International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) Model

Altitude
Altitude is the distance above the ground. In this course we use six different altitudes:
• Absolute Altitude (Important especially for Space Flight because the local acceleration
of gravity g varies with absolute altitude)
• Geometric Altitude
• Geopotential Altitude
• Pressure Altitude
• Density Altitude
• Temperature Altitude

From Newton’s Law of Gravitation, g varies inversely as the square of the distance from the
center of the Earth.

By letting g 0 be the gravitational acceleration at sea level, the local gravitational acceleration
g at a given absolute altitude is

g RE 2
=( )
g0 ha

The variation of g must be considered when we are dealing with mathematical models of the
atmosphere.

A standard atmosphere is defined in order to relate flight tests, wind tunnel results, and general
airplane design and performance to a common reference. A standard atmosphere gives mean
values of pressure, temperature, density and other properties as functions of altitude. The
standard atmosphere reflects average atmosphere conditions. Its main function is to provide
tables of common reference conditions.

Standard Atmosphere (SA):

• SA reflects average atmosphere conditions

• Its main function is to provide tables of common reference conditions
• It is not an approximation of the actual atmosphere
• A reference performance flight tests and wind tunnel results
• Design purpose performance and comparisons
• Calibration of instruments

From Gas Law:

PV = n𝑅̅ T

m m m
ρ= ̅T
⟹ V = ⟹ P = nR
V ρ ρ
 m mass m m
n= = ⟹P = R̅T
M Molar mass ρ M

̅
P R
= T = RT
ρ M

The ideal gas law predicts that the volume of a mole of gas for a given temperature and pressure
is independent of the molecular weight of the gas. This equation works well for certain volume
(i.e. point or small quantity of volume).

̅
P R
= T = RT
ρ M

̅ = Universal gas constant = 8.314 J⁄mol. K

R

Where R = General gas constant

Relation between Universal gas constant and general gas constant:

̅
R 8.314
R = R air = = = 287 J⁄Kg. K
M 0.02897

Mair = 0.02897 Kg⁄mol

From Newton’s Law:

F = mg

There are two equations to make the standard atmosphere physically correct. But there are three
properties (Pressure (P), Density (rho) and Temperature (T)) and we have only to laws or
equations.

Hydrostatic Equation:

Pressure is caused by the weight of the air above the object. The pressure difference between
top and bottom causes the object to lift in the air. Consider a disc of air with area A, pressure
at bottom P and Pressure at the top P+∆P

To be in equilibrium state:
P. A = (P + ∆P). A + ρ. A. ∆h. g
 ∆P = −ρ. ∆h. g

This is called Hydrostatic Equation applies to any fluid of density explaining the decrease in
the pressure as we go up by the Law of Gravity.

For a small change,

dP = −ρ. g. dh

g is a variable and depends on Geometric altitude.

Important Points:

• ∆P is negative that shows the decrease in pressure as we go up.

• Hydrostatic law is more general law of aerostatic which is responsible for the change
in pressure.

• It is very important to know the characteristics of the atmosphere.

• To be made useful hydrostatic equation should be integrated to give the variation of

pressure with altitude.

• To simplify the integration, we assume that g is constant throughout the atmosphere.

From Universal Gas Law:

P = ρRT
From Hydrostatic Equation:

dP = −ρgdh

dh = change in geometric altitude (g ≠ constant)

dP = −ρgdhG

where hG = 0 denotes the mean sea level

These equations yield:

dP gdhG
=−
P RT

g ≡ g(hG )

dP = −ρgdh = −ρg 0 dhG

 dP g 0 dh
gdh = g 0 dhG ⟹ =−
P RT

where g 0 is the gravitational constant at mean sea level (hG = 0)

Note that:

g R2e
=
g 0 (R e + hG )2

where R e = Radius of Earth ≈ 6400 Km

This gives the following relation:

dhG R2e R e hG
dh = R2e 2
⟹ h = R e − =
(R e + hG ) R e + hG R e + hG

where h = geopotential altitude and hG = Geometric altitude.

Note that the relationship between h and hG is nonlinear.

Temperature lapse rates are defined with respect to h, so that

dT = aT dh

If aT ≠ 0 and if the temperature at the base of the layer, altitude h1, is known as T1, then

T(h) = T1 + aT (h − h1 )

This gives the following equation for the layer with base at h = h1

dP g 0 dh
=−
P R(T1 − aT h1 ) + RaT h

−g0 ⁄aT R
T1 + aT (h − h1 ) T −g0⁄aT R
P(h) = P(h1 ) ( ) = P(h1 ) ( )
T1 T1

P ρT T −g0⁄(aR) ρ T −{[g0⁄(aR)]+1}
= =( ) ⟹ =( )
P1 ρ1 T1 T1 ρ1 T1

If lapse rate is zero, then

dP g 0 dh
=−
P RT1
 P = P(h1 )exp(−g 0 (h − h1 )/RT1 )

Use the universal gas law to calculate the density (h)

P ρT ρ
= = = exp−[g0⁄(RT)](h−h1 )
P1 ρ1 T1 ρ1

The standard sea level values of pressure, temperature and density are:

• PSealevel = 1.01325 × 105 N⁄m2 = 2116.2 lb⁄ft 2

• ρSealevel = 1.2250 kg⁄m3 = 0.002377 slug⁄ft 3

• TSealevel = 288.16 K = 518. 69° R

 Airspeed Indicator

For Low Mach numbers

1 2
Pt − PS = ρV
2

One equation, two unknowns (so assume sea level conditions)

1
Pt − PS = ρ0 VE2
2

Relationship true airspeed – equivalent airspeed:

1 2 1 2 ρ0
ρV = ρVE ⟹ V = √ VE
2 2 ρ

The indicated airspeed is almost the same as the equivalent airspeed (instrument errors)

VE ≈ VI

Relation between True airspeed and Equivalent airspeed:

VE VE
V= =
√σ (1 − 0.022558. H)4.25588⁄2

Indicated airspeed: The Indicated Air Speed (IAS) is what is displayed to the pilot.

2(P0 − P)
VIAS = √
ρ0
Calibrated airspeed: The calibrated air speed (CAS) is obtained from the IAS by correcting
for position errors, instrument errors, etc., using charts supplied by the manufacturer.

VCAS = VIAS + ∆VP

∆VP = Position or Installation error

In order to obtain true airspeed from calibrated airspeed, two corrections must be made, one
for the actual existing pressure and the other for the actual existing density.

Equivalent airspeed: Making the pressure correction yields equivalent airspeed which is
defined as that airspeed that would produce the same dynamic pressure at sea level as is
measured for the given flight conditions.

VEAS = f. VCAS

True airspeed: Density or altitude correction yields true airspeed.

ρSL
VTAS = VEAS √
ρ∞

ρSL
= Density Ratio (less than or equal to 1)
ρ∞

We know that,
2
1 1 2
1 ρSL 1 2
q = ρ∞ V 2 ⟹ ρ∞ VTAS = ρ∞ (VEAS √ ) = ρSL VEAS
2 2 2 ρ∞ 2

Ground speed:

At tail wind condition,

VGround = VTAS + VTailwind

At head wind condition,

VGround = VTAS − VHeadwind