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 LACANIAN PSYCHOANALYSIS WITH
BABIES, CHILDREN, AND ADOLESCENTS
 LACANIAN
PSYCHOANALYSIS WITH
BABIES, CHILDREN,
AND ADOLESCENTS
Further Notes on
the Child

Edited by
Carol Owens and
Stephanie Farrelly Quinn
First published in 2017 by
Karnac Books Ltd
118 Finchley Road
London NW3 5HT

Copyright © 2017 to Carol Owens and Stephanie Farrelly Quinn for the edited
collection, and to the individual authors for their contributions.

The rights of the contributors to be identified as the authors of this work have
been asserted in accordance with §§ 77 and 78 of the Copyright Design and
Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written
permission of the publisher.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A C.I.P. for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN-13: 978-1-78220-449-7

Typeset by V Publishing Solutions Pvt Ltd., Chennai, India

Printed in Great Britain

www.karnacbooks.com
 To my sons,
Carol Owens

To all the other sons (and daughters),

Stephanie Farrelly Quinn
CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xi

ABOUT THE EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS xiii

INTRODUCTION xxi
Further notes on the child …
Carol Owens and Stephanie Farrelly Quinn

PART I
DIRECTING THE TREATMENT

CHAPTER ONE
Lacanian psychoanalysis with children: framing challenges
and inventions 3
Stephanie Swales

CHAPTER TWO
Transference in analytic work with children and
adolescents: the space and time of demand 17
Hilda Fernández Alvarez
vii
viii CONTENTS

CHAPTER THREE
Seminars on child psychoanalysis 33
Françoise Dolto
with translation and introduction by Olga Cox Cameron

CHAPTER FOUR
Dolto, Klein, and Lacan in a polylogue or the Agora
effect in the Maison Verte-UK 49
Bice Benvenuto

PART II
CLINICAL STRUCTURES (EDGES, LIMITS, BOUNDARIES)

CHAPTER FIVE
Psychoanalysis with children, the work with the parent,
and the clinical structures 65
Leonardo S. Rodríguez

CHAPTER SIX
From childhood psychosis to neurosis 81
Cristina R. Laurita

CHAPTER SEVEN
Rapunzel: a necessary unravelling 93
Elizabeth Monahan

CHAPTER EIGHT
Pushing the envelope: a skinful of trauma 105
Marie Walshe

PART III
SYMPTOMS AND SYSTEMS

CHAPTER NINE
The watershed of the symptom: from Rhine to Rhône
with Piaget and Spielrein 123
Michael Gerard Plastow

CHAPTER TEN
Transference today and the necessity of invention—notes on
working with adolescence 139
Kate Briggs
 CONTENTS ix

CHAPTER ELEVEN
The symptom and the system: notes on the foster child 155
Kristen Hennessy

CHAPTER TWELVE
Sex and terror: psychoanalysis with adolescents in an
Irish sexual health service 169
Donna Redmond

PART IV
“FATHER”: INVENTIONS AND REINVENTIONS

CHAPTER THIRTEEN
To invent a father … 185
Megan Williams

CHAPTER FOURTEEN
The Father of the Name: a child’s analysis through the last
teachings of Lacan 199
Annie G. Rogers

PART V
NEW KIDS: (POST-) MODERN SUBJECTS OF TECHNOLOGIES,
GLOBAL CAPITALISM, NEO-LIBERALISM, AND BIO-MEDICINE

CHAPTER FIFTEEN
Psychoanalysis and neonatology 215
Catherine Vanier

CHAPTER SIXTEEN
The “iMirror Stage”: not-so-smartphones and the
pre-schooler—some clinical observations 225
Joanna Fortune

CHAPTER SEVENTEEN
Making a difference: on the non-rapport of psychoanalysis and
the discourse of “trans” 235
Ona Nierenberg and Eve Watson
x CONTENTS

CHAPTER EIGHTEEN
Left to their own devices? Child psychoanalysis and the
psycho-technologies of consumer capitalism 251
Kaye Cederman

INDEX 265
ACKNOWL EDGEMENTS

We want to begin by jointly thanking our contributors for responding

so vividly to our invitations to participate in this project. Reading each
essay has been a captivating experience, as we encountered every one
as a precious instance of each psychoanalyst’s desire. We duly recog-
nise the labour involved in bringing each essay from its first draft to
its final version and thank each contributor from the bottom of our
hearts for their time, their work, and their part, in helping to bring to
life an idea that sparked from a Masters thesis: that we could assemble
in one collection contemporary clinical experiences and approaches to
working with children from Lacanian psychoanalysts around the globe.
We thank Ian Parker for his encouragement and friendly advice about
the project. We thank Brian O’ Connor for his invaluable advice and
most kind support. We thank Olga Cox Cameron for bringing the pre-
cious gift of Françoise Dolto’s voice to this book. We thank Constance
Govindin and Rod Tweedy at Karnac for their enthusiastic interest in
our book, and for their helpful support throughout the process.
Carol wishes to acknowledge an ongoing debt to Rex Stainton Rogers
who first taught her the compelling enjoyment of working collegiately
which has inspired all of her joint and collaborative projects. She also

xi
xii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

wishes to give a special thanks to Carles for his loving support, and to
her incredible, beautiful, loving sons, Tomàs and Oscar.
Stephanie would like to express her gratitude to everyone who
believed that this project was possible and to her family and in particu-
lar her husband John for his patience and understanding.
Finally, we gratefully acknowledge the permissions granted to
include various elements in the book:

The L Schema and Graph of Desire in Chapter Three are included here
by the kind permission of W. W. Norton & Co., Inc.
The material from the Seminars on Child Psychoanalysis (I & II) from
Chapter Four (previously published as Seminars on Child Psychoanalysis,
by Françoise Dolto, translated by Olga Cox, in The Journal of the Irish
Forum for Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy, Vol. 5, numbers 1 and 2, Spring/
Autumn 1995), is included here with the kind permission of the Irish
Forum for Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy.
The lyrics from the song “Higgs Boson Blues” by Nick Cave in
Chapter Ten are included here by kind permission of Mute Song Ltd.
Page 40 from The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works
of Sigmund Freud, Volume X (1909), Two Case Histories: “Little Hans”
and the “Rat Man”, translated and edited by James Strachey, published
by Hogarth Press, is reproduced on the book cover by kind permission
of the Random House Group Ltd.
The painting of the giraffe is by Oscar Pujol Owens (when he was a
very small boy), who also gives us his kind permission to use it on the
cover of our book.
ABOUT THE EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS

Editors
Dr Carol Owens is a psychoanalyst and clinical supervisor in private
practice in North Dublin. She has lectured on psychoanalysis at Trinity
College Dublin, Dublin City University, and Independent Colleges,
Dublin. A registered practitioner member of the Association for Psy-
choanalysis and Psychotherapy in Ireland and member of the Irish
Council for Psychotherapy, she is also the founder and convenor of the
Dublin Lacan Study Group. She edited The Letter: Lacanian Perspectives
on Psychoanalysis from 2003–2006, and the Annual Review of Critical Psy-
chology on Jacques Lacan in 2009. She has published articles and book
chapters on the theory and practice of Lacanian psychoanalysis, and
on encounters between Lacanian theory and critical psychology, critical
management theory, film and TV, philosophy, and queer theories. She
co-organises the annual Irish Psychoanalytic Film Festival.

Stephanie Farrelly Quinn is a psychoanalytic psychotherapist in pri-

vate practice in Co.Louth. She is currently a course coordinator and tutor
on the Early Childhood Care and Education programme in Coláiste
Dhúlaigh CDETB. Upon completion of her MA in psychoanalytic

xiii
xiv A B O U T T H E E D I TO R S A N D C O N T R I B U TO R S

psychotherapy in 2014 she was awarded the Independent Colleges

Dublin President’s Award in recognition of her academic achievements,
clinical expertise, and Master’s thesis “Further Notes on the Child:
A Freudo—Lacanian analysis of contemporary approaches to the clinic
of the child”. She is a member of the editorial board of Lacunae, interna-
tional journal for Freudian and Lacanian psychoanalysis. She is a mem-
ber of the Association for Psychoanalytic and Psychotherapy in Ireland
(APPI) and member of the Irish Council for Psychotherapy.

Contributors
Bice Benvenuto is a psychoanalyst practising in London, a founder
member of CFAR and of the Maison Verte-UK, Director of the Dolto
Association in Rome. She is a visiting Professor at the New School of
Social Research (NY) and at Florida Atlantic University and has lec-
tured extensively in UK and internationally. She is co-author of The
Works of Jacques Lacan: An Introduction (FAB) and the author of Concern-
ing the Rites of Psychoanalysis (Polity/Blackwell), among several books
and articles on psychoanalysis and literature.

Dr Kate Briggs is a practising psychoanalyst, and a lecturer in the

School of Counselling at the Australian College of Applied Psychology,
Melbourne, Australia. She has worked as a clinical specialist and con-
sulted widely in the field of social welfare. She has published on psy-
choanalytic theory and practice in international journals and her essays
on contemporary art have appeared in catalogues and books such as
Radical Revisionism: An Anthology of Writings on Australian Art. She is a
member of the Lacan Circle of Melbourne and is deputy convenor of
the Australian College of Counselling and Psychotherapy Educators.

Dr Kaye Cederman practises psychoanalysis and psychotherapy with

children and adolescents in New Zealand. She is a registered practi-
tioner member of the Association for Psychoanalysis and Psychotherapy,
Ireland, and the Child and Adolescent Therapists’ Association, Centre for
Lacanian Analysis, cartel of the Lacanian School, New Zealand. She is
a research Fellow at Trinity College Dublin, taught Gender & Women’s
Studies, and Early Childhood Pedagogy at the University of Limerick. She
is an Editor of the Journal of New Zealand Research in Early Childhood Educa-
tion. She is published in critical-cultural, feminist theory, philosophy, and
 A B O U T T H E E D I TO R S A N D C O N T R I B U TO R S xv

early childhood pedagogy. Recent seminars include: “Noting the Child

in Aotearoa New Zealand”, “Lacan and the hyper-civilised child”, “So
What? A critique of current child mental health services”.

Dr Olga Cox Cameron is a psychoanalyst in private practice in Dublin

for the past twenty-eight years. She lectured in Psychoanalytic Theory
and also in Psychoanalysis and Literature at St Vincent’s University
Hospital and Trinity College from 1991 to 2013 and has published
numerous articles on these topics in national and international journals.
She is the founder of the annual Irish Psychoanalysis and Film Festival,
now in its eighth year, held this year at the Irish Museum of Modern Art
with a focus on psychoanalysis and documentary.

Françoise Dolto (1908–1988) was a French psychoanalyst, pioneer in

the field of child psychoanalysis, and advocate for children’s rights.
Together with Jacques Lacan, she was one of the founding members
of the Société Française de Psychanalyse (SFP) the French psychoana-
lytic professional body formed in 1953, in a split from the main body of
French psychoanalysts, the Société Parisienne de Psychanalyse (SPP).
She became widely known in France through her radio program in the
mid-seventies addressing herself to issues around child rearing, edu-
cation, and child psychology. In 1979 she founded the Maison Verte a
nurturing centre for the social education of infants to age three or four
years, a place where a child and her/his parents/caregivers were wel-
comed to spend time—speaking and/or playing—in the company of
the Maison Verte team, of whom one member was a psychoanalyst. The
success of the Maison Verte has led to the setting up of new centres in
other countries since then. During that time she continued to work in
her psychoanalytic practice in the Etienne Marcel centre and with chil-
dren placed with the social services. Author of many books in the field
of Psychoanalysis with children and adolescents, only three however
have been translated into the English language. Le Cas Dominique was
translated as Dominique: Analysis of an Adolescent and published in 1974
in the US, and 1974 in the UK, and When Parents Separate was published
in the US in 1995. Her doctoral thesis has been translated into English
as Psychoanalysis and Paediatrics. Key Psychoanalytical Concepts with
Sixteen Clinical Observations of Children and was published by Karnac
in 2013. Further biographical material on the life of Dolto can be found
in Theory and Practice in Child Psychoanalysis: An Introduction to the Work
xvi A B O U T T H E E D I TO R S A N D C O N T R I B U TO R S

of Françoise Dolto, edited by Guy Hall, Francoise Hivernel, and Siân

Morgan, published by Karnac in 2009.

Hilda Fernandez received an MA in Clinical Psychology from the Uni-

versidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), an MA in Spanish
Literature from the University of British Columbia (UBC) and she has
more than twenty years of Lacanian training. She practises psychoanal-
ysis and psychoanalytic therapy in Vancouver, Canada, registered with
the BC Association of Clinical Counsellors. She co-founded the Lacan
Salon in 2007, served as its president from June 2014 to January 2017
and currently she acts as its clinical director. She is engaged in a PhD
Program in the Department of Geography at Simon Fraser University
(SFU), where she is conducting research on discursive spaces of trauma
in the mental health institution and the impact on the provision of ser-
vices. She has published articles on psychotherapy and psychoanalysis
and is passionate about the transmission of psychoanalysis and com-
munity building. She is involved in the academic community as an
associate with the SFU Institute for the Humanities.

Joanna Fortune is a Psychoanalytic Psychotherapist specialising in

child and adolescent psychotherapy. She is a registered practitioner
member of the Association for Psychoanalysis and Psychotherapy in
Ireland (APPI); an accredited member of the Irish Forum for Psychoan-
alytic Psychotherapy (IFPP), the Irish Council of Psychotherapy (ICP),
and the Theraplay Therapeutic Institute (TTI); and an approved super-
visor with Play Therapy International (PTI). Joanna provides specialist
clinical work in the area of Child Attachment. Joanna spent twelve years
working in the NGO sector in Ireland before founding Solamh Parent
Child Relationship Clinic in 2010. As a clinician, well-established train-
ing consultant and guest speaker in her field, Joanna is a regular con-
tributor in the media. She has been a panellist at psychoanalytic events
in Ireland and has published articles on a variety of topics. More infor-
mation is available at: www.solamh.com.

Dr Kristen Hennessy, PhD, is a psychologist in private practice in rural

Pennsylvania where she specialises in the treatment of children and
adolescents “in the system”. Dr Hennessy’s recent presentations include
Lacanian clinical work with children and adolescents with histories
of abuse, psychoanalysis and intellectual disability, traumatised
 A B O U T T H E E D I TO R S A N D C O N T R I B U TO R S xvii

masculinities, and the intersections of psychoanalysis and qualitative

research. In addition to her work in the United States, Dr Hennessy has
experience developing and running psychoanalytically informed semi-
nars for orphanage caregivers in Nakuru, Kenya.

Cristina R. Laurita received a PhD in Clinical Psychology from

Duquesne University. She was also awarded a fellowship through the
Psychoanalytic Center of Philadelphia. She maintains a private practice
in Princeton, New Jersey, where she works with children, adolescents,
and adults from within a Lacanian psychoanalytic orientation. Her
publications have appeared in Journal of Lacanian Studies, International
Journal for Critical Psychology, Janus Head, Umbr(a), and Lacan and Addic-
tion: An Anthology.

Elizabeth Monahan is trained in the Freudian-Lacanian tradition and

has been working as a psychoanalyst in private practice in Dublin for
over ten years. Formerly a director of the Association for Psychoanalysis
& Psychotherapy in Ireland (APPI), and currently a committee member
of the Affiliated Psychoanalytic Workgroups (APW), Elizabeth has pre-
sented papers internationally, lectured in Ireland on various psycho-
analytic subjects at graduate and post-graduate levels, and is a member
of the Dublin Lacan Study Group.

Ona Nierenberg, PhD, is a psychoanalyst in private practice in New

York and a Senior Psychologist at Bellevue Hospital Center, where she
was Director of HIV Psychological Services for thirteen years. She is
also a Clinical Instructor in the Department of Psychiatry at New York
University Langone Medical Center, a member of Après-Coup Psycho-
analytic Association, an Honourary Member of Lacan Toronto, and an
Overseas Member of APPI. She has published articles on psychoanaly-
sis, sexuality and the discourse of science, as well as on licensing and
the question of lay analysis. Among her current interests are the history
of psychoanalysis, psychoanalytic institutionalisation and transmis-
sion, and fate and chance.

Michael Gerard Plastow is a psychoanalyst (Analyst of the School,

The Freudian School of Melbourne, School of Lacanian Psychoanalysis,
and member of l’Association Lacanienne Internationale) practising in
Melbourne, Australia. He is also a child and adolescent psychiatrist
xviii A B O U T T H E E D I TO R S A N D C O N T R I B U TO R S

based at Alfred Child and Youth Mental Health Service. He has

co-convened a seminar on “Psychoanalysis and the Child” for the last
nine years. He is the author of What is a Child? Childhood, Psychoanaly-
sis, and Discourse, published by Karnac, London, 2015. His translation
of Lacan’s seminar The Knowledge of the Psychoanalyst appeared in 2013
as a bilingual edition, in a non-commercial publication of Éditions de
l’Association Lacanienne Internationale, Paris. His current projects
include a book on the writings of Sabina Spielrein.

Donna Redmond is a psychoanalyst in private practice in Dublin where

she specialises in the treatment of adolescents. She was an inaugural
member of the APPI Child and Adolescent Analysis Group, supervised
by analysts of the Espace Analytique in Paris. Donna has worked for
over fifteen years in the Irish Public Health Service providing psycho-
logical interventions to children, adolescents and adults. Aside from her
private practice, she provides consultations within the Irish national
counselling agency with adult survivors of abuse and in an educational
setting working with disadvantaged children. She is a member of The
Irish School for Lacanian Psychoanalysis and an associate member of
Analyse Freudienne.

Dr Leonardo S. Rodríguez is a psychoanalyst, a founding member of

the Australian Centre for Psychoanalysis, an Analyst Member of the
School of Psychoanalysis of the Forums of the Lacanian Field, a for-
mer Senior Lecturer with the Department of Psychiatry, Monash Uni-
versity and the Coordinator of the Master of Psychoanalysis program,
Victoria University. He has published Psychoanalysis with Children
(London and New York, Free Association Books, 1999) and numerous
book chapters and articles on psychoanalytic theory and practice in dif-
ferent languages. Address for correspondence: leonardosrodriguez@
bigpond.com.

Dr Annie G. Rogers is Professor of Psychoanalysis and Clinical Psychol-

ogy at Hampshire College in Amherst, Massachusetts, and Co-Director
of its Psychoanalytic Studies Program. She is an Analyst Member of
the Lacanian School of San Francisco. Dr Rogers has a psychoana-
lytic practice in Amherst, Massachusetts. A recipient of a Fulbright
Fellowship at Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland; a Radcliffe Fellowship
at Harvard University; a Whiting Fellowship at Hampshire College;
 A B O U T T H E E D I TO R S A N D C O N T R I B U TO R S xix

and an Erikson Scholar at Austen-Riggs; she is the author of A Shining

Affliction (Penguin Viking, 1995), The Unsayable (Random House, 2006),
and Incandescent Alphabets: Psychosis and the Enigma of Language (Karnac,
2016).

Dr Stephanie Swales is an Assistant Professor of Psychology at the

University of Dallas. She is also a licensed clinical psychologist and
maintains a private psychoanalytic practice working with adults and
children. Stephanie is undergoing her analytic formation with the Laca-
nian School of Psychoanalysis based in San Francisco, California. She is
the founder and facilitator of the Dallas/Fort Worth Area Lacan Study
Group. Her first book, Perversion: A Lacanian Psychoanalytic Approach to
the Subject, was published by Routledge in 2012.

Catherine Vanier is a psychoanalyst in Paris. She works in the child

psychiatric unit at the Delafontaine Hospital in Saint-Denis and is a
researcher at the Center for Psychoanalysis, Medicine and Society at the
University of Paris VII. She is a member of Espace Analytique Group
and the author of numerous books and publications.

Marie Walshe is a psychoanalyst working with adults, children, and

couples in Dublin, Ireland. In addition to her private practice, she works
in school settings treating acting-out and self-harming behaviours. She
was an inaugural member of the APPI Child and Adolescent Analy-
sis Group, supervised by analysts of the Espace Analytique in Paris.
She was a Clinical Tutor on the graduate and post-graduate training
programmes in psychoanalysis at Independent Colleges, Dublin, from
2008 to 2015. She has been an invited respondent at several psychoana-
lytically informed seminars in Ireland and has been previously pub-
lished in The Letter (2004, 2006).

Eve Watson, PhD, is a psychoanalytic practitioner in Dublin, Ireland.

She also teaches on graduate programmes and directed the MA in
Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy at Independent College Dublin (2008–
2015). Areas of special interest include sexuality, film studies, cultural
and critical theory. She is co-editor of the book Clinical Encounters:
Psychoanalytic Practice and Queer Theory (Punctum, 2017), and has journal
articles in Lacunae (2015, 2013, 2012, 2010); Psychoanalytische Perspectieven
(2015); (Re)-Turn (2013); Open Letter: Negotiating the Bond of Social Poetics
xx A B O U T T H E E D I TO R S A N D C O N T R I B U TO R S

(2012); Annual Review of Critical Psychology (2009); The Letter: (2006, 2005,
2004) and in proceedings of the Paris Ecole de Psychanalyse des Forums du
Champ Lacanian (2011, 2009). A registered practitioner member of the
Association for Psychoanalysis and Psychotherapy in Ireland (APPI), she has
served on various subcommittees as well as the Executive Committee
She is the editor of Lacunae, the International Journal for Lacanian Psy-
choanalysis, a peer-reviewed journal published by APPI.

Dr Megan Williams is a Lacanian psychoanalyst practising in Melbourne.

She has practised psychoanalysis for more than twenty years, pub-
lished numerous articles on psychoanalysis, and taught psychoanaly-
sis for ten years at Victoria University in Melbourne. She is an Analyst
Member of the Freudian School of Melbourne. She conducts a seminar
in Melbourne entitled “The Father in Psychoanalysis”.
INTRODUCTION

Further notes on the child …

Carol Owens and Stephanie Farrelly Quinn

What in sum, is Little Hans? It is the babbling of a five year old child
between January 1st and May 2nd, 1908. This is what Little Hans
is for the reader who is not prepared. If he is prepared, and it is not
hard to be, he knows that these stories have some interest. Why are
they interesting? They are interesting, because it is suggested, at
least in principle, that there is a relation between this babbling and
something that is completely consistent, namely a phobia, with all
of the troubles that it brings to the life of a young subject, all of the
worry it arouses in his entourage, all of the interest it provokes in
Professor Freud.

(Lacan, 5th June 1957, our emphasis)

In the long trajectory of his teaching Lacan did not say or write very
much exclusively about psychoanalytic practice with children, with
“young subjects”. What he did say and write about it—even though
we should admit that this took place mainly in the margins of his
teaching—is regarded however as being of fundamental clinical signifi-
cance and pertinence by Lacanian psychoanalysts, whether working
with children or older subjects in analytic treatments. For the most part,

xxi
xxii INTRODUCTION

the remarks which he made emerged at key points and moments, in the
theorising, and critique, of psychoanalytic concepts and themes which
he chose to examine in his seminar spanning some thirty years, and in
his Écrits and other papers. For instance, in his “Presentation on Psychic
Causality” (Lacan, 1946) he elaborates on his “Mirror Stage” theory as
the means by which he was able to outline the psychological genesis of
psychical causality insofar as it is grounded in the operation of identifi-
cation of the individual with his or her semblables (Lacan, 1946, p. 154).
Be that as it may, the widely referenced “Mirror Stage” article is a really
good example of a piece of Lacan’s work which has implications for
the psychoanalytic conceptualisation of “the child” even as it is interro-
gates the notion of ego development, and mobilises the essential Lacan-
ian discovery of the ego in its function as misrecognition (Lacan, 1949,
p. 76; and see Fortune, Chapter Sixteen in this volume). In fact, there is
rich material of clinical relevance for the psychoanalyst working with
children from his very early work on the “Family Complexes” (Lacan,
1938), as well as from nearly every one of the early seminars, taking
into account that it is during the 1950s, especially in those places where
he charts the paternal function and metaphor, the graphs of desire, and
attendant commentaries on need and demand, and on “clinical struc-
ture”, that we find the remarks about the young subject and the child
more frequently referenced than in the later seminars (especially after
Seminar X).
The two notable places where Lacan opines in particular about what
takes place in the psychoanalysis of a child and about what is repre-
sented by the child’s symptom are his fourth seminar on the “Object
Relation” (Lacan, 1956–1957) and his “Note on the Child” (Lacan, 1969).
His seminar on the object relation however also functions as a sustained
critique of the notion of the object relation in psychoanalytic theory as
well as a thorough-going contribution to the phenomenology of perver-
sion, and an attempt to theorise phobia anew taking for close examina-
tion Freud’s case history of Little Hans. It is evident that Lacan expects
this seminar to have an effect on clinicians from various remarks he
makes, but not, however, exclusively upon those working only with
children. In the “Direction of the Treatment” paper of 1958 delivered
almost a year after the end of his fourth seminar Lacan pronounces,
regarding his supervisee Ruth Lebovici’s case of transitory sexual per-
version, that it is deplorable that the teaching of his fourth seminar
couldn’t have helped her to get her bearings regarding the so-called
phallic mother. Those attending his seminar had, according to him, on
 INTRODUCTION xxiii

the other hand, benefitted from his establishment of the principles that
distinguish the phobic object as “an all-purpose signifier to make up
for the Other’s lack” from “the fundamental fetish in every perversion
as an object perceived in the signifier’s cut” (Lacan, 1958, p. 510). This
extraordinary observation together with the nuanced typology of the
object and the lack of object, and the elaborations of the pèr(e)-mutations
of the father and the characteristics of the mother’s fantasy in the case
of Little Hans, arguably make Lacan’s fourth seminar one of his most
ground-breaking. What is also remarkable is that the themes he identi-
fies there around the function of the father, and the place of the child in
the mother’s fantasy, resonate with the remarks he goes on to make in
his later brief commentary on the child in 1969.
Again, his “Note on the Child” received gratefully by any practi-
tioner working with children because of his claim there that the child’s
symptom is found to be in a position of answering to what is symp-
tomatic in the family structure, is also however relevant in the work
with the subject regardless of age (see Cederman, Chapter Eighteen in
this volume; and Owens, 2016, for example). This claim, that the fam-
ily structure is both symptomatic and symptom-producing recalls his
thesis in the “Family Complexes” article where he had argued that the
degradation of the Oedipus complex was coordinated with the rise
of the character neuroses, because of the roles that parental objects
have in the form of the superego and ego ideal (Lacan, 1938, p. 78).
The “degraded form” of the Oedipus complex featured an incomplete
repression of desire for the mother, and a narcissistic bastardisation of
the father which for Lacan marked the essential aggressive ambivalence
immanent in the primordial relationship to one’s fellow man. Indeed,
in his 1948 paper “Aggressiveness in Psychoanalysis”, he argued that
the effects of the degradation of superego and ego-ideal functioning
together with the promotion and idealisation of the ego lead to a “for-
midable crack” at the very heart of being, leading to the emergence of
self-punishing neuroses, hysterical and hypochondriacal symptoms,
obsessional and phobic anxieties, as well as to the social consequences
of failure and crime (1948, p. 101). In her chapter here (Chapter Four
in the present volume), Bice Benvenuto too reflects on what she calls
(following Lacan’s comments from 1938 on the consequences of the
changes in family structure) the “transformations of family ties, which
have deep effects on the psychic development of children”. Kristen
Hennessy in her essay considers some of the effects of one of the most
radical forms of these transformations at work on the child in the foster
xxiv INTRODUCTION

care system. In his “Note on the Child”, Lacan further designates as

symptomatic, the “fantasmatic capture” to which the child falls prey if
the function of the father is inefficient, becoming instead, the mother’s
“object”, positioned as objet a in her fantasy. In her chapter, Megan
Williams applies this observation to a case of her own. This observation
is clearly commensurate with Lacan’s working over of the Little Hans
case in 1956 but is conceptualised in 1969 as objet a, a concept which was
not yet available to his thinking at the time of his fourth seminar.
During Lacan’s life-time, and since then, psychoanalysts who have
forged, developed, and articulated ways of thinking about, and working
with, children and young people which bear the hallmarks of Lacan’s
teachings do so as “Lacanians” rather than as “child psychoanalysts”:
the work of Roisin Lefort (1980), Maud Mannoni (1967), Leonardo
Rodríguez (1999), Catherine Vanier (2015), and Annie Rogers (2006) are
exemplary in this tradition. For the generations of psychoanalysts who
work with Lacan’s teachings, a persistent and fundamental character-
istic of the Lacanian analyst’s approach is that the subject who is in
question in the psychoanalytic treatment, is first and foremost a subject
of language, and in Lacan’s later teachings, the parlêtre (see Rodríguez,
1999, and Chapter Five in this volume; Plastow, 2015, and Chapter Nine
this volume). As Rodríguez puts it in his chapter here: “[S]trictly speak-
ing, we do not treat children in psychoanalysis, but subjects”. This
approach stands in opposition to the tendency in most psychological
therapies to order and install a taxonomy of subject and/or symptom
according to which a trained modality specialist is assigned. The cat-
egorisation of the symptom as discretely treatable is of course explicit in
both psychiatric diagnostics as well as in self-help and non-professional
group treatments such as “Recovery” movements and AA and NA
(Verhaeghe, 2004). Moreover, the cataloguing of the individual as a
“type” who can only be treated by a corresponding “expert” is inher-
ent in psychology as discipline and prevails in the regulatory mecha-
nisms and discourses of Western contemporary psychiatric medicine
(see Parker, 2011, 2015; Dunker, 2011). Indeed, the Lacanian approach
to the subject opposes the notion also currently prevalent in many child
psychoanalytic trainings that the analytic work with children should
only be carried out by approved analysts with specific child modality
training: a notion of course contingent upon discourses of childhood
that circulate essentialist and developmental accounts of childhood
per se, together with a whole set of warrants and pre- and pro-scriptions
 INTRODUCTION xxv

around the professional practices involving children (cf. Stainton

Rogers & Stainton Rogers, 1992; Burman, 2008). In this way, the Lacanian
approach to the subject may be seen to support a de-essentialised,
deconstructed account of “childhood”, foregrounding as it does, the
speaking subject, immaterial of age.
One of the key points of interest for us in assembling this collection of
essays was to bring together accounts of the ways in which the Lacanian
analyst practises, and conceives of that practice, with the subject who
is a child, in the absence of a theoretical and clinical set of directives
from Lacan himself about the work with children. At the same time, we
also recognised—as practitioners working with children of various ages
ourselves—that the work with children is “different” to the work with
adults in certain ways, and we wanted to hear how other Lacanians
theorise about, and conceptualise that “difference”. Lacanians take for
granted that the subject of the psychoanalytic clinic is approached “case
by case”, and “one-by-one”—preserving the singularity of their symp-
tom and the particularity of their desire. But it behoves us to theorise
and explain how the Lacanian treatment is organised around the sub-
ject whose agency is subjected to the consent of the Other, especially
as this involves working with exigencies that do not perform equally
when working with the “adult” subject. Kate Briggs (Chapter Ten in
this volume) condenses the essence of this dilemma succinctly. She
says: “working with young people has the particularity of requiring the
agreement and participation of parents and carers in order to arrive at
preliminary interviews and support ongoing work” (our emphasis).
Lacan’s paper “The Direction of the Treatment and the Principles of
its Power” (Lacan, 1957) allowed him to frame psychoanalytic prac-
tice in support of his “Return to Freud”, previously elaborated in his
“Rome Discourse” (Lacan, 1953). The key elements he addressed in this
paper—who analyses today, the place of interpretation, the standpoint
on transference, how the psychoanalyst acts with her/his being, how
to think about desire and its place in the direction of the treatment—
functioned as core discussion points in the conversations we had which
led to our idea for this volume of essays as well as in a previous pro-
ject (Farrelly, 2015). In Farrelly (2015), Lacan’s remarks in “Note on the
Child” are interwoven with clinical applications of these elements from
Lacan’s “Direction of the Treatment” paper. We developed the idea sub-
sequently that it would be most interesting to put these elements to
work once again, in a broader manner, in an attempt to discover, and
xxvi INTRODUCTION

elaborate upon, the particularities of working psychoanalytically with

children from a Lacanian perspective.
Re-examining the questions raised by Lacan in his “Direction of the
Treatment” paper means reframing them in terms of their significance
for the work with children. We arrived at the following reformulation,
which inserts “the child” as an instance of particularity, preserving
the tone and emphasis of the original questions crucial to thinking
about the direction of any treatment, but “tweaked” in respect of the
exigencies of the work with a subject who relies upon the Other’s
consent:

Who analyses children today within a Lacanian psychoanalytic

frame?
What is the place of interpretation with children?
Where do we stand (sit, or play) in the transference with the child
and her or his Other(s)?
How does the analyst working with children act with her or his
being?
How do we take the desire of a child, literally?

As the reader will discover, the contributors to this volume of essays all
engage with these questions within the context of a particular aspect of
their work with children or young people.
The question of who analyses children today within the framework
of Lacanian psychoanalysis is answered in one way or another by every
one of our contributors since each author is also a clinician working
with children—whether neonates, adolescents, or anywhere in between
these two groups. Sometimes the work is situated within the tradition
and history of Lacanian psychoanalysis so as to indicate the moment
which particularly inspires or influences that practitioner in his or her
work (for example, Benvenuto’s work on the Casa Verde, and Maison
Verte; Rogers, on the later teachings of Lacan).
Interpretation as one of the core interventions in psychoanalytic
work is explored in detail in case-work across a range of clinical struc-
tures, symptom, and discussions of working with children in systems.
Interpretation is also at work in the critical examination of discourse,
and of how intersecting and contradictory discourses constitute “the
child” and the child’s symptom, in the early part of the twenty-first
century (see especially the essays in part five).
 INTRODUCTION xxvii

The question of where the Lacanian child analyst places her or

himself in relation to the transference is at the same time a question of
managing transference to a manifold Other (particularly in the articu-
lated or mumbled demand). The transference in all of its manifestations
is explored in great variety across the collection, from working within
institutions (see especially the chapters by Briggs, Hennessy, Plastow,
and Vanier), to working within systems (see Benvenuto, and Redmond)
to the work in the private clinic, where still, the exigencies of the trans-
ference are multi-faceted (see Fernández Alvaraz, Laurita, Walshe, and
Swales).
It is both a perpetual question, and at the same time never a question
for the Lacanian practitioner working with children and young people,
to consider how to act with her or his being, since as the reader will
see, one of the touchstones of the Lacanian treatment is the notion that
the analyst’s being is always involved (see the chapters by Monahan,
Rogers, and Vanier for example). But how the analyst’s being comes
into play in the child clinic is unthinkable in the same terms as the work
with adults, since the child may reach out to touch or pull the analyst’s
hair, to enlist her or his help in pulling a trigger on a toy gun, or to cast
her or him in the role of “the fool”, or “the witch” depending on what
is happening in the work (see Briggs, Hennessy, and Swales). How our
contributors write about these experiences is particularly valuable since
it brings out a rich evocation of the analyst’s desire and a rich testimony
to the analyst’s requirement to make inventions as well as interventions
in the treatment.
Taking the desire of a child, literally, is the absolute minimum
requirement of working with children. The child’s desire foments a fan-
tasy and correlates to symptom, jouissance, and sinthome. In Lacanian
theory, desire is thought with clinical structure. How do we think about
structure in the clinical work with children (see especially the chapters
by Laurita, Monahan, Rodríguez, and Walshe)? What happens to desire
as it encounters the desire of the Other (see Cederman, Fortune, Plas-
tow, Redmond, and Nierenberg and Watson)?
While engaging with the themes which predominate in the direction
of the treatment, as outlined above, our contributors also bring to their
essays their own particular investments, their own desire as analysts,
which mobilises for them a way of working with, and thinking about,
the work with children and young people. As such, in order to reflect
these trajectories, the collection of essays is presented in five parts.
xxviii INTRODUCTION

Part one consists of four pieces on the direction of the treatment with
children.
We have chosen to open the book and this section with the piece writ-
ten by Stephanie Swales which can be read as a prelude for Lacanian
practitioners working with children. In her chapter Swales pays close
attention to the function of demand as it gets articulated variously at the
beginning, and throughout the treatment, by the child’s parents indicating
something of what the child’s symptom represents of the parental cou-
ple, and then by the child as the indication of her or his own investment
in the treatment. What Swales “frames” as challenges are the problems
of management of the intricacies of this demand at work in the treat-
ment and in the transference. What she refers to as “inventions” are
the ways in which the analyst approaches the analytic frame in order
to make use of the conceptual repertoire Lacan composed through his
teachings (for example: scansion, variable-length sessions) according to
the specificity of the work with children and adolescents, but in keep-
ing with the overarching approach of the Lacanian analyst of working
with the specificity proper to each case, case-by-case.
Hilda Fernández Alvarez also addresses the function of demand.
Taking into account the “at least one adult” who is involved in the
treatment with the child (parent, significant other, carer, agency worker,
etc.), she explores the exigencies of the transference via the manage-
ment of demand(s), and how the analyst acts with their being via a
consideration of the place of “knowledge” and interventions made
“within a space and time”. Using clinical vignettes, Fernández Alvarez
proposes and explains the utility of certain of Lacan’s topological sche-
mas (Moebius, L Schema, Graph of Desire) as spaces upon which the
child subject’s demand can be mapped.
We are very excited to be able to reproduce extracts here from
Françoise Dolto’s “Seminars on Child Psychoanalysis” with a preface
by Olga Cox Cameron (who translated the first four seminars for the
Irish Journal of Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy) for this volume. We
chose to extract the elements from the first two seminars in which Dolto
very straightforwardly comments upon the position the analyst should
take up around the child’s demand; the function of the practitioner in
drawing out the child’s desire; the notion of the child as symptom of the
parents; and how to approach the preliminary sessions. As the reader
will discover, a number of our contributors quote or otherwise reference
Dolto in their pieces: to paraphrase Joni Mitchell from her song “A case
 INTRODUCTION xxix

of you”—parts of Dolto flow out of these essays on Lacan from time

to time. It seemed to us an exceptional opportunity to publish Dolto
here in a contemporary collection of accounts of working with children
since, as Cox Cameron astutely remarks, she is above all, a clinician,
who brings to the psychoanalytic encounter her approach to the child
as a “speaking subject”. If this is what qualifies the analytic approach
as specifically Lacanian, then arguably Dolto was one of the first
Lacanians. But Dolto was much more than a “Lacanian”: and her own
inventions and innovations put to work in the creation of the Maison
Verte are commented upon by Bice Benvenuto whose chapter we also
include in the first part of this book, since it indicates a “new” direction
of the treatment.
Bice Benvenuto addresses the decline of the paternal imago and con-
siders how in our time of the “failed patriarch”, substitutes for this sym-
bolic function are diffused in social networks (both virtual and “real”).
In her piece, she claims that Dolto’s invention of the Maison Verte insti-
tuted a “polyphonic, convivial dimension in the clinical work with chil-
dren”, and points out common ground and divergences between Dolto,
and Lacan and Klein. She goes on to describe her own work in the crea-
tion of the Casa Verde in Rome and the Maison Verte–UK in London,
and considers the new dimension of transference made possible in that
work which she theorises as the “Agora effect”. The reader is referred
to the excellent collection of essays on the theory and practice of Dolto’s
work with children by Hall et al (2009) in which Benvenuto’s chapter
elaborates in greater detail the work in the Casa Verde.
Part two consists of two essays, each of which comment upon the
function of “the father” in the psychoanalytic work with children.
The Lacanian formulas about “the father”, the paternal function,
and the Name-of-the-Father are well-known, especially from his early
work (Lacan, 1938; Lacan, 1950, Lacan, 1957–1958, for example). In her
chapter, Megan Williams reminds us that Lacan’s earlier work trans-
formed the Freudian Oedipus complex into a logic of castration, and
the Name-of-the-Father was the signifier able to recognise the subject in
the “child-object” of the mother’s desire, thereby mobilising the opera-
tion of sexuation via the founding of an ego-ideal. Later in his work,
Williams points out that Lacan wrote that a subject can do without the
Father on condition of having first made use of him, highlighting there-
fore the necessity of subjective invention. Williams addresses this ques-
tion in relation to an examination of a clinical case: how a child makes
xxx INTRODUCTION

use of a Father, and how from a family constellation and “family guy”,
a paternal function is engendered. She suggests that it is not the pres-
ence or virility of the person of a father which determines the Paternal
Function for the child but rather the subjective activity and even his or
her invention of a Father.
In her piece, Annie Rogers explores a four-year analysis of a child
retrospectively through the “later Lacan”. Focusing a child analysis on
the Lacan of the “Father of the Name”, the Real unconscious and the
clinic of Borromean knots—Rogers remarks—allows for a re-setting of
the compass of a Lacanian field of psychoanalysis with children. Rogers
goes on to examine the precise position of the analyst in that “field”,
and the invitation to the child to discover a space for the Real in the
work of play. Laying out the trajectory of the analysis from a symptom
through the primal scene fantasy and a family intervention—indicates
how the child makes use of an unspoken family legacy in a leap of his
own invention.
Part three examines the concept of the “clinical structure” in the
work with children.
Leonardo Rodríguez foregrounds the clinical and ethical principles
of “singularity” in clinical work as the decisive guide to his work. In
his chapter he comments on cases of each of the three Lacanian clini-
cal structures—neurotic, psychotic, perverse—in order to illustrate the
theoretical assumptions in differential diagnosis. Rodríguez claims
that despite the changes in the constitution of the family, and other
socio-cultural changes such as the increased acceptance of different
sexual identities and orientations (in certain parts of the world), the
psychopathological organisations of human beings have not changed
structurally.
Cristina Laurita considers the theoretical and technical questions at
work in the treatment of children who are psychotic. Laurita remarks
that while Lacan teaches that psychic structures are fixed, he never took
up the question of malleability of structure in childhood. Drawing on
her clinical case-work, Laurita addresses this gap in Lacan’s theorising,
by exploring the idea of whether there might be a “window of time”
during which a child’s psychical structure might be “transformed”.
Elizabeth Monahan and Marie Walshe each look at the exigencies of
the clinic of adolescence. Walshe addresses what she calls “the exqui-
site porous fluidity of the modern adolescent subject” as a transitional
stage, attended by a regression which re-visits old psychic wounds.
 INTRODUCTION xxxi

This is the time of the revision of oedipal ideals, the final emergence of
structure, sexuality, and the signifiers of a fantasmatic positioning vis-
à-vis the Other. Adolescence, according to Walshe, is characterised in
our time by the foreclosure of castration: the fragile adolescent subject
assailed by the increasing concretisation of language, is offered a death-
by-signified, rather than birth-by-signifier.
Elizabeth Monahan presents a case: a “Rapunzel” of our time, whose
signifying economy reveals the function of an “unravelling” as a way
to negotiate the difficult movement from pre-oedipal to genital stage.
Part four focuses on the “symptom” and “the system”.
Lacan remarks in his “Note on the Child” that the child’s “symp-
tom” represents the child’s truth, the truth of the family couple, and/
or the subjectivity of the mother. We were most interested to see how
contributors would engage with this notion of the symptom, but also,
given that today’s “child” more than ever before can live part or all of
a “childhood” in care, either in an institutional system, or foster care
system, or spend some time participating in a mental health provision
system, we wondered how contributors would theorise the child’s
symptom in and of a system.
We begin this section with the essay by Michael Gerard Plastow.
Plastow takes for examination what he calls the “watershed” of the
symptom in the difference in approach to the treatment of a child by the
psychoanalyst, Sabina Spielrein and the developmental psychologist,
Jean Piaget in their work in Geneva of the 1920s. Plastow underscores
the differences between the notion of the symptom in psychoanalysis,
and that of psychiatry or psychology: the latter reducing the symp-
tom to a deviation from the norms of development, in contrast with
Freud’s notion of the symptom as something that goes well beyond the
description of a behaviour, or a failure to meet developmental norms
or milestones. Plastow goes on to examine how the symptom is taken
up in psychoanalysis following both Spielrein and Lacan. Plastow’s
recuperation of Spielrein leads him to claim that Spielrein articulates
for psychoanalysis something akin to what Lacan called a savoir-y-faire,
a knowing what to do with the symptom: a move which opposes the
tendency in many of today’s psy-practices to remove the symptom.
Kate Briggs also argues that in the dominant discourse of mental
health services in our time, symptoms are to be eliminated rather than
heard (in the transference) and as such, subjects become deregistered
from the particularity of their own unique conditions of existence.
xxxii INTRODUCTION

Psychoanalysis therefore has had to redefine its approach to the

engagement of the subject and the concept of the Real. She looks to the
work of Kohut and Kernberg addressing the question of transference in
working with (so-called) borderline and narcissistic disorders as well
as in the late work of Lacan, with each one responding to changing
presentations in their clinics. Drawing substantively on her work with
a young girl in an institutional setting, Briggs argues that it behoves
psychoanalysts to communicate what is distinctive about what works
in their treatments, in their encounters with care teams in institutional
settings.
Taking up Lacan’s comment in his “Note on the Child” (Lacan, 1969,
p. 1) that “the child’s symptom is found to be in a position of answer-
ing to what is symptomatic in the family structure”, Kristen Hennessy
remarks that the child who has been removed from the custody of his
parents and placed in foster care via a concrete intervention by the law,
finds himself then, in a peculiar “position”. Moving between clinical
vignettes and Lacan’s paper, her chapter allows her to explore questions
connected to the symptoms of the child in the system: what happens to
the symptom in the system? Whose symptom does the child answer?
When does the child’s symptom become an answer to the system itself?
In the second of his essays on “Contributions to the Psychology of
Love”, Freud had put forward the idea that there was in some men,
a tendency towards the debasement of the “love-object” (Freud, 1912d).
In her chapter, Donna Redmond explores the tendency towards debase-
ment in the sphere of female adolescence within an Irish sexual health
service for adolescents. Based upon her observations from this clinic,
Redmond considers this tendency and reflects on its impact upon
female identity and sexuality.
Part five brings together four essays, each of them commenting upon
current discursive trends and the practices which become warranted
and normalised within and between discourses. As apparatuses of the
Symbolic, and “mouthpieces” of the Imaginary, discourses materialise
the signifying operations through which the child and the Other(s) are
constituted as “speaking beings” and through which, is articulated,
“the symptom”.
Catherine Vanier describes working with what we can think of as
“very new” subjects: these are infants prematurely born and most
often resuscitated, beginning lives assisted by new technologies (see
also Vanier, 2015). These brand-new subjects are inhabited by scientific
 INTRODUCTION xxxiii

and medicalised discourses in which the psychoanalyst has to find her

place, both figuratively, and literally in Vanier’s case working alongside
the medical team in a neo-natal resuscitation unit.
In her chapter, Joanna Fortune considers the impact of new forms
of photographing technologies—taken for granted in our time—which
she argues impede the Mirror stage, disrupting ego formation, leading
to new pathologies in young children. In addition she postulates some
techniques for clinical use in order to address this new problem.
Exploring the links between contemporary dominant neo-liberal
investments in “equality” and “difference” and the new standard of
administering hormone blockers to children who experience an identifi-
cation with the other sex, is central to Eve Watson and Ona Nierenberg’s
concerns in their chapter. They draw attention to the rapid ascension to
hegemonic status of the “discourse of ‘trans’” which is marked by the
total medicalisation of transgender identification, a trend which they
point out is utterly at odds with psychoanalysis which unpins the sub-
ject from anatomical deadlock.
The final chapter in this collection is contributed by Kaye Cederman
who explores the intersection of global capitalist-consumer culture and
its resonance with the clinic of the psychotic and autistic child. Drawing
on Baudrillard and Nietzsche, she asks what sort of being is the child
who is inhabited by language in this milieu which mobilises hyper-real
simulations of childhood and its counterpart, a deadly circuit of over-
stimulated, digitised, (child-) consumers.
In putting this book together, we hoped that we would discover new
things about the direction of the treatment with children, that we would
encounter new theories about the child’s symptom; and it occurred to
us that we might, at the end of this work, have “further” Lacanian “notes
on the child”. We hope that the reader will welcome and find useful the
accounts which testify to a rich diversity of clinical experience, as well
as the theoretical and conceptual innovations that these Lacanian psy-
choanalysts bring to their work with children, and to this book.

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 INTRODUCTION xxxv

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Plastow, M. G. (2015). What is a Child? Childhood, Psychoanalysis, and Dis-
course. London: Karnac.
Rodríguez, L. (1999). Psychoanalysis with Children. London & New York:
Free Association Books.
Rogers, A. (2006). The Unsayable. New York: Random House.
Stainton Rogers, R. & Stainton Rogers, W. (1992). Stories of Childhood: Shift-
ing Agendas of Child Concern. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
Vanier, C. (2015). Premature Birth: The Baby, the Doctor, and the Psychoanalyst.
London: Karnac.
Verhaeghe, P. (2004). On Being Normal and Other Disorders: A Manual for
Clinical Psychodiagnostics. S. Jottkandt (Trans.). New York: Other Press.
 PART I
DIRECTING THE TREATMENT
CHAPTER ONE

Lacanian psychoanalysis with children:

framing challenges and inventions
Stephanie Swales

I
n our work with adults, we can think about the analytic frame by
turning to a host of reference points in the Lacanian and Freudian
oeuvre. We read, for example, Freud’s papers on technique (Freud,
1911–1915 [1914]), or Lacan’s “Variations on the Standard Treatment”
and “Direction of the Treatment and Principles of its Power” (Lacan,
1955; 1958). However, with the exception of a few notes here and there,
Lacan did not provide us with much direction regarding working with
children. We therefore question what modifications should be made
to the analytic frame and conception of the treatment when we work
with children insofar as they present us with unique challenges. What
is more, thoughtful choices must be made in each specific case because
whether we are working with children or adults, the conditions for the
possibility of analysis are not universal or one-size-fits-all.
The frame must be created in tandem with the creation of the spec-
ificity of the psychoanalytic symptom out of the initial demand. The
analyst should take the time to listen both to the child and to the parents
to see, based on the initial presenting problem, who is demanding what
and for what purpose. Toward this end, Lacan said:

3
4 L A CA N I A N P S Y C H OA N A LY S I S W I T H C H I L D R E N

In order to know how to respond to the subject in analysis, the

method is to first determine where his ego* is situated—the ego*
that Freud himself defined as formed by a verbal nucleus—in other
words, to figure out through whom and for whom the subject asks
his question. As long as this is not known, we risk misconstruing
the desire that must be recognised there and the object to whom
this desire is addressed. (1956, p. 250)

In analytic work with children, Lacan said in his “Note on the Child”
written to Jenny Aubry that the “child’s symptom is a response to what
is symptomatic in the family structure … The symptom can represent
the truth of the parental couple” (1969, p. 373). The analyst must there-
fore learn about the parents as individuals and their relationship with
each other, with the child, and with other children in the family. The
position of the child in the family history, the desire and narcissism of
the parents, and the current family structure is of crucial importance. In
working with the child, the analyst attempts to discern the fantasy of
each parent, that of the child, and the link between them.

Challenges
It would be a mistake to take on the role of a parent or a teacher even
though there is often substantial pressure from such people to side with
them. The analyst does not aim to make the child “good” for the parents
or for the teacher but instead tries to help the child symbolise what is
making him unhappy and to create a different position for him with less
suffering. Trying to transform the child into a better student or a well-
behaved child is to alienate him further and to side with the conscious
desires of the parents and teachers, not to listen to the desires of the
child, and to ignore the unconscious determinates of the child’s symp-
tom within the system. In Lacan’s words, in such attempts the “analyst
[mistakenly] tries to normalise the subject’s behaviour in accordance
with a norm, a norm that is coherent with the analyst’s own ego. This
will always thus involve the modelling of one ego by another ego, by a
[supposedly] superior ego” (1954, p. 285).
Instead, the analyst’s position is to assist the child in asking and try-
ing to answer various forms of the question “Che vuoi?” such as “Who
am I?”, “What does the Other want from me and for me?”, “What is
my role in my family?”, and “How can I satisfy myself as well as the
 L ACA N I A N P S Y C H OA N A LY S I S W I T H C H I L D R E N 5

Other?” The analyst’s role is to listen to the child and to be open to

what is particular about the meanings and functions of his symptoms.
A symptom, after all, is always an attempt to solve a problem.
The silent and sometimes not-so-silent demand of the parents is often
that the analyst patch up the problem, do so quickly, and avoid making
them talk about things that they would rather keep swept under the
rug. By the time the parents bring the child to analysis, the child (as the
symptom of the family) has often in their opinion caused quite enough
trouble. In the parents’ fatigue, they would rather the child conform to
their conscious preferences than have to face their own unconscious
investments in the child’s symptom. As Lacan said:

It should be obvious that analytic discourse does not in any way

consist in making what isn’t going well go away, in suppressing
what isn’t going well in ordinary discourse … The discourse that
proceeds only by true speaking is precisely what is disturbing …
It’s enough for someone to make an effort to speak truly for that to
bother everyone. (1974, February 12th, 1974)

In other words, the analyst is the bearer of bad news that feathers must
be ruffled if there is any hope of the symptom taking flight.
Many clinicians (e.g., Greene, 2014; Kazdin, 2009) are tempted to
take a moralising, teaching, or preaching stance with the child when
presented with manifestations of the child’s aggression (e.g., rivalry,
not wanting to share, bullying, and various hateful impulses that may
be directed to the parents). At times the child’s aggression can be quite
difficult to bear when it is aimed at the analyst in the transference. That
being said, the analyst must be able to tolerate this kind of transfer-
ence in order to allow the progressive articulation of the fantasy of the
child and of her parents. This does not mean that the analyst should
let himself be physically hit or hurt by the child. If the child does so,
the analyst could potentially terminate the session while providing a
rationale for doing so. The analyst might consider giving the child an
opportunity to put her thoughts into words before she leaves if it is
appropriate to the situation. Violent acting out is always open to and is
even a call for interpretation (see for example Lacan, 1958 in his discus-
sions of acting out).
Another aspect of working with children that can be difficult to han-
dle is their not being toilet trained or having “accidents” in the analyst’s
6 L A CA N I A N P S Y C H OA N A LY S I S W I T H C H I L D R E N

session room. When a child visits the restroom during a session, it may
be a communication to the analyst or a response to something anxiety-
provoking that arose in the session. The analyst should take note of
what was happening or being said just prior to the child’s request to
visit the restroom and then make use of that information as appropriate
to the individual case. Similarly, when the child urinates or defecates
during the session—in which the child brings the partial object into the
room—it might (but not always) have a meaning in relation to the ses-
sion material or within the transference.
How can we speak of a demand for analysis being made by the
child if it is the parents who request the treatment? Who is making the
demand, and for what? This question should be asked in each particular
case, and it is helpful if both the demand of the parents and the demand
of the child can be articulated. Although typically the initial demand
for treatment comes from the parents or the school, and the child may
never even have heard of analysis or therapy, in order for the treatment
to work, the child must develop an investment in the treatment or a
demand of some kind that the analyst help him with a problem.
This brings us to the important question of the framing of the first
session in instantiating the child’s relationship to the analyst and
to the work itself. If the analyst decides to let the parents participate
in the first session, it is very important to begin the session by address-
ing the child directly before letting the parents speak since this dramati-
cally increases the probability that the child will tell the analyst what
is troubling him. In this vein, I find it also helps if the analyst explains
who she is (e.g., someone interested in hearing more about the child’s
understanding of his suffering and who can help the child come up
with a solution that works best for him) versus who she is not (e.g.,
someone on the side of the parents) and what the child can expect from
the treatment. When the analyst speaks to the parents first, this com-
municates to the child that the analyst is there for the parents and not
for him, or that the parents have more authority on the problem of the
child than the child himself. Instead, the analyst’s invitation gives the
child the freedom to symbolise his problems and creates an initial sense
of trust that the analyst’s presence is for him (alternatively, the analyst
may choose to speak to the parents on the phone or even in person on
their own prior to the first session with the child, so that only the child
is invited into the room for his first session).
When working with adolescents, I prefer to obtain the parents’
perspectives in a way that also facilitates creating trust with the
 L ACA N I A N P S Y C H OA N A LY S I S W I T H C H I L D R E N 7

adolescent by speaking briefly with the parents on the phone prior to

the first session about their child and the nature of the problem (after
all, the parents need some contact with the analyst to be convinced that
they should bring their child to see the analyst). This allows me to sub-
sequently see the adolescent alone on the first session. Upon meeting
the adolescent, I ask for his input on how to involve the parents (or not)
through giving the adolescent several choices and helping the adoles-
cent think through the potential pros and cons of each choice.
A parallel issue is that of the child’s confidentiality in relation to his
parents, teachers, and others involved in his case. Just as in work with
adults, if the child knows that the analyst communicates freely with the
parents and shares details of what he says in sessions, he will restrict
what he says. The child may even request that the analyst say certain
things to his parents and intervene on his behalf. Since in psychoanaly-
sis the analysand’s ability to say whatever comes to mind is the fun-
damental rule, restrictions on the child’s free speech can significantly
compromise the treatment.
I find it best to emphasise the importance of the child’s confiden-
tiality to the parents while at the same time making sure the parents
understand what kind of work I am doing with the child so that they
do not prematurely terminate the analytic work. After all, in conduct-
ing analysis with children the analyst must handle not only the child’s
transference but also that of the parents and others involved in the case.
I therefore try to adopt a stance in which, without giving them advice,
the parents feel they are listened to and taken seriously. Of course, if a
parent has her or his own demand for analysis she or he can be given
a referral to another analyst. Thereafter, it is sometimes helpful to get
updates from each parent in a way that honours the child’s desire for
their involvement in the treatment; after speaking with the child about
his preferences, the analyst might speak to the parents on the phone at
regular intervals or upon request or in person with the child or on their
own. This can be especially helpful in instances in which the child is
prone to leaving out significant events in his life or is not old enough to
put them into words. Information from the parents about, for instance,
a fight the child got into on the playground, can help the analyst high-
light related aspects of the child’s play on the occasion of the subse-
quent session.
In my experience, it is helpful to attend to the child’s desire for
treatment by asking at the first session’s conclusion if he would like
to come back. Sometimes I am more specific and add “to talk about”
8 L A CA N I A N P S Y C H OA N A LY S I S W I T H C H I L D R E N

or “to work on” “your sister making you angry” or whatever specific
signifiers have been uttered by the child about his troubles. If the
answer is “yes,” then this moment marks the child’s demand for and
initial investment in the treatment. Some analysts ask this question at
the end of every session.
If the answer is “no”, I prefer to enquire about the reasons for the
child’s refusal, which may assist in deciding how to respond. For exam-
ple, the child might say “I am missing soccer practice now because of
this”, in which case the analyst could try to work with the child and par-
ents to find an alternative session time. Alternatively, the child might
say that it’s embarrassing to talk about problems. In response, the ana-
lyst might acknowledge that it can be embarrassing but that oftentimes
if children do not talk about them the problems do not get solved and
can even get worse. In other words, the analyst does not take the “no”
at face value.
Donald Winnicott’s (2008) innovative work with the Piggle is a very
good example of the importance of utilising the child’s desire for analy-
sis in the constitution of the analytic frame. Because the Piggle and
her family lived too far to commute back and forth from their home
to his office for regular sessions, Winnicott made it clear that the ses-
sions would occur only upon the Piggle’s request. In the intervals
between sessions the parents wrote letters to Winnicott describing how
the Piggle was doing. The Piggle knew about these communications
and often sent drawings and messages of her own in the letters. She
asked her parents to take her to see Dr Winnicott whenever she had
some trouble about which she wanted to speak (and play). Although
the case was criticised on account of it not being a “real” or “full” analy-
sis, it was a successful treatment. Had the Piggle not been enlisted by
Winnicott to request each session instead of the parents arranging
meetings at regular intervals or in accordance with their desire, the out-
come of the treatment may not have been as favourable. The analytic
frame, then, should be adapted to the particular situation of each child.
De-contextualised theoretical arguments about a universal meaning of
“analysis” are beside the point.

Inventions
In children who are subjects (versus psychotic or as yet unformed), the
in-between world of the session room is one in which the child’s fantasy
Random documents with unrelated
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allowing 2·5 per cent. loss in the supply mains—only one-fourth as
much as in the direct Edison system at the same average distance
from dynamo. If this loss were increased to 10 per cent., and made
equal to that in the direct system, viz. 10 per cent., the size of the
conductor would be that shown at C.

Fig. 7.

Fig. 8.

The graphic diagram, Fig. 8, demonstrates what the relative cost

would be with each of the three conditions just named.
Mr. Goulard’s first practical application of the secondary generator
in this country was the lighting of the Underground Railway Stations,
in 1883, from Edgware Road to High Street, the generating dynamo
being fixed at the former place. These experiments, which were
made by Mr. Kenneth Mackenzie, attracted considerable attention at
the time, but it was not until the report of the jurors to the Turin
International Exhibition in 1885 was published that companies were
formed to instal the Goulard system for lighting an extensive district.

Fig. 9.
The principle underlying all transformers is that of the induction
coil invented by Ruhmkorff in 1842, but described by Faraday in his
“Experimental Researches,” published in 1831-2.
Fig. 9 is a diagram of the ordinary induction coil; on a central
core is wound a short length of thick wire called the primary, and
again over this is wound a greater length of fine insulated copper
wire which forms the secondary coil. On sending a low-pressure
current from the generator round the thick wire, a much smaller
high-tension current is induced in the secondary. A contact breaker
is employed to make and break the current, or, as in the early
instruments, a commutator may be used to produce the alternations.
When used as a transformer the action is reversed, that is, a high-
tension current is passed through the primary coil, which is
composed of a wire of small sectional area, the high-pressure main
connected to the dynamo also being small as compared with the
distributing cable leading from the transformer, which, acting as a
step-down induction coil, converts the electricity into a safe working
pressure.

Fig. 9a.
Fig. 9 a shows the arrangement of the two separate and
complete circuits. D is the dynamo, P the primary coil, S the
secondary, and L the lamps arranged in parallel.
It is hardly necessary to go into the technical details of the
various improvements which have led up to the modern type of
transformers; they are summarised by Mr. Kapp into two classes:—

I. Core transformers, one core and two sets of coils.

II. Shell transformers, two cores and one set of coils.

No. I. are those in which the copper coils are spread over the
surface of the iron core enveloping the latter more or less
completely; and No. II. in which the core is spread over the surface
of the copper coils forming a shell over the winding.
 Fig. 10.
The original Goulard and Gibbs secondary generator was of the
core transformer type, it had an open magnetic circuit and cores
which could more or less be inserted into the coils so as to regulate
the electro-motive force of the secondary circuit. The transformers
were constructed with a number of copper disks or washers; these
were placed alternately primary and secondary in a vertical frame,
through the centre of which an iron core was fixed, consisting of a
bundle of straight iron wires. The core was movable in the coil in the
manner of the well-known induction coils, and thereby the electro-
motive force of the secondary current could be adjusted. In their
latest design the coils are circular in plan and rectangular in section
and are surrounded by groups of U-shaped soft iron stampings
slipped over from both sides and held together by two circular cast-
iron plates with a central bolt. The magnetic lines of force pass
through the core, in at one end and out at the other, and are then
more or less disseminated through space; it will thus be seen that
the path of the lines lies partly in iron and partly in air, and, since air
has about seven hundred times more magnetic resistance than iron,
it is evident that the number of lines created with a given current
must be considerably smaller than would be the case if the path of
the lines contained iron only. This constitutes the improvement in
the Zippernowsky-Deri-Blathy system of transformer, which has coils
similar to the Goulard, but with the iron of the core applied in the
form of a ring-shaped shell, surrounding both coils completely. This
arrangement can best be described by comparing it to a Gramme
armature, in which the copper and the iron have changed places.
Imagine what is usually the core in an armature replaced by the
primary and secondary coils, and, instead of the winding of insulated
copper wire, wind iron wire around the coils, and one of these
transformers is the result. In consequence of the lower magnetic
resistance of the Class II. transformer, as compared to that of Class
I., the electrical output obtainable with equal weights of copper and
iron appears to be considerably greater in the former apparatus.
Professor Feraris, of Turin, has published some of the results of
comparative experiments made with Classes I. and II. and finds that
the coefficient of induction is 3·6 times as great with the latter as
with the former. There are many varieties of transformers in the
market which closely resemble each other; one of the most practical
is that designed by Kapp and Snell, of which Fig. 10 is an illustration.
U-shaped stampings form the shell and the cores are laid in the
double trough. The cover of these troughs is formed from the metal
removed from the interior of the stampings, and the whole is held
together in a cast-iron frame so arranged as to allow air to circulate
through the core and round the coils. The price of these
transformers is about £4 per indicated horse-power, and the
efficiency under the best conditions, namely, with full load, is,
according to Professor Ayrton, as high as 96 per cent., and when it is
doing one quarter of the full work 89 per cent.
 Application of Transformers.
The installation at the Grosvenor Gallery, London, may be taken
to illustrate Class I. or the practical working of distribution by means
of transformers.
Fig. 11 represents the arrangement of primary and secondary
circuits.
An alternating current is sent through the main L L¹, which is a
closed circuit, and a small portion is drawn off wherever there is a
secondary generator or transformer T; these instruments are placed
in parallel between the conductors in the same manner as a glow
lamp; neither main can be called positive or negative, as the current
flows backwards and forwards many times in a second. The house
wires M M are joined to the secondary circuits, and are quite distinct
from the main, which they do not even touch, although sufficiently
near to receive an induced current alternating the same as the
primary, but of a much lower electro-motive force.

Fig. 11.
D, alternating current dynamo; M M, secondary conductors;
E, continuous current dynamo for
T T, transformers;
exciting;
S¹ S² S³ S⁴ S⁵ S⁶, lamps in
L L¹, main primary conductors;
parallel.

The Goulard transformers were used at first, but have been

superseded by others designed by Mr. Ferranti; they are of the No. 2
kind, or shell type, and have a core of hoop-iron, on which the two
coils are wound; the hoop-iron is then bent over, and the ends
joined so as to enclose the coils. The machinery is fixed in a
basement excavated under the Grosvenor Gallery; the foundations
are of massive concrete, in which stone supports for the engines and
dynamos are embedded; the concrete does not touch the walls of
the building, but a space of about 1 foot is left, which is filled in with
clay; and by this simple plan all vibration of the machinery is isolated
from the building. The power is obtained from two horizontal high-
pressure engines, each of 600 indicated horse-power, in addition to
the original two horizontal high-pressure non-condensing engines,
each of 35 nominal horse-power, running at a speed of 55
revolutions per minute, which is maintained constant by means of a
governor directly attached to the expansion slide-valve. The four
engines drive on to a countershaft, which is cut up into lengths;
each section is coupled to a dynamo and exciter by means of a
conical friction-disk clutch; this permits of either length being started
or stopped without interfering with the other. The speed of each
engine is checked by means of a liquid speed-indicator, designed by
the author. Two Ferranti alternating current dynamos, each capable
of maintaining ten thousand lamps, are driven direct, one dynamo
by each length of shafting: they are excited by two continuous
current machines, the circuits from which are joined to a regulating
apparatus, which by altering resistance keeps the electro-motive
force of the large machines proportional to the number of lamps
which are to be maintained. At present hand regulation is employed,
but it is proposed to use automatic regulation, which will increase
the life of the lamps, as they are severely tried by the variation of
the current, which is more noticeable than in continuous current
installations. The current from the machines is at a potential of 2400
volts, and that from the transformers is 100 volts. The primary wire
which carries this high electro-motive force does not enter the
houses, as the transformers are, as a rule, fixed in the cellars, and
from them the house branch is led in the form of a cable of fine
wires, having a total diameter of 7/16 inch; the lamps, which are
placed in parallel across this cable, are attached to single No. 18 or
No. 20 B. W. G. wires in the usual manner. When first established,
the transformers presented an element of danger, in that they, in
common with all induction coils, were also condensers, and therefore
a dangerous shock might be given to any one touching some
unguarded portion of the lighting system. This has been prevented
by the simple plan of connecting one of the terminals of every
secondary circuit to earth, a method which, however, is not to be
recommended, as it throws an additional strain on the insulation of
the primary circuit; in fact, by earthing the secondary the insulation
is practically reduced to one-half. A safety device should be inserted,
which would come into operation on any leakage from primary to
secondary, and immediately cut out the transformer.
The primary-current conductor is led overhead, and still remains
an objectionable feature of the system, although the original trouble
with the neighbouring telephones and telegraphs has been
overcome. The primary circuit is a small carefully insulated cable of
high conductivity copper wire, nineteen strands of No. 15 B. W. G. It
weighs about 1¾ ton per mile, and is suspended, where it crosses
the streets, on a steel bearer whose tensile strength is 1⅕ ton. It is
so arranged according to the droop of the cable that the strain of the
bearer never exceeds 225 lbs., which means that the factor of safety
is nearly 12 to 1. Double cut-outs or safety fuses, in many instances
of the author’s design, are placed on each pole of the primary, at the
point where it enters the house, so that, in the case of an excess
current, the mica-foils would fuse, and all connection between that
house and the supply main would cease.
Much credit is due to M. Goulard, who, in spite of great
opposition to the use of his transformer system, initiated the
Grosvenor Gallery installation three years ago. It has developed into
not only the largest and most important central-station in Europe,
but, as regards the transformer system, it supplies more lights than
any in the United States. The original company has been taken over
by the London Electric Supply Corporation, who are putting down
plant capable of maintaining 30,000 lights, and are erecting another
station at Deptford for 200,000 lights, which will be distributed by
means of district transformers from mains, which it is proposed to
run from Deptford through the Thames Tunnel and the Underground
Railways. The electric current is supplied by meter at the price of
7¼d. per Board of Trade Unit, a price for light equal to gas at about
4s. 2d. per 1000 cubic feet.
 The Eastbourne station is also on the transformer system. An
alternating current dynamo, by Ellwell Parker, maintains a pressure
in the primary circuit of 2000 volts, which is reduced by means of a
Lowrie Hall transformer to a working pressure of 100 volts. There is
a special arrangement for maintaining a constant electro-motive
force in the mains, independent of the number of lights in use. The
mains are carried underground, and have so far given no trouble as
regards the insulation of the high-tension current which passes
through them. The Eastbourne company commenced by lighting the
parade only with arc lamps, but now supply the incandescent light to
all parts of the town, and enjoy the unique position of having
obtained power from the corporation to run the mains in the streets
prior to the passing of the Act of 1882. Another small station has
been successfully worked for the last six years at Brighton; the
group system was originally adopted, the lamps, both arc and
incandescent, being placed in series or multiple series; the high-
tension current is led through overhead wires in a very similar
manner to the installation at Temesvar, Hungary, which is described
at page 58, as an example of multiple series lighting. The extensions
at Brighton are to be carried out on the transformer plan, which will
necessitate the running of separate circuits, the intention of the
company, however, being to gradually convert its whole system of
supply to the transformer system. The Brighton Company has
regularly paid dividends to its shareholders since its formation.

On the Continent the Goulard transformer is largely employed.

An important installation at Tours of 3500 lamps has been for
some time successfully working. Another at Tivoli has some
additional points of interest, in that the natural power of a waterfall
is applied to generate electricity. Two turbines constructed by Escher
Wyss, of Zurich, having an available head of 29·75 feet, give 80
horse-power each, which is employed to drive two Siemens
alternating current dynamos, separately excited by two small
continuous current machines. Two distinct circuits of chromo-bronze
naked wire, 3·7 millimetres in diameter, are run overhead, in the
same manner as telegraph wires, through the town for a total length
of about nineteen miles. The street lamps are fixed alternately on
each circuit, so that one-half can be extinguished at a late hour
without interfering with the others, or having to turn out individual
lamps. The number of lamps used in the streets is two hundred glow
lamps of 50 candle-power; also one hundred and twenty glow lamps
of 16 candle-power for the illumination of the narrower streets. Arc
lamps are also employed, as well as a large reflector lamp, the rays
from which are turned on the Temples of Vesta and Sibilla. A house-
to-house system is also being established, and the company which
has put up the work proposes to utilise the falls of Tivoli in order to
transmit 2000 horse-power for lighting purposes in Rome.

The firm of Ganz, of Budapest, who are the manufacturers of the

Zippernowsky-Deri-Blathy system of transformers, have a similar
installation completed in order to light a portion of Lucerne. The
water power of Thorenburg 3·1 miles off, works the turbines, which
drive two self-exciting alternating current dynamos of the Ganz type,
similar to those shown at the Vienna Exhibition in 1884. The primary
current of 38 ampères, at an electro-motive force of 1800 volts, is
led by four uncovered wires, each six millimetres in diameter, to the
first station, which is 2·4 kilometres distant; here 1500 watts are
taken off, and at 2·3 kilometres further 7000 watts are utilised in two
of the hotels at Lucerne. A large installation on the same system has
been put down in Rome, and several Continental cities are adopting
this method of supplying electric light by small overhead wires. An
advantage claimed by the Zippernowsky system is the method of
keeping the strength of the magnetic field of the dynamos in
accordance with the external demand for current. The regulating
apparatus employed consists of a small transformer, the primary coil
of which is traversed by the whole, or by a proportionate part, of the
main circuit, while the secondary coil is inserted into the exciting
circuit. Thus, if the main current increases, the exciting current
induced in the two armature coils of the dynamo is reinforced by the
inductive action of the regulating transformer; and the field of the
dynamo is strengthened when more current is required. The
opposite takes place when, through the extinction of lamps on the
external circuit, the demand for current becomes less. In an
experiment made with the transformers, which supply some five
hundred electric lamps for the Teatro dal Verone and adjoining
houses at Milan from the central electrical station three-quarters of a
mile away, the main current was often found to vary from one
ampère to thirty-five ampères; it was stated that no variation in the
service pressure could be detected, and the lamps burnt with equal
brightness whatever the number in use. In the experiments at the
Teatro dal Verone each transformer worked its own independent
circuit of lamps; but, if the conditions of the different circuits were
alike, they could be coupled up together in any manner desired, and
thus a group of transformers could become a centre of distribution.
 The Westinghouse System.
The alternating current system of the Westinghouse Company
has come to the front in the United States with extraordinary
rapidity, and, although it is not three years since the first plant was
erected, at the present time over 190,000 incandescent lamps are
operated from a number of central-stations. The fundamental
principles of the Goulard system have been retained in the
Westinghouse converter; but the manner in which these principles
are applied has been greatly modified, while most of the details have
undergone a radical change at the hands of the engineers and
electricians whose researches have been utilised by the
Westinghouse Company. The form of converter as now designed
consists of a number of thin sheet-iron plates, shaped like the letter
E, they are slipped alternately from opposite directions over the
primary and secondary coils, which are disposed side by side; the
inductive core is, therefore, composed of a mass of detached plates
insulated from each other by paper, and forming a discontinuous
magnetic circuit. In order to protect the converter from mechanical
injury as well as dampness, and also to avoid the possibility of
contact with wires carrying currents of high potential, it is enclosed
in a cast-iron case or box, made in two parts and adapted to be
secured to any convenient support. Fig. 12 is a transverse vertical
section of such a converter box, with the converter in position. The
terminals of the primary coil, P, of the converter are led into the
compartment D¹, and the terminals of the secondary coil into D².
The terminals are secured to bolts or couplings, f f, mounted upon
insulating plates, e¹ and e². Fusible mica-foils, g, and switch plates,
h and i, with plugs k, are provided for protecting and disconnecting
the circuits. The open front of the compartments D¹ and D² are
closed by glass plates, T, which permit inspection of the connections
without entering the box. The converter box occupies little space,
and may be placed in any convenient situation in or about the
premises to be lighted, much the same as a gas-meter. The practice
where overhead conductors are employed, is to mount the converter
box on a pole in the vicinity of the premises to be lighted, as shown
by Fig. 13, and thus it is only necessary to lead the secondary or low
potential wires into the building, the high potential wires remaining
in an accessible position upon the pole. Fig. 14 is a view of North
Street, Pittsfield, Massachusetts, engraved from a photograph, and
shows a very neat form of tubular pole with its converter box on top.
This arrangement is used throughout the city, and is a great
improvement on the ordinary form of telegraph poles which so
greatly disfigure American cities, and are really the most
objectionable feature of the overhead wire system.
Fig. 12.

Fig. 13.
 Fig. 14.
The potential ordinarily employed in the main circuits of the
Westinghouse installations is about 1000 volts, and that in the lamp
circuits 50 volts, the ratio of conversion, therefore, being as 20 to 1;
the dynamos are manufactured, as a rule, in three sizes, No. 1 for
650, 16 candle-power lamps; Nos. 2 and 3 for respectively 1300 and
2500 lamps. The converters are also made in three ordinary sizes to
supply 20, 30, and 40 lamps of 16 candle-power each. A 40-light
converter contains about 85 pounds of iron and 25 pounds of
copper, so that the total weight of metal is less than 3 pounds per
lamp; the electrical efficiency of the converter is said to exceed 95
per cent. when the potential is reduced from 1000 volts in the
primary to 50 in the secondary. “It is claimed that the trifling loss of
energy in conversion from high to low potential at the point of
consumption is made up for by gain at other points, especially in the
increased efficiency of the lamps, so that an alternating current plant
may be counted on to give 10-16 candle-power lamps per indicated
horse-power, as against 7 with the direct system;” the comparative
gain is doubtful, but by using 50 instead of 100 volts the life of the
lamps is increased, the former having a much stronger filament and
consequently a longer life.
 Electric Motors.
Having slightly diverged from the original lines by describing a
system which is at present not introduced into Europe, a few
remarks on the subject of electric motors may not be inappropriate,
as they are almost universally worked in the United States, from the
installation which supplies electric light. There is a considerable
profit to the electric company if electric power is taken in the district,
the wires conveying the lighting current are thus economically
employed during the day. In the diagram, Fig. 15, which represents
a district at Boston, the curve on the right principally represents the
demand for power which takes place between the hours of 8 a.m.
and 3 p.m. A circular was addressed to all the leading electric
companies in America a short time ago, asking if they supplied
power as well as light, also for what purposes it was used.
Answers were received from 56 companies, who stated that the
motors were employed for:—driving ventilator fans, collar-and-cuff
machines, printing-presses, various apparatus in repair-shops,
sewing-machines, coffee-mills, gun-shop tools, sausage-machines,
elevators, lathes, pumps, saws, ice-cream freezers, organ-bellows,
and washing-machines. The size of motors varied from one-eighth to
15 horse-power; 26 companies have supplied motors from arc light
circuits, 14 from arc and incandescent, and 16 from incandescent
circuits alone. The motors are principally owned by the subscribers,
and are charged for at a rate varying from £3 to £15 per horse-
power per month. The motor business is still in its infancy, but is
cited to show how Electric Power can supplant the steam-engine,
especially for those purposes in which the power required is small
and complete control is desirable.
Fig. 15.
 CLASS II.
The Edison Parallel System,
with Continuous Current.

It will be found, on examining Appendix II., that in European

stations by far the larger number of lamps are maintained from
installations employing the Edison system; the Ferranti plan of using
transformers comes next, closely followed by Goulard and
Zippernowsky; the distribution with secondary batteries follows, and
the high-tension multiple series comes last.

Fig. 16.
The Edison system has frequently been discussed, in connection
with small installations, but in magnitude the stations in Berlin and in
Milan exceed anything that has been started here with continuous
current.
 Before describing the central electric light station at the former
city, it may be well to recall to mind that the Edison plan is the
combination of a number of machines which pump electricity into a
network of feeders, mains, and conductors, the lamps being placed
in parallel circuit, as shown at L l, Fig. 16, and maintained at a
constant potential of 110 volts.

Fig. 17.
M M′ are the flow and return mains, the dynamos bridging them
across at one end. If the mains were very long, those near to the
dynamos would be exhausting the supply, and the lamps at the
remote end would not get the full pressure. A system of feeders has
been devised so that each lamp, no matter where it may be, shall
have approximately the full 110 volts working through it. Fig. 17
shows a long circuit consisting of two branch mains bridged by a
large number of lamps, l l, and D D are the dynamos at the central-
station. Series of feeders, f f′, have to be taken from the dynamo
mains and fed direct into the branch mains at various points, d d′, b
b′, c c′, in order to distribute the electrical pressure equally.
 The Three-Wire System.
The ordinary parallel system is undoubtedly suitable for small
installations; but when the area to be lighted is extensive, it is
impossible to proportion the mains, with a view to economy in the
cost of copper, without sacrificing energy wasted in heating the
conductors.
In Figs. 16, 17, the lamps are shown in simple parallel; but if two
dynamos are connected together, and a main wire is run from each
of their two extreme terminals and a third wire from the branch
connecting the two machines, we have what is known as the three-
wire system, which was invented by Edison in America, and
Hopkinson in England, almost simultaneously. Although by using the
third wire there is a saving in copper over the parallel plan, the
maximum gain is not more than 25 per cent., under the best
conditions; when the district to be illuminated is not more than 400
to 600 yards from the central-station, the three-wire system answers
well, but as soon as this distance is exceeded the cost of the mains
begins to mount up at a most alarming rate. Although there are
many Edison installations in the United States on this system and a
few on the Continent, it has only been used here in a few instances
for factory lighting.
 The Edison System at Milan.
The Santa Radegonda station at Milan is at the present moment
the second largest Edison station in Europe. The building, which was
formerly a theatre, is well adapted for the work required; the
dynamos and engines are fixed in a deep basement, while the
boilers are a few feet above the street level, the upper floors being
used as stores and testing-rooms. The dynamos, eight in number,
are of the old Edison type, with horizontal magnets; seven of these
machines are connected to the feeders which supply the mains, and
these cover the district to be lighted on the Edison network system.
The motive power is furnished by six Armington-Sims, and two
Porter-Allen engines, each connected direct to the armature of a
dynamo, the speed being maintained at the uniform rate of 350
revolutions per minute, except in the case of the spare engine and
dynamo, which is kept turning slowly, ready to be switched on
should occasion demand. The starting or cutting-out of circuit of
these large machines requires some care. In the first place, to start,
it is necessary to insert resistance into the shunt circuit of the
dynamo, which is done by a switch; but to throw 150 horse-power
into the main circuit would be dangerous to the lamps, so that the
current is first sent into a bank of one thousand lamps used as a
resistance, and these are cut out step by step; similar care is taken
when a machine is stopped. To control the electro-motive force,
which varies greatly from time to time, hand regulation is used
during the day, with the help of the Edison tell-tale, consisting of two
lamps, a red and white one, which light up when the current is high
or low; but when the night service comes on, as it may happen that
two thousand lamps may be turned out at once, an attendant has to
carefully watch the electric regulator, and be ready to insert
resistance into the field-magnet circuits by moving a wheel
connected by a shaft and bevel-gear to a system of commutators.
The principal difficulty to be overcome, in an installation where the
current is distributed over a large area, is the regulation of the
electro-motive force at the various points, as at Milan; there are no
return galvanometer wires, which are now used in both the two and
the three-wire Edison systems in the United States. The plan devised
by the company’s electrician at Milan is very ingenious, and enables
the pressure at the ends of the various feeders to be kept practically
the same, although they are of different lengths and sectional area.
In the first place, resistance was added to each feeder to equalise
the resistance in each conductor; and, in order to provide for the
varying amount of current the feeder has to supply, a peculiar form
of commutator, having a guillotine-shaped contact-piece, was
inserted in the circuit. By moving this, suitable resistance is inserted
or cut out, and the attendant, having a series of numbers, has only
to set this instrument to the number shown by the ampère meter. By
far the largest amount of current is drawn off for the lighting of the
Scala Theatre, the stage-lighting alone taking more than one
thousand lights: if these were all turned on suddenly, the other lights
in the district would be dimmed; to obviate this, auxiliary feeders
have been run, which are used only when any great increase is
expected; commutators similar to those referred to above also
regulate these feeders without any special attention. The pressure at
any point in the system is by this means easily controlled, and
affords an illustration of what is perhaps not the most economical,
but is found to be the most practicable, way of maintaining a
constant potential in a district where the amount of output of current
is suddenly doubled. Fig. 18 is a plan of the network system of
conductors laid through a large portion of the city; the conductors
are in outward appearance similar to gas-pipes, the current passing
through semicircular bars of copper, embedded both for the flow and
return in the same iron tube, which is laid underground in a shallow
trench. The house-supply is drawn from the mains, and these are
connected to the feeders by means of ordinary junction-boxes,
which each contain a fusible cut-out. The bridge-boxes allow of
expansion of the line, and have connections for testing purposes.
The insulation is extremely good, mainly on account of the
favourable nature of the ground, which is chiefly gravel; no trouble
has been experienced with leakage, nor has the service ever been
interrupted. The cut-outs are of an improved Edison form, but have
the disadvantage attending all lead plugs where the current is great,
in that, to guard against accidental melting due to the heating effect
of the current, the sectional area of the lead has to be much larger
than would be otherwise necessary. In fact, these cut-outs will
protect the cable against a bad short circuit, but nothing else.

Fig. 18.
In addition to the glow lamps, eighty arc lamps are worked in
derivation, two in series; most of these lamps require 45 volts, to
which 10 per cent. of idle resistance is added, constituting a total
loss of current which is extremely low for a combined arc and
incandescent system of lighting. The service commenced in 1882
with a little over one hundred lamps, and at present there are over
ten thousand glow lamps, and two hundred arc lamps are in use. At
first the new enterprise had to struggle against very great
difficulties; not only the technical difficulties of distribution by means
of a network of feeders and mains had to be overcome, but also
those arising from the prejudices of consumers and the competition
of the gas company, who tried to deter consumers from introducing
electric light into their houses. One of these means consisted in
offering to the private consumers, resident in the district which was
threatened by competition with electricity, an agreement by which
the gas company bound itself to supply gas at 5s. 8½d. per 1000
cubic feet, instead of 7s. 7d. as charged hitherto; and even now
those inside the “charmed circle” of the electric light conductors get
their gas cheaper than the public outside. One of the reasons which
accelerated the adoption of electric light was the introduction of the
Edison meter, in consequence of which consumers could be charged
exactly for the amount of light they had received, and were relieved
from paying a lump sum according to the number of lamps fixed,
which was customary in the early days of the company. The prices at
which the company now provides light, at all hours of the day and
night, are as under:—
Installation
Type of Charge per
charge
Lamp. lamp·hour.
per lamp.
s. d.
10- candle 18 0·26
16- ” 28 0·40
32- ” 56 0·80
that is, a little over ½d. per ampère-hour; the 10-candle lamps
requiring 0·5, the 16-candle lamps 0·75, and the 32-candle lamps
1·5 ampère.
The company lends meters for 50, 100, and 150 lamps, at an
annual rent of 4s. 10d., 7s. 3d., and 9s. 7d. respectively, and
replaces, without charge to the consumer, any lamp the filament of
which has broken, but it does not replace lamps where the glass is
broken. For arc lamps requiring 9 to 10 ampères, an annual rent of
£2 must be paid for the lamp itself, and a charge of a little over ½d.
per hour for every ampère-hour. The carbons are charged for at 1d.
per pair, lasting for about seven hours. Now that the installation has
been in use for several years, and that the company has arrived at a
very accurate estimate of the time during which an average
consumer requires the light—about one thousand six hundred lamp-
hours per annum—it proposes to simplify the method of charging
large consumers, by omitting the initial charge of each lamp, and,
instead, to charge 0·6d. for each 16-candle lamp-hour.
The Edison meters are based on the electrolytic action of a small
fraction of the current which passes through the meter. They are
cells, with rectangular zinc plates immersed in a solution of sulphate
of zinc of 1·054 density, the distance between the plates being a
little over ¼ inch. The proportion of the current which passes
through the meter to that which passes directly into the consumer’s
house is 1 to 973. The resistance of the shunt circuit is 9·75 ohms,
made up as follows: cell, 1·75 ohm; metallic portion, 8 ohms. The
resistance of the metallic portion rises with the temperature,
whereas that of the cells falls with a rising temperature; and in this
manner the small variations of resistance which might take place in
the cell are counter-balanced by the equally small variations in the
resistance of the metallic portion. A complete meter consists of two
similar-sized cells of the same resistance, placed in series. The
object of employing two cells is, that when little current is passing,
as in the summer months, one cell alone is used, and when the
consumption is sufficiently large both cells are employed, and the
mean between the two indications is taken as the basis for
calculation in number of ampère-hours. The quantity of electricity
passed through the cell is calculated by the loss of weight which has
taken place in the positive plate. An employé of the society visits
every meter monthly, taking away the old cells and substituting
others freshly constructed. A book is kept in which the weights of
the new plates and those of the returned plates are entered, and on
the basis of these entries the accounts are made up. The largest
plates are those in the 100-light meter, and are intended for a
maximum current of 75 ampères in the main circuit; they are 6
inches long by 2 inches wide. In cases where a larger amount of
current is taken, the capacity of the 100-light meter is increased by
joining two or more copper strips across the terminals of the cells.
The weak point of the system is the removal of the cells, which
leaves the adjustment of the account to be paid entirely in the hands
of the Electric-Light Company; in spite of this drawback, it is stated
that there has not been a single complaint from consumers during
the four years in which the meter system has been in use.
 Discovery of Faults.
It is evident that in so extensive a system of lighting a short
circuit now and then between the lamp wires and the earth cannot
altogether be avoided. Many of the lamps have been fitted to
existing gas fittings, and are beyond the daily supervision of the
company’s officers; the faulty place is often not easily accessible, so
the first step taken is to discover on which of the two circuits the
trouble has occurred. This is done at the station by joining two 16-
candle lamps in series across the main conductors and the point of
junction between the two lamps is connected to earth by a stout
wire. As long as both circuits (positive and negative) are perfectly
insulated from earth no current flows through this middle wire, and
both lamps remain hardly incandescent; but, if one of the circuits
should be in connection with the earth, the lamp which is joined on
the other circuit will brighten up, because the potential of the middle
wire and that of the faulty circuit are both zero, and consequently
the lamp between the middle wire and the sound circuit receives the
full pressure of 110 volts. To localise the fault, contact is made
between the earth and the sound circuit by means of a fusible plug
of known melting point, say for a thirty-lamp supply. If the fault is on
a portion of the external circuit, supplying less than thirty lamps, its
fusible plug will melt as soon as the sound main is put to earth. If,
however, the fault is on a portion supplying more than thirty lamps,
the fusible plug which has been inserted at the station between the
sound main and the earth will melt instead. A series of fusible plugs
are thus tried, increasing in melting capacity until one is found that
does not go: in this case, the other plug on the faulty portion has
melted, and the consumer’s lamps on that branch are extinguished;
the position of the fault is thus localised, and the company proceed
to remedy the defect without interfering in the slightest degree with
the rest of their system.
 The Electric Lighting of Berlin.
The Edison system is also employed at Berlin, in fact the
Deutscher Edison Gesellschaft have at the present time a monopoly
of the supply of the city from three large central-stations, each of
which serves the area in their immediate neighbourhood. The mains
differ from those used at Milan in that stranded highly insulated
cables, protected with steel wire on the outside, are laid under the
pavement in every street throughout the district. With the exception
of the Leipziger strasse and Unter den Linden, which are lit with arc
lamps suspended from chains running between cast-iron poles 24 ft.
high, about 100 to 250 ft. apart, gas is used for the street lighting,
and electricity for the interior illumination of many public buildings
and private houses; there are also a good many arc lights outside
the shops and restaurants. The mains are on the Edison network
system, the area of copper being such, that when all the lamps are
on there is a loss of energy of 25 per cent.; but this does not occur
on an average for more than half an hour a day. No sole concession
is given to the company, who simply have the right to take up the
pavement and cross streets, and for this permission they are bound
to furnish any consumer in the district with a constant supply of
electricity at the following charges:—
10- candle lamps 2·5 pf., about 0·29 d. per hour.
16- ” 4·0 ” 0·48 ”
32- ” 8·0 ” 0·96 ”
50- ” 12·5 ” 1·50 ”
100- ” 25 ” 3·00 ”
In addition to this an installation fee of 6s. per lamp is charged,
which includes one lamp.
Meters are charged as follows:—

£ s. d.
10- to 16- candle-power 0 16 0 per annum.
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