4), hence the mean value theorem is verified. 
3

Example 8. Verify mean value theorem for the function f (x) = ln x in the interval
1
≤ x ≤ e.
e
1
Sol: Here a = , b = e and the function f is logarithmic, and so, it is continuous in
 e
the interval 1e , e and differentiable in the interval 1e , e . Therefore, all the conditions of

mean value theorem are satisfied. By mean value theorem there exists a point c ∈ 1e , e
f (b) − f (a)
such that f 0 (c) = . Now
b−a
1
f 0 (x) = .
x
Therefore,

f (e) − f 1e


0 f (b) − f (a) 1
f (c) = =⇒ =
b−a c e − 1/e
 
1
ln (e) − ln
1 e
=⇒ =
c e − 1/e
1 e(1 − (−1))
=⇒ =
c e2 − 1
2
e −1
=⇒ c= .
2e

e2 − 1 1


Since c = ∈ e
,e , hence the mean value theorem is verified. 
2e

Example 9. Verify mean value theorem for the function f (x) = ln x in the interval [1, e].
Dr. Satish Shukla 6 of 18

Sol: Here a = 1, b = e and the function f is logarithmic, and so, it is continuous in the
interval [1, e] and differentiable in the interval (1, e). Therefore, all the conditions of mean
value theorem are satisfied. By mean value theorem there exists a point c ∈ (1, e) such
f (b) − f (a)
that f 0 (c) = . Now
b−a
1
f 0 (x) = .
x
Therefore,
f (b) − f (a) 1 f (e) − f (1)
f 0 (c) = =⇒ =
b−a c e−1
1 ln (e) − ln (1)
=⇒ =
c e−1
1 1
=⇒ =
c e−1
=⇒ c = e − 1.

Since c = e − 1 ∈ (1, e), hence the mean value theorem is verified. 

Example 10. Show that on the graph of any quadratic polynomial the chord joining
the points for which x = a, x = b is parallel to the tangent line at the midpoint
a+b
x= .
2
OR

If f (x) = αx2 + βx + γ, where α, β, γ are constants and α 6= 0, then find the value
of c in Lagrange’s mean value theorem in the interval [a, b].

Sol: The function f is polynomial, and so, it is continuous in the interval [a, b] and
differentiable in the interval (a, b). Therefore, all the conditions of mean value theorem
are satisfied. By mean value theorem there exists a point c ∈ (a, b) such that f 0 (c) =
f (b) − f (a)
. Now
b−a
f 0 (x) = 2αx + β.
Therefore,
f (b) − f (a) f (b) − f (a)
f 0 (c) = =⇒ 2αc + β =
b−a b−a
αb + βb + γ − (αa2 + βa + γ)
2
=⇒ 2αc + β =
b−a
α(b2 − a2 ) + β(b − a)
=⇒ 2αc + β =
b−a
=⇒ 2αc + β = α(b + a) + β
b+a
=⇒ c= midpoint of a, b.
2
f (b) − f (a) b+a
Since f 0 (c) = , hence the slope of tangent at midpoint c = (i.e., f 0 (c))
b−a 2
is equal to the slope of chord at the end points a, b. Therefore, the tangent and cord are
parallel. 
Dr. Satish Shukla 7 of 18

Exercise (Assignment)

(Q.1) Discuss the conditions of Rolle’s theorem for the function f (x) = tan x in the
interval 0 ≤ x ≤ π.
Ans. Since tan x is not continuous at x = π2 , the Rolle’s theorem is not applicable.

(Q.2) Verify the Rolle’s theorem for the function f (x) = x2 in the interval [−1, 1].
Ans. c = 0.

(Q.3) Can Rolle’s theorem be applied for the function f (x) = 1 − (x − 3)2/3 .
Hint. For the interval, put f (x) = 0, it gives the interval [2, 4]. Then, since f is
not differentiable at x = 3 ∈ (2, 4), so, the Rolle’s theorem cannot be verified.

(Q.4) Explain Rolle’s theorem for the function f (x) = (x − a)m (x − b)n in the interval
[a, b].
mb+na
Ans. c = m+n
∈ (a, b).

(Q.5) Find the c of mean value theorem for the function f (x) = x3 in the interval [−2, 2].
Ans. c = ± √23 .

(Q.6) Verifiy mean value theorem for the function f (x) = x3 − 3x − 1 in the interval [0, 1].
Ans. c = √1 .
3

Taylor's Theorem. Suppose that the (n − 1)th derivative f (n−1) of f is continu-

ous on the interval [a, b] and the nth derivative f (n) of f exists in the open interval
(a, b). Then for each x 6= a in I there is a value c such that a < c < x and:

x−a 0 (x − a)2 00 (x − a)n (n) (x − a)n+1 (n+1)

f (x) = f (a)+ f (a)+ f (a)+· · ·+ f (a)+ f (c).
1! 2! n! (n + 1)!

(x − a)n+1 (n+1)
The last term Rn = f (c) is called the remainder therm (Lagrange’s
(n + 1)!
form) after n terms.

Taylor’s Series. Suppose Rn → 0 as n → ∞, then the expression for f (x) in the

Taylor’s theorem reduces into an infinite series and this series is called the Taylor’s
series or Taylor’s series expansion of f (x) about the point x = a; and it is given by:

x−a 0 (x − a)2 00 (x − a)n (n)

f (x) = f (a) + f (a) + f (a) + · · · + f (a) + · · · .
1! 2! n!

Various forms of Taylor’s series:

Maclaurin’s series Put a = 0 in Taylor’s series obtain:

x 0 x2 00 xn (n)
f (x) = f (0) + f (0) + f (0) + · · · + f (0) + · · · .
1! 2! n!
Dr. Satish Shukla 8 of 18

Expansion of f (x + h) in powers of x Replace x by x + h and a by h in Taylor’s series

obtain:
x 0 x2 00 xn (n)
f (x + h) = f (h) + f (h) + f (h) + · · · + f (h) + · · · .
1! 2! n!

Expansion of f (x + h) in powers of h Replace x, h by h, x respectively, in the previous

series:
h 0 h2 00 hn (n)
f (x + h) = f (x) + f (x) + f (x) + · · · + f (x) + · · · .
1! 2! n!

 
1+x
Example 11. Expand ln using Maclaurin’s theorem.
1−x
 
1+x
Sol: Here f (x) = ln . By Maclaurin’s theorem we know that
1−x

x 0 x2 00 xn (n)
f (x) = f (0) + f (0) + f (0) + · · · + f (0) + · · · .
1! 2! n!
Putting y = f (x), (y)0 = f (0), (y1 )0 = f 0 (0), (y2 )0 = f 00 (0) etc., in the above we obtain:

x x2 xn
y = (y)0 + (y1 )0 + (y2 )0 + · · · + (yn )0 + · · · . (2)
1! 2! n!
Now differentiating successively and putting x = 0 we obtain:

y = f (x) = ln (1 + x) − ln (1 − x) =⇒ (y)0 = 0
1 1
y1 = + =⇒ (y1 )0 = 2
1+x 1−x
1 1
y2 = − 2
+ =⇒ (y2 )0 = 0
(1 + x) (1 − x)2
2 2
y3 = 3
+ =⇒ (y3 )0 = 4
(1 + x) (1 − x)3
6 6
y4 = − + =⇒ (y4 )0 = 0
(1 + x)4 (1 − x)4
24 24
y5 = 5
+ =⇒ (y5 )0 = 48 and so on.
(1 + x) (1 − x)5

Putting these values in (2) we obtain:

x2 x3 x4 x5
 
1+x x
ln = 0+ (2) + (0) + (4) + (0) + (48) + · · ·
1−x 1! 2! 3! 4! 5!
2x3 2x5
= 2x + + + ··· .
3 5
It is the required series. 

1
Example 12. If ln sec x = x2 + Ax4 + Bx6 + · · · , then find the values of A and B.
2
Dr. Satish Shukla 9 of 18

Sol: Since the given value of ln sec x is a series in powers of x, we will expand ln sec x by
Maclaurin’s series. Then, here f (x) = ln sec x and by Maclaurin’s theorem we know that
x x2 xn
y = (y)0 + (y1 )0 + (y2 )0 + · · · + (yn )0 + · · · . (3)
1! 2! n!
Now differentiating successively and putting x = 0 we obtain:
y = f (x) = ln sec x =⇒ (y)0 = 0
sec x tan x
y1 = = tan x =⇒ (y1 )0 = 0
sec x
y2 = sec2 x = 1 + tan2 x = 1 + y12 =⇒ (y2 )0 = 1
y3 = 2y1 y2 =⇒ (y3 )0 = 2(y1 )0 (y2 )0 = 0
y4 = 2y1 y3 + 2y2 y2 = 2y1 y3 + 2y22 =⇒ (y4 )0 = 2(y1 )0 (y3 )0 + 2(y2 )20 = 2
y5 = 2y1 y4 + 2y2 y3 + 4y2 y3 = 2y1 y4 + 6y2 y3
=⇒ (y5 )0 = 2(y1 )0 (y4 )0 + 6(y2 )0 (y3 )0 = 0
y6 = 2y1 y5 + 2y2 y4 + 6y2 y4 + 6y3 y3 = 2y1 y5 + 8y2 y4 + 6y32
=⇒ (y6 )0 = 2(y1 )0 (y5 )0 + 8(y2 )0 (y4 )0 + 6y32 (0) = 16 and so on.
Putting these values in (3) we obtain:
x x2 x3 x4 x5 x6
ln sec x = 0 + (0) + (1) + (0) + (2) + (0) + (16) + · · ·
1! 2! 3! 4! 5! 6!
1 2 1 1
= x + x4 + x6 + · · · .
2 12 45
On comparing the coefficients of various powers of x in the above and given series we
obtain
1 1 
A= , B= .
12 45
Example 13. Find the first five terms in the expansion of esin x by Maclaurin’s series.

Sol: Here f (x) = esin x . By Maclaurin’s theorem we know that

x x2 xn
y = (y)0 + (y1 )0 + (y2 )0 + · · · + (yn )0 + · · · . (4)
1! 2! n!
Now differentiating successively and putting x = 0 we obtain:
y = f (x) = esin x =⇒ (y)0 = 1
y1 = cos xesin x = y cos x =⇒ (y1 )0 = 1
y2 = y1 cos x − y sin x =⇒ (y2 )0 = 1
y3 = y2 cos x − 2y1 sin x − y cos x = y2 cos x − 2y1 sin x − y1 =⇒ (y3 )0 = 0
y4 = y3 cos x − 3y2 sin x − 2y1 cos x − y2 =⇒ (y4 )0 = −3
y5 = y4 cos x − 4y3 sin x − 5y2 cos x + 2y1 sin x − y3 =⇒ (y5 )0 = −8
and so on. Putting these values in (4) we obtain:
x x2 x3 x4 x5
esin x = 1 + (1) + (1) + (0) + (−3) + (−8) + · · ·
1! 2! 3! 4! 5!
x3 x4 x5
= 1+x+ − − + ··· .
2 8 15
Dr. Satish Shukla 10 of 18

It is the required series. 

Example 14. Expand eax cos(bx) by Maclaurin’s theorem.

Sol: Here f (x) = eax cos(bx). By Maclaurin’s theorem we know that

x x2 xn
y = (y)0 + (y1 )0 + (y2 )0 + · · · + (yn )0 + · · · . (5)
1! 2! n!
Now differentiating successively and putting x = 0 we obtain:

y = f (x) = eax cos(bx) =⇒ (y)0 = 1

y1 = aeax cos(bx) − beax sin(bx) = ay − beax sin(bx) =⇒ (y1 )0 = a
y2 = ay1 − b2 eax cos(bx) − abeax sin(bx) = ay1 − b2 y + a(y1 − ay) = 2ay1 − (a2 + b2 )y
=⇒ (y2 )0 = a2 − b2
y3 = 2ay2 − (a2 + b2 )y1 =⇒ (y3 )0 = a(a2 − 3b2 )

and so on. Putting these values in (5) we obtain:

x x2 2 x3
esin x = 1 + (a) + (a − b2 ) + a(a2 − 3b2 ) + · · ·
1! 2! 3!
x2 x3
= 1 + ax + (a2 − b2 ) + a(a2 − 3b2 ) + ··· .
2! 3!
It is the required series. 

−1
Example 15. Expand ea sin x
by Maclaurin’s theorem. Hence show that
1 2
eθ = 1 + sin θ + sin2 θ + sin3 θ + · · ·
2! 3!
where θ = sin−1 x.
−1
Sol: Here f (x) = ea sin x
. By Maclaurin’s theorem we know that

x x2 xn
y = (y)0 + (y1 )0 + (y2 )0 + · · · + (yn )0 + · · · . (6)
1! 2! n!
−1
Since y = f (x) = ea sin x
we have (y)0 = 1 .
Differentiating we get
−1 a
y1 = ea sin x
×√
1 − x2
ay
=⇒ y1 = √
1 − x2
=⇒ (1 − x2 )y12 = a2 y 2 . (7)

Therefore, (y1 )0 = a . Again differentiating (7) we get:

(1 − x2 )y2 − 2xy1 = 2a2 yy1

=⇒ (1 − x2 )y2 − xy1 − a2 y = 0. (8)
Dr. Satish Shukla 11 of 18

Therefore, (y2 )0 − a2 (y)0 = 0, i.e., (y2 )0 = a2 . Again differentiating (8) we get:

(1 − x2 )y3 − 3xy2 − (1 + a2 )y1 = 0.

Therefore, (y3 )0 − (1 + a2 )(y1 )0 = 0, i.e., (y3 )0 = a(1 + a2 ) and so on. Putting these
values in (6) we obtain:

−1 x x2 2 x3
ea sin x
= 1+ (a) + (a ) + (1 + a2 ) + · · ·
1! 2! 3!
a2 x2 a(1 + a2 )x3
= 1 + ax + + + ··· .
2! 3!
Putting a = 1 and sin−1 x = θ we get

sin2 θ 2 sin3 θ
eθ = 1 + sin θ + + + ··· .
2! 3!
It is the required series. 

Example 16. Find the first five terms in the expansion of ln(1+sin x) by Maclaurin’s
series.

Sol: Here f (x) = ln(1 + sin x). By Maclaurin’s series we know that

x x2 xn
y = (y)0 + (y1 )0 + (y2 )0 + · · · + (yn )0 + · · · . (9)
1! 2! n!

Since y = f (x) = ln(1 + sin x) we have (y)0 = 0 .

Differentiating we get
cos x
y1 =
1 + sin x
=⇒ (1 + sin x)y1 = cos x. (10)

Therefore, (y1 )0 = 1 . Again differentiating (10) we get:

(1 + sin x)y2 + y1 cos x = − sin x. (11)

Therefore, (1 + 0)(y2 )0 + (y1 )0 = 0, i.e., (y2 )0 = −1 . Again differentiating (11) we get:

(1 + sin x)y3 + 2y2 cos x − y1 sin x = − cos x. (12)

Therefore, (1 + 0)(y3 )0 + 2(y2 )0 − 0 = −1, i.e., (y3 )0 = 1 . Again differentiating (12) we

get:

(1 + sin x)y4 + 3y3 cos x − 3y2 sin x − y1 cos x = sin x. (13)

Therefore, (1 + 0)(y4 )0 + 3(y3 )0 − 0 − (y1 )0 = 0, i.e., (y4 )0 = −2 . Again differentiating

(13) we get:

(1 + sin x)y5 + 4y4 cos x − 6y3 sin x − 4y2 cos x + y1 sin x = cos x. (14)
Dr. Satish Shukla 12 of 18

Therefore, (1 + 0)(y5 )0 + 4(y4 )0 − 0 − 4(y2 )0 + 0 = 1, i.e., (y5 )0 = 5 . Putting these values

in (9) we obtain:

x x2 x3 x4 x4
ln(1 + sin x) = 0 + (1) + (−1) + (1) + (−2) + (5) + · · ·
1! 2! 3! 4! 5!
x2 x3 2x4 5x5
= x− + − + + ··· .
2! 3! 4! 5!
It is the required series. 

Example 17. Expand tan−1 x in the ascending powers of x − 1.

Sol: By Taylor’s series we know that

x−a 0 (x − a)2 00
f (x) = f (a) + f (a) + f (a) + · · · .
1! 2!
Here f (x) = tan−1 x and a = 1, therefore:

x−1 0 (x − 1)2 00
f (x) = f (1) + f (1) + f (1) + · · · . (15)
1! 2!
π
Since f (x) = tan−1 x we have f (1) = . Differentiating we get:
4

1 1
f 0 (x) = 2
=⇒ f 0 (1) = .
1+x 2

Rearranging the terms in the above we get:

(1 + x2 )f 0 (x) = 1.

Again differentiating we get:

(1 + x2 )f 00 (x) + 2xf 0 (x) = 0 =⇒ f 00 (1) = −1 .

On putting these values in (15) we get

π x − 1 (x − 1)2
tan−1 x = + − + ··· . 
4 2 · 1! 2!

π
Example 18. Expand sin x in powers of x − and hence evaluate sin 91◦ correct to
2
four places of decimals.

Sol: By Taylor’s series we know that

x−a 0 (x − a)2 00
f (x) = f (a) + f (a) + f (a) + · · · .
1! 2!
π
Here f (x) = sin x and a = , therefore:
2

2
π  x − π2 0  π  x − π2 π 
f (x) = f + f + f 00 + ··· . (16)
2 1! 2 2! 2
Dr. Satish Shukla 13 of 18

π 
Since f (x) = sin x we have f = 1 . Differentiating we get:
2
π 
0 0
f (x) = cos x =⇒ f =0.
2
Again differentiating we get:
π 
00 00
f (x) = − sin x =⇒ f = −1 .
2
Again differentiating we get:
π 
000 000
f (x) = − cos x =⇒ f =0.
2
Again differentiating we get:
π 
f (iv) (x) = sin x =⇒ f (iv) =1.
2

On putting these values in (16) we get

2
4
x − π2 x − π2
sin x = 1 − + − ··· . + ··· .
2! 4!
Let x = 91◦ , so that,
π π
x− = 91◦ − 90◦ = 1◦ = radians = 0.0174 radians.
2 180
π
Putting the value of x − in the above series we obtain:
2
(0.0174)2 (0.0174)4
sin 91◦ = 1 − +
2! 4!
= 0.9999

correct up to four places of decimals. 

Example 19. Expand ln x in powers of x − 1 and hence evaluate ln(1.1) correct to

four decimal places.

Sol: By Taylor’s series we know that

x−a 0 (x − a)2 00 (x − a)3 000 (x − a)4 (iv)

f (x) = f (a) + f (a) + f (a) + f (a) + f (a) + · · · .
1! 2! 3! 4!
Here f (x) = ln x and a = 1, therefore:

x−1 0 (x − 1)2 00 (x − 1)3 000 (x − 1)4 (iv)

f (x) = f (1)+ f (1)+ f (1)+ f (1)+ f (1)+· · · . (17)
1! 2! 3! 4!

Since f (x) = ln x we have f (1) = 0 . Differentiating we get:

1
f 0 (x) = =⇒ f 0 (1) = 1 .
x
Dr. Satish Shukla 14 of 18

Again differentiating we get:

1
f 00 (x) = − =⇒ f 00 (1) = −1 .
x2
Again differentiating we get:
2
f 000 (x) = 3
=⇒ f 000 (1) = 2 .
x
Again differentiating we get:

(iv) 6 (iv) π
 
f (x) = − 4 =⇒ f = −6 .
x 2

On putting these values in (17) we get

1 1 1
ln x = x − 1 − (x − 1)2 + (x − 1)3 − (x − 1)4 + · · · .
2 3 4
Putting x = 1.1 in the above we get:
1 1 1
ln(1.1) = 1.1 − 1 − (1.1 − 1)2 + (1.1 − 1)3 − (1.1 − 1)4 + · · ·
2 3 4
= 0.1 − 0.005 + 0.0003 − 0.00002
= 0.0953

correct up to four places of decimals. 

Example 20. Expand 2x3 + 7x2 + x − 1 in powers of x − 2.

Sol: By Taylor’s series we know that

x−a 0 (x − a)2 00 (x − a)3 000 (x − a)4 (iv)

f (x) = f (a) + f (a) + f (a) + f (a) + f (a) + · · · .
1! 2! 3! 4!
Here f (x) = 2x3 + 7x2 + x − 1 and a = 2, therefore:

x−2 0 (x − 2)2 00 (x − 2)3 000 (x − 1)4 (iv)

f (x) = f (2)+ f (2)+ f (2)+ f (2)+ f (1)+· · · . (18)
1! 2! 3! 4!

Since f (x) = 2x3 + 7x2 + x − 1 we have f (2) = 45 . Differentiating we get:

f 0 (x) = 6x2 + 14x + 1 =⇒ f 0 (2) = 53 .

Again differentiating we get:

f 00 (x) = 12x + 14 =⇒ f 00 (2) = 38 .

Again differentiating we get:

f 000 (x) = 12 =⇒ f 000 (2) = 12 .

All other higher order derivatives are zero. On putting these values in (18) we get

2x3 + 7x2 + x − 1 = 45 + 53(x − 2) + 19(x − 2)2 + 2(x − 2)3 .

Dr. Satish Shukla 15 of 18

It is the required expansion. 

Example 21. Use Taylor’s theorem to prove that

sin θ sin 2θ sin 3θ
tan−1 (x + h) = tan−1 x + h sin θ · − (h sin θ)2 · + (h sin θ)3 ·
1 2 3
sin nθ
− · · · + (−1)n−1 (h sin θ)n · + ···
n
where θ = cot−1 x.

Sol: By Taylor’s series we know that

h 0 h2 00 h3 000
f (x + h) = f (x) + f (x) + f (x) + f (x) + · · · . (19)
1! 2! 3!
Here f (x + h) = tan−1 (x + h), and so, f (x) = tan−1 x therefore differentiating we get:
1 1
f 0 (x) = 2
= 2
= sin2 θ.
1+x 1 + cot θ
Again differentiating (w.r.t. x) we get:

dθ d
f 00 (x) = 2 sin θ cos θ · = sin 2θ · (cot−1 x)
dx dx
1
= − sin 2θ ·
1 + x2
= − sin 2θ sin2 θ (since x = cot θ).

Again differentiating we get:

dθ
f 000 (x) = −2 cos 2θ sin2 θ − 2 sin θ sin 2θ cos θ ·
dx
1
= 2 sin θ (cos 2θ sin θ + sin 2θ cos θ) ·
1 + x2
3
= 2 sin θ sin 3θ (since x = cot θ).

On putting these values in (19) we get

−1 −1 h 2 h2 2 h3
tan (x + h) = tan x + (sin θ) + (− sin 2θ sin θ) + (2 sin3 θ sin 3θ) + · · ·
1! 2! 3!
−1 sin θ 2 sin 2θ sin 3θ
= tan x + h sin θ · − (h sin θ) · + (h sin θ)3 ·
1 2 3
sin nθ
− · · · + (−1)n−1 (h sin θ)n · + ···
n 

 π
Example 22. Expand tan x + as far as the term x4 and evaluate tan 46.5◦ to
4
four places of decimals.
OR

Approximate the value of tan (46◦ 300 ) using Taylor’s theorem.(1◦ = 600 )
Dr. Satish Shukla 16 of 18

Sol: By Taylor’s series we know that the expansion of f (x + h) in powers of x is:

x 0 x2 00 x3 000
f (x + h) = f (h) + f (h) + f (h) + f (h) + · · · . (20)
1! 2! 3!
 π π π 
Here f (x + h) = tan x + , f (x) = tan x, h = , and so, f = 1. Differentiating
4 4 4
f (x) we get:

0 π
 
0 2 2 2
f (x) = sec x = 1 + tan x = 1 + [f (x)] =⇒ f = 2.
4
Again differentiating we get:
π 
f 00 (x) = 2f (x)f 0 (x) =⇒ f 00 = 4.
4
Again differentiating we get:

f 000 (x) = 2f (x)f 00 (x) + 2f 0 (x)f 0 (x) = 2f (x)f 00 (x) + 2[f 0 (x)]2
π 
=⇒ f 000 = 16.
4
Again differentiating we get:

f (iv) (x) = 2f (x)f 000 (x) + 2f 0 (x)f 00 (x) + 4f 0 (x)f 00 (x) = 2f (x)f 000 (x) + 6f 0 (x)f 00 (x)
(iv) π
 
=⇒ f = 80.
4
On putting these values in (20) we get
 π x x2 x3 x4
tan x + = 1+ (2) + (4) + (16) + (80) + · · ·
4 1! 2! 3! 4!
8x3 10x4
= 1 + 2x + 2x2 + + + ··· .
3 3
π
On putting x = 1.5◦ = 1.5 × radians = 0.0262 (approximately) in the above equation
180
we get:

8(0.0262)3 10(0.0262)4
tan (46.5◦ ) = 1 + 2(0.0262) + 2(0.0262)2 + + + ···
3 3
= 1.0538.

Thus, tan (46◦ 300 ) = tan (46.5◦ ) = 1.0538 (correct to four places of decimals). 

√
Example 23. Find the value of 10.
√
Sol: Let f (x + h) = x + h. By Taylor’s series we know that the expansion of f (x + h)
in powers of h is:

h 0 h2 00 h3 00
f (x + h) = f (x) +
f (x) + f (x) + f (x) + · · · . (21)
1! 2! 3!
√ √
Here f (x + h) = x + h, and so, f (x) = x. Differentiating f (x) we get:
1
f 0 (x) = √ .
2 x
Dr. Satish Shukla 17 of 18

Again differentiating we get:

1
f 00 (x) = − .
4x3/2
Again differentiating we get:
3
f 000 (x) = .
8x5/2
On putting these values in (21) we get
√ √ h h2 h3
x+h = x + √ − 3/2 + + ··· .
2 x 8x 16x5/2

On putting x = 9, h = 1 in the above equation we get:

√ √ 1 1 1
10 = 9+ √ − 3/2
+ + ···
2 9 8·9 16 · 95/2
= 3 + 0.16667 − 0.00463 + 0.00025
= 3.16229.
√
Thus, 10 = 3.1623 (correct to four places of decimals). 

Exercise (Assignment)

ex
(Q.1) Expand in Maclaurin’s series as far as the terms x3 .
1 + ex
ex 1 x 8x3
Ans. 1+ex
= 2
+ 4
− 3!
+ ··· .

(Q.2) Expand ex cos x in Maclaurin’s series.

x2 x3
Ans. ex cos x = 1 + x + 2
− 3
− ··· .

2 2 2 · 22 4

2
(Q.3) Prove that: sin−1 x x + = x + ··· .
2! 4!

2
Hint. Use Maclaurin’s series for y = sin−1 x .
1 1 1 4
(Q.4) Prove that: ln (1 + ex ) = ln(2) + x + x2 − x + ··· .
2 8 192
Hint. Use Maclaurin’s series for y = ln (1 + ex ) .
2 3 22 5
(Q.5) Prove that: ex sin x = x + x2 + x − x + ···.
3! 5!
Hint. Use Maclaurin’s series for y = ex sin x.

(Q.6) Find the Maclaurin’s series for y = sin m sin−1 x .

m(m2 − 1) 3
Ans. y = mx + x + ··· .
3!
π
(Q.7) Expand tan x in powers of x − .
4

2
Ans. tan x = 1 + 2 x − π4 + 2 x − π4 + · · · .


 Dr. Satish Shukla 18 of 18

(Q.8) Expand 7x6 − 3x5 + x2 + 2 in powers of x − 1.

Ans. 7x6 − 3x5 + x2 + 2 = 7 + 29(x − 1) + 76(x − 1)2 + 110(x − 1)3 + 90(x − 1)4 +
39(x − 1)5 + 7(x − 1)6 .
π
(Q.9) Find the Taylor’s series expansion of ln(cos x) about the point .
3
1
√ π

4 π 2


Ans. ln(cos x) = ln 2 − 3 x − 3 − 2 ! x − 3 − · · · .

h h2 h3
(Q.10) Prove that ln(x + h) = ln x + − 2 + 3 − ···.
x 2x 3x
Hint. Use Taylor’s series and expand f (x + h) in powers of h.
√
(Q.11) Calculate the value of 5 correct to four places of decimals by taking first four
terms in Taylor’s series.
√
Hint. Use Taylor’s series and expand f (x + h) = x + h in powers of h, and put
x = 4, h = 1.

(Q.12) Approximate the value of sin (61◦ 300 ) using Taylor’s theorem.
Ans. sin (61◦ 300 ) = 0.87881711(approximate).