MODULE 1

Chapter 1 Introduction
Chapter 2 Network Models
Chapter 7: Transmission Media
Chapter 8:Switching
1.1 DATA COMMUNICATIONS
▪ Communication is the process of sharing information.
▪ This sharing can be local or remote.
▪ Local Communication: Occurs face-to-face, typically when individuals
are close.
▪ Remote Communication: Occurs over distances, often requiring
technology.
▪ Data refers to information that is presented in a specific form.
▪ Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via
some form of transmission medium such as a wire cable.
▪ For data communications to occur, the communicating devices must be part
of a communication system made up of a combination of hardware
(physical equipment) and software (programs).
Fundamental characteristics:
1. Delivery. The system must deliver data to the correct destination.
Data must be received by the intended device or user and only by that
device or user.
2. Accuracy. The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that
have been altered in transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.
3. Timeliness. The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data
delivered late are useless. In the case of video and audio, timely
delivery means delivering data as they are produced, in the same
order that they are produced, and without significant delay. This kind
of delivery is called real-time transmission.
4. Jitter. Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the
uneven delay in the delivery of audio or video packets. For example,
let us assume that video packets are sent every 30 ms. If some of the
packets arrive with 30-ms delay and others with 40-ms delay, an
uneven quality in the video is the result.
1.1.1 Components

1. Message
2. Sender:
3. Receiver
4. Transmission Medium
5. Protocol:
› Message: The message is the information (data) to be communicated.
Popular forms of information include text, numbers, pictures, audio,
and video.
› Sender: The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can
be a computer, workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so
on.
› Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can
be a computer, workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.
› Transmission medium: The transmission medium is the physical
path by which a message travels from sender to receiver. Some
examples of transmission media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial
cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves.
› Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data
communications. It represents an agreement between the
communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be
connected but not communicating, just as a person speaking French
cannot be understood by a person who speaks only Japanese
1.1.2 Data Representation
› Information today comes in different forms such as text, numbers,
images, audio, and video.
› TEXT:
› In data communications, text is represented as a bit pattern,
a sequence of bits (0s or 1s). Different sets of bit patterns
have been designed to represent text symbols. Each set is
called a code, and the process of representing symbols is
called coding.
› Text is typically encoded using character encoding schemes
like ASCII or Unicode. Each character in a text is represented
by a specific binary value, allowing the text to be stored,
processed, and transmitted digitally.
› Numbers :
– Numbers are also represented by bit patterns. However, a code such as
ASCII is not used to represent numbers; the number is directly converted
to a binary number to simplify mathematical operations
– Numbers can be represented in binary form using different formats such
as integers, floating-point numbers, or decimals.
› Images:
– Images are typically represented as a collection of pixels. The size of the
pixel depends on the resolution.
– With each pixel having a color value that can be represented using
binary data.
– Common image formats include JPEG, PNG, and GIF, each using different
methods of compression and encoding.
– There are several methods to represent color images. One method is
called RGB, so called because each color is made of a combination of
three primary colors: red, green, and blue. The intensity of each color is
measured, and a bit pattern is assigned to it. Another method is called
YCM, in which a color is made of a combination of three other primary
colors: yellow, cyan, and magenta
› Audio :
– Audio refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or music. Audio is
by nature different from text, numbers, or images. It is continuous, not
discrete. Even when we use a microphone to change voice or music to an
electric signal, we create a continuous signal.
› Video :
– Video refers to the recording or broadcasting of a picture or movie. Video
can either be produced as a continuous entity (e.g., by a TV camera), or it
can be a combination of images, each a discrete entity, arranged to
convey the idea of motion.
1.1.3 Data Flow
› Simplex :
– Data flows in only one direction, from the source (Mainframe) to the
destination (Monitor). The monitor can only receive data and cannot
send any back. An example of simplex communication is a keyboard
sending data to a computer.
› Half-Duplex :
• Data can flow in both directions, but not at the same time.
• When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa
• At one moment, data might flow from one laptop to another, and at
another time, the data flows back. Walkie-talkies work in this way—only
one person can talk at a time.
• The half-duplex mode is like a one-lane road with traffic allowed in both
direction
Full-Duplex :
• Data can flow in both directions simultaneously. This means that both
devices can send and receive data at the same time.
• The sharing can occur in two ways: Either the link must contain two
physically separate transmission paths, one for sending and the other for
receiving; or the capacity of the channel is divided between signals traveling
in both directions.
• An example of full-duplex communication is a telephone conversation
where both people can talk and listen simultaneously.
1.2 NETWORKS
› A network is the interconnection of a set of devices capable of
communication
› A device can be a host (or an end system as it is sometimes
called) such as a large computer, desktop, laptop, workstation,
cellular phone, or security system. A device in this definition
can also be a connecting device such as a router, which
connects the network to other networks, a switch, which
connects devices together, a modem (modulator-demodulator),
which changes the form of data, and so on
1.2.1 Network Criteria
› Performance
– Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time and
response time. Transit time is the amount of time required for a message
to travel from one device to another.
– Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response.
– The performance of a network depends on a number of factors, including
the number of users, the type of transmission medium, the capabilities of
the connected hardware, and the efficiency of the software.
– Performance is often evaluated by two networking metrics: throughput
and delay. We often need more throughput and less delay. However,
these two criteria are often contradictory. If we try to send more data to
the network, we may increase throughput but we increase the delay
because of traffic congestion in the network.
› Reliability
– Network reliability refers to the ability of a network to perform its
functions consistently and without failures.
– It is commonly measured using three main factors:
› Frequency of Failure
› Recovery Time
› Robustness
› Security
– Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized
access, protecting data from damage and development, and
implementing policies and procedures for recovery from breaches and
data losses.
1.2.2 Physical Structures
Type of Connection
There are two possible types of connections: point-to-point and
multipoint.
› Point-to-Point
› Multipoint
A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two
devices. The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission
between those two devices. Most point-to-point connections use an
actual length of wire or cable to connect the two ends, but other options,
such as microwave or satellite links, are also possible . When we change
television channels by infrared remote control, we are establishing a
point-to-point connection between the remote control and the
television’s control system.
› A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in which
more than two specific devices share a single link. In a
multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared,
either spatially or temporally. If several devices can use the link
simultaneously, it is a spatially shared connection. If users must
take turns, it is a timeshared connection
Physical Topology
› Physical Topology" refers to the actual layout or arrangement of
devices (like computers, switches, and routers) and how they
are physically connected by cables (like Ethernet or fiber optic
cables). It describes the physical structure of the network, such
as how devices are arranged and interconnected.
› There are four basic topologies possible: Mesh, Star, Bus, and
Ring
Mesh topology
› In a mesh topology, every device has a
dedicated point-to-point link to every other
device.
› The term dedicated means that the link
carries traffic only between the two
devices it connects.
› To find the number of physical links in a
fully connected mesh network with n
nodes, we first consider that each node
must be connected to every other node.
Node 1 must be connected to n – 1 nodes,
node 2 must be connected to n – 1 nodes,
and finally node n must be connected to n –
1 nodes. We need n (n – 1) physical links.
However, if each physical link allows
communication in both directions (duplex
mode), we can divide the number of links
by 2. In other words, we can say that in a
mesh topology, we need n (n – 1) / 2 duplex-
Advantages of mesh topology
1. The use of dedicated links guarantees that each connection can carry its
own data load, thus eliminating the traffic problems that can occur when
links must be shared by multiple devices.
2. A mesh topology is robust. If one link becomes unusable, it does not
incapacitate the entire system.
3. There is the advantage of privacy or security. When every message travels
along a dedicated line, only the intended recipient sees it. Physical
boundaries prevent other users from gaining access to messages.
4. Point-to-point links make fault identification and fault isolation easy.
• The main disadvantages of a mesh are related to the
amount of cabling and the number of I/O ports
required
1. Installation and Reconnection are Difficult:
• Because every device must be connected to every
other device, installation and reconnection are
difficult.
2. Wiring Bulk Might Be Too Much for Available Space:
• The sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater than
the available space (in walls, ceilings, or floors) can
accommodate.
3. Hardware is Expensive:
• The hardware required to connect each link (I/O
ports and cable) can be prohibitively expensive.
 Star Topology
› In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point
link only to a central controller, usually called a hub. The
devices are not directly linked to one another. Unlike a mesh
topology, a star topology does not allow direct traffic between
devices. The controller acts as an exchange: If one device
wants to send data to another, it sends the data to the
controller, which then relays the data to the other connected
device
Advantages
› A star topology is less expensive than a mesh topology.
› In a star, each device needs only one link and one I/O port to connect it to any
number of others.
› It is easy to install and reconfigure. Far less cabling needs to be housed, and additions,
moves, and deletions involve only one connection: between that device and the hub.
› Other advantages include robustness. If one link fails, only that link is affected. All
other links remain active. This factor also lends itself to easy fault identification and
fault isolation.
Disadvantages:
› The dependency of the whole topology on one single point, the hub. If the hub goes
down, the whole system is dead.
› Although a star requires far less cable than a mesh, each node must be linked to a
central hub. For this reason, often more cabling is required in a star than in some
other topologies (such as ring or bus).
Bus Topology
› A bus topology, on the other hand, is multipoint. One long cable
acts as a backbone to link all the devices in a network
› In a bus topology, instead of direct connections between pairs
of devices, all devices are connected to a single central cable or
backbone. This shared cable carries data that all devices can
access. Since multiple devices share the same communication
line, it is referred to as a multipoint connection.
› Installing a bus topology is relatively simple because the
backbone cable can be laid along the most efficient route, and
devices are connected using shorter drop lines.
› Bus topology requires less cabling compared to mesh or star
topologies. In contrast, a bus topology eliminates this
redundancy because all devices share the same backbone cable.
1. Difficult Reconnection and Fault Isolation: Once a bus topology is set up,
making changes, such as adding new devices, can be challenging. The
network is usually designed to be optimally efficient at installation, so any
modification may require significant adjustments or even replacement of
the backbone cable.

2. Signal Reflection and Degradation: The points where devices connect to

the backbone (taps) can cause signal reflections, leading to a loss in signal
quality. To manage this, the number of devices and the spacing between
them must be carefully controlled. If new devices are added, it might
necessitate changes to the backbone cable, making the network less flexible.
3.Network-Wide Failure Risk: A fault or break in the backbone cable can
disrupt the entire network. All communication stops, even between devices
that are on the same side of the fault. The damaged section of the cable reflects
signals back to their origin, creating noise and further disrupting
communication.
4. Early LAN Design: The bus topology was one of the first topologies used in
the design of early local-area networks (LANs). Traditional Ethernet LANs
often used this topology. However, it has become less popular due to the
limitations mentioned above, particularly its lack of scalability, difficulty in
troubleshooting, and the increased risk of network-wide failure if the
backbone cable is compromised.
Ring Topology

• A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure.

• Each device is linked to only its immediate neighbors (either
physically or logically).
• To add or delete a device requires changing only two
connections. The only constraints are media and traffic
considerations (maximum ring length and number of
devices).
• In addition, fault isolation is simplified. Generally, in a ring a
signal is circulating at all times. If one device does not
receive a signal within a specified period, it can issue an
alarm. The alarm alerts the network operator to the problem
and its location
1.3 NETWORK TYPES
› LANs
› WANs
Local Area Network:
• A Local Area Network (LAN) is a private network that connects devices
(called hosts) within a small area like an office, building, or campus. A LAN
can be as simple as two computers and a printer in a home office or as
large as a company-wide network with multiple devices, including audio
and video systems. Every device in a LAN has a unique address, like a name,
that helps identify it.
• When one device wants to send a message (packet) to another, it includes
both its own address and the address of the destination device.
• In the past, all devices were connected to a single cable. When a
message was sent, all devices received it, but only the intended
recipient kept it. Today, most LANs use a smart device called a
switch. The switch reads the destination address and sends the
message only to the intended device, which reduces unnecessary
traffic and allows multiple devices to communicate simultaneously.
• There's no strict rule on the number of devices a LAN can have; it
can vary widely based on the needs of the organization.
Wide Area Network
› A wide area network (WAN) is also an interconnection of devices capable of
communication. However, there are some differences between a LAN and a
WAN.
› A LAN is normally limited in size, spanning an office, a building, or a
campus; a WAN has a wider geographical span, spanning a town, a state, a
country, or even the world.
› A LAN interconnects hosts; a WAN interconnects connecting devices such as
switches, routers, or modems.
› A LAN is normally privately owned by the organization that uses it; a WAN
is normally created and run by communication companies and leased by an
organization that uses it.
› Two distinct examples of WANs today: point-to-point WANs and switched
WANs
Point-to-Point
› WAN A point-to-point WAN is a network that connects two communicating
devices through a transmission media (cable or air).
Switched WAN
› A switched WAN is a network with more than two ends. A
switched WAN, as we will see shortly, is used in the backbone of
global communication today. We can say that a switched WAN
is a combination of several point-to-point WANs that are
connected by switches.
Internetwork
› internetwork (or internet with a lowercase "i") refers to the
connection of two or more networks, such as LANs (Local Area
Networks) or WANs (Wide Area Networks).
› For example, imagine a company with two offices: one on the
east coast and another on the west coast. Each office has its
own LAN, allowing employees within that office to
communicate with each other. To enable communication
between employees in both offices, the company connects these
LANs using a dedicated WAN (Wide Area Network) provided by
a service provider, like a telephone company.
› By connecting these networks, the company creates an
internetwork, or private internet, allowing employees in
different offices to communicate with each other.
Switching
› An internet is a switched network in which a switch connects at least two
links together. A switch needs to forward data from a network to another
network when required
1. Circuit-Switched Network
2. Packet-Switched Network

Circuit-Switched Network
In a circuit-switched network, a dedicated connection, called a circuit, is
always available between the two end systems; the switch can only make it
active or inactive.
Circuit-Switched Network
Packet-Switched Network

› In a packet-switched network, data is sent in small chunks

called "packets" rather than as a continuous stream. This is
different from traditional telephone networks, where a
continuous connection is maintained during the entire
conversation.
› When a computer sends data, it is broken down into packets.
These packets travel through the network and are temporarily
stored in the router’s queue if the line is busy.
› The router then forwards the packets over either the high-
capacity line or the low-capacity line, depending on the
network configuration and traffic.
› Once the packets reach the router on the other side, they are
either passed on directly to the destination computer or stored
briefly in a queue if there is congestion.
The Internet
› The Internet is a huge network made up of thousands of
smaller networks connected together. It allows people all over
the world to communicate and access information.
› Backbones: These are the big, powerful networks at the top
level, owned by large companies like Sprint or AT&T. They
carry a lot of data and connect with each other at special points.
The backbone networks are connected through some complex
switching systems, called peering points
› Provider Networks: These are smaller networks that connect
to the backbones. They pay for the service and help pass data
along to other networks or to customers.
› Customer Networks: These are the networks at the edge of the
Internet, like your home or business network. They pay
provider networks to get access to the Internet.
Accessing the Internet
› To use the Internet, you need to connect to an Internet Service
Provider (ISP). The connection from your home or business to
the ISP can be made in several ways:
› 1. Using Telephone Networks
• Dial-up Service:
• This is an older method of connecting to the Internet using
your phone line.
• You connect a modem to your phone line, which dials a
number to connect to your ISP.
• It’s very slow, and while you're online, you can't use the
phone for calls.
• It's only really useful for small households that don’t need a
fast connection.
DSL Service:
• A newer and faster option that also uses your phone line.
• DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) allows you to use the Internet and
your phone at the same time.
• It provides higher speeds than dial-up and is good for homes
and small businesses.
2. Using Cable Networks

• Many people now use cable TV services, and these companies

offer Internet connections through the same cables.
• Your home or business connects to the Internet through the
cable that also provides your TV service.
• It generally provides faster Internet speeds than DSL, but the
speed can drop if a lot of your neighbors are online at the same
time.
3. Using Wireless Networks

• Wireless Internet is becoming more popular.

• You can connect to the Internet wirelessly, either within your
home or over a wider area.
• It offers flexibility since you can connect without cables. It's
great for mobile devices and areas where wiring is difficult.
4. Direct Connection to the Internet

• Large organizations, like universities or big companies, can

connect directly to the Internet.
• They can lease a high-speed line (WAN) from a provider and act
as their own ISP.
• This allows them to connect multiple locations, like different
campuses, directly to the Internet with a fast and reliable
connection.
Chapter 2 :Network
Models
PROTOCOL LAYERING
› In data communication and networking, a protocol
defines the rules that both the sender and receiver
and all intermediate devices need to follow to be able
to communicate effectively.
Scenarios
› Scenario 1
› Second Scenario
Advantages of protocol layering
› Protocol layering enables us to divide a complex task into
several smaller and simpler tasks.
› For example, we could have used only one machine to do the
job of all three machines. However, if Maria and Ann decide
that the encryption/ decryption done by the machine is not
enough to protect their secrecy, they would have to change the
whole machine. In the present situation, they need to change
only the second layer machine; the other two can remain the
same. This is referred to as modularity.
› One of the advantages of protocol layering is that it allows us to
separate the services from the implementation.
› Another advantage of protocol layering is that communication
does not always use only two end systems; there are
intermediate systems that need only some layers, but not all
layers. If we did not use protocol layering, we would have to
make each intermediate system as complex as the end systems,
which makes the whole system more expensive.
Principles of Protocol Layering
› First Principle
› The first principle dictates that if we want bidirectional communication,
we need to make each layer so that it is able to perform two opposite
tasks, one in each direction. For example, the third layer task is to listen
(in one direction) and talk (in the other direction). The second layer
needs to be able to encrypt and decrypt. The first layer needs to send
and receive mail.

› Second Principle
– The second principle that we need to follow in protocol layering is that the
two objects under each layer at both sites should be identical. For example,
the object under layer 3 at both sites should be a plaintext letter. The object
under layer 2 at both sites should be a ciphertext letter. The object under
layer 1 at both sites should be a piece of mail.
Logical Connections
TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
› The Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol is a set of rules (a
protocol suite) used to manage how data is transmitted over the internet. It's
called a "protocol suite" because it includes multiple protocols, each
responsible for different aspects of data communication.
› It is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, i.e the protocols
are organized in layers, where higher layers depend on the services
provided by lower layers. For example, one layer might handle the actual
transmission of data, while another layer ensures that the data is properly
formatted and error-free.
› The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as four software layers built
upon the hardware. Today, however, TCP/IP is thought of as a five-layer
model.
Layered Architecture
› To show how the layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite work in communication
between two devices, let's imagine a small network with three LANs (local
networks) connected by switches and one router linking them all together.
› Imagine that Computer A needs to communicate with Computer B. There are
five devices involved in this process:
– Computer A (the sender)
– A switch in the first network (Link 1)
– A router that connects the networks
– A switch in the second network (Link 2)
– Computer B (the receiver)
Each of these devices interacts with different layers of the TCP/IP model based
on its role:
› Computers (A and B): These devices handle all five layers of the TCP/IP
model.
› Computer A (the sender) creates the message at the application layer (like an
email or a web request) and sends it down through the layers until it's ready
to be physically transmitted.
› Computer B (the receiver) picks up the message at the physical layer and
then processes it upwards through the layers until it reaches the application
layer, where the original message is understood.
› Communication Process:
• Computer A sends the message down through its layers, and it
gets transmitted physically to the first switch.
• The switch, router, and other switch handle the message at
specific layers (mainly at the lower layers like the physical and
data link layers) to pass it along the network.
• Finally, Computer B receives the message, and it goes up
through its layers to reach the application layer, where it can
be read or processed.
▪ The router in the network only deals with three layers of the TCP/IP model:
the physical, data link, and network layers.
▪ It doesn't handle the transport or application layers because its main job
is to direct data from one part of the network to another, not to process
the data itself.
▪ The router connects to multiple network links (connections), and each of
these links might use different protocols for the data link and physical
layers.
▪ In the example given, the router is connected to three links, but the
message from Computer A to Computer B only travels through two of
them. The router needs to adapt to the specific protocols used by each link
it connects to. So, when it receives a packet from one link, it processes it
using that link's protocols, and then sends it out using the protocols of the
next link.
▪ In short, the router's job is to guide data between different parts of the
network, adjusting to different protocols as needed.
› A link-layer switch, unlike a router, only deals with two layers:
the data link and physical layers. Even though the switch
connects to two devices, both connections are part of the same
network link, which uses just one set of protocols. This means
the switch only needs to handle one data link and one physical
layer, making its job simpler than a router's.
Layers in the TCP/IP Protocol Suite
› Using logical connections makes it easier for us to think about
the duty of each layer. As the figure shows, the duty of the
application, transport, and network layers is end-to-end.
› The duty of the data-link and physical layers is hop-to-hop, in
which a hop is a host or router.
› The domain of duty of the top three layers is the internet, and
the domain of duty of the two lower layers is the link.
› The following figure shows the second principle for
protocol layering.
Description of Each Layer
› Physical Layer
› The physical layer is responsible for carrying individual bits in a
frame across the link
› The physical layer is the lowest level in the TCP/IP protocol suite, the
communication between two devices at the physical layer is still a
logical communication because there is another, hidden layer, the
transmission media, under the physical layer.“
› Two devices are connected by a transmission medium (cable or air).
› We need to know that the transmission medium does not carry bits; it
carries electrical or optical signals.
› the bits received in a frame from the data-link layer are transformed
and sent through the transmission media, but we can think that the
logical unit between two physical layers in two devices is a bit.
› There are several protocols that transform a bit to a signal.
Data-link Layer
› The internet is a network made up of many smaller networks, called LANs
(Local Area Networks, like home or office networks) and WANs (Wide Area
Networks, like networks covering larger areas). These are all connected to
each other by devices called routers.
› There may be several overlapping sets of links that a datagram can travel
from the host to the destination.
› The routers are responsible for choosing the best links. However, when the
next link to travel is determined by the router, the data-link layer is
responsible for taking the datagram and moving it across the link.
› The link can be a wired LAN with a link-layer switch, a wireless LAN, a
wired WAN, or a wireless WAN.
› We can also have different protocols used with any link type. In each case,
the data-link layer is responsible for moving the packet through the link.
› TCP/IP does not define any specific protocol for the data-link layer. It
supports all the standard and proprietary protocols.
› The data-link layer takes a datagram and encapsulates it in a packet called a
frame.
› Each link-layer protocol may provide a different service. Some link-layer
protocols provide complete error detection and correction, some provide
only error correction.
Network Layer
› The network layer is responsible for creating a connection between the
source computer and the destination computer. The communication at the
network layer is host-to-host.
› However, since there can be several routers from the source to the
destination, the routers in the path are responsible for choosing the best
route for each packet. We can say that the network layer is responsible for
host-to-host communication and routing the packet through possible routes.
› The network layer in the Internet includes the main protocol, Internet
Protocol (IP), that defines the format of the packet, called a datagram at the
network layer.
› IP also defines the format and the structure of addresses used in this layer.
› IP is also responsible for routing a packet from its source to its destination,
which is achieved by each router forwarding the datagram to the next
router in its path.
› IP is a connectionless protocol that provides no flow control, no error control,
and no congestion control services. This means that if any of theses services is
required for an application, the application should rely only on the transport-
layer protocol.
› The network layer also includes unicast (one-to-one) and multicast (one-to-
many) routing protocols.
› A routing protocol does not take part in routing (it is the responsibility of IP),
but it creates forwarding tables for routers to help them in the routing process.
› The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) helps IP to report some
problems when routing a packet.
› The Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) is another protocol that
helps IP in multitasking.
› The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) helps IP to get the network-
layer address for a host.
› The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a protocol that helps IP to find the
link-layer address of a host or a router when its network-layer address is
given.
Transport Layer

› The logical connection at the transport layer is also end-to-end.

› The transport layer at the source host gets the message from the application
layer, encapsulates it in a transport layer packet (called a segment or a user
datagram in different protocols) and sends it, through the logical
(imaginary) connection, to the transport layer at the destination host.
› The transport layer is responsible for giving services to the application layer:
to get a message from an application program running on the source host
and deliver it to the corresponding application program on the destination
host.
› Protocols used here is :TCP,UDP and SCTP
› The main protocol, Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), is a connection-
oriented protocol that first establishes a logical connection between
transport layers at two hosts before transferring data. It creates a logical
pipe between two TCPs for transferring a stream of bytes. TCP provides flow
control (matching the sending data rate of the source host with the receiving
data rate of the destination host to prevent overwhelming the destination),
error control (to guarantee that the segments arrive at the destination
without error and resending the corrupted ones), and congestion control to
reduce the loss of segments due to congestion in the network.
› The other common protocol, User Datagram Protocol (UDP), is a
connectionless protocol that transmits user datagrams without first creating
a logical connection. In UDP, each user datagram is an independent entity
without being related to the previous or the next one (the meaning of the
term connectionless). UDP is a simple protocol that does not provide flow,
error, or congestion control.
› A new protocol, Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) is designed to
respond to new applications that are emerging in the multimedia
Application Layer
› The logical connection between the two application layers is end to-end.
› The two application layers exchange messages between each other as
though there were a bridge between the two layers. However, we should
know that the communication is done through all the layers.
› Communication at the application layer is between two processes (two
programs running at this layer). To communicate, a process sends a request
to the other process and receives a response. Process-to-process
communication is the duty of the application layer.
› Protocol used here :HTTP,SMTP,FTP,TELNET,SNMP,DNS,IGMP
› The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is a vehicle for accessing the World
Wide Web (WWW).
› The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is the main protocol used in
electronic mail (e-mail) service.
› The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is used for transferring files from one host
to another.
› The Terminal Network (TELNET) and Secure Shell (SSH) are used for
accessing a site remotely.
› The Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is used by an
administrator to manage the Internet at global and local levels.
› The Domain Name System (DNS) is used by other protocols to find the
network-layer address of a computer.
› The Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) is used to collect
membership in a group.
Encapsulation and Decapsulation
› Above figure show the encapsulation in the source host, decapsulation in the
destination host, and encapsulation and decapsulation in the router.
› Encapsulation at the Source Host :
– 1. At the application layer, the data to be exchanged is referred to as a
message. A message normally does not contain any header or trailer, but
if it does, we refer to the whole as the message. The message is passed to
the transport layer.
– 2. The transport layer takes the message as the payload, the load that the
transport layer should take care of. It adds the transport layer header to
the payload, which contains the identifiers of the source and destination
application programs that want to communicate plus some more
information that is needed for the end-to end delivery of the message,
such as information needed for flow, error control, or congestion control.
The result is the transport-layer packet, which is called the segment (in
TCP) and the user datagram (in UDP). The transport layer then passes the
packet to the network layer.
› 3. The network layer takes the transport-layer packet as data or payload and
adds its own header to the payload. The header contains the addresses of the
source and destination hosts and some more information used for error
checking of the header, fragmentation information, and so on. The result is
the network-layer packet, called a datagram. The network layer then passes
the packet to the data-link layer.
› 4. The data-link layer takes the network-layer packet as data or payload and
adds its own header, which contains the link-layer addresses of the host or
the next hop (the router). The result is the link-layer packet, which is called a
frame. The frame is passed to the physical layer for transmission.
› Decapsulation and Encapsulation at the Router

– 1. After the set of bits are delivered to the data-link layer, this layer
decapsulates the datagram from the frame and passes it to the network
layer.
– 2. The network layer only inspects the source and destination addresses
in the datagram header and consults its forwarding table to find the next
hop to which the datagram is to be delivered. The contents of the
datagram should not be changed by the network layer in the router
unless there is a need to fragment the datagram if it is too big to be
passed through the next link. The datagram is then passed to the data-
link layer of the next link.
– 3. The data-link layer of the next link encapsulates the datagram in a
frame and passes it to the physical layer for transmission.
› Decapsulation at the Destination Host:
– At the destination host, each layer only decapsulates the
packet received, removes the payload, and delivers the
payload to the next-higher layer protocol until the message
reaches the application layer. It is necessary to say that
decapsulation in the host involves error checking.
Addressing
› Any communication that involves two parties needs two addresses: source
address and destination address. Although it looks as if we need five pairs of
addresses, one pair per layer, we normally have only four because the
physical layer does not need addresses; the unit of data exchange at the
physical layer is a bit, which definitely cannot have an address.
› At the application layer, we normally use names to define the site that
provides services, such as someorg.com, or the e-mail address, such as
[email protected].
› At the transport layer, addresses are called port numbers, and these define
the application-layer programs at the source and destination. Port numbers
are local addresses that distinguish between several programs running at
the same time.
› At the network-layer, the addresses are global, with the whole Internet as
the scope. A network-layer address uniquely defines the connection of a
device to the Internet.
› The link-layer addresses, sometimes called MAC addresses, are locally
defined addresses, each of which defines a specific host or router in a
network (LAN or WAN).
Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
› Multiplexing means combining multiple data streams into one
single stream.
› When data is sent, it can come from various applications or
higher-layer protocols (like HTTP, FTP, etc.). At the source
(sender), the TCP/IP protocol suite combines these different
data streams into a single packet that includes information
about which application the data belongs to.
› Encapsulation is the process of wrapping data from one layer
into the format required by a lower layer.
› Demultiplexing means separating and directing a single data stream into
multiple data streams for different purposes.
› At the destination (receiver), the protocol suite takes the incoming packet
and separates it according to the information about which application it was
originally intended for.
› Decapsulation is the process of removing the headers and trailers added by
lower layers to retrieve the original data.
THE OSI MODEL

• The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is a framework used to

understand and design network systems. It breaks down network
communication into seven distinct layers, each with specific functions.
• The OSI model is a layered framework for the design of network systems
that allows communication between all types of computer systems.
• It consists of seven separate but related layers, each of which defines a part
of the process of moving information across a network
› Open system:A system that uses a set of communication rules (protocols) to
allow different types of computer systems to talk to each other.
› OSI Model is a framework for understanding how different systems can
communicate with each other.
› It helps to design networks so that different systems can connect without
needing to change their hardware or software.
OSI versus TCP/IP
› Reason 1: TCP/IP’s transport protocols (like TCP) already handle session-
related tasks, so the Session Layer isn’t needed separately.
› Reason 2: The Application Layer in TCP/IP is flexible enough for
developers to build in specific Session or Presentation layer functionalities
if needed, eliminating the need for separate layers.
Lack of OSI Model’s Success
› Reason 1 – Cost of Switching
– By the time OSI was ready, most of the world had already built networks
using TCP/IP.
– The cost of replacing all this infrastructure was extremely high, and
companies and governments didn’t want to spend the extra money.
› Reason 2 – Incomplete OSI Layers
– OSI was theoretically well-structured, but in practice, not all the layers
were fully developed.
– This made it difficult to implement, and developers didn’t know exactly
how to build certain parts.
› Reason 3 – OSI Performance Issues
– OSI didn’t provide better performance than TCP/IP when tested in real-
world settings.
– Since TCP/IP was already reliable, fast, and well-known, the Internet
authorities didn’t want to change to a system that wasn’t offering clear
benefits.
CHAPTER 7 :Transmission Media
› Transmission media are actually located below the
physical layer and are directly controlled by the physical
layer. We could say that transmission media belong to
layer zero.
› A transmission medium can be broadly defined as anything that can carry
information from a source to a destination. For example, the transmission
medium for two people having a dinner conversation is the air. The air can
also be used to convey the message in a smoke signal or semaphore. For a
written message, the transmission medium might be a mail carrier, a truck,
or an airplane.
› The transmission medium is usually free space, metallic cable, or fiber-optic
cable. The information is usually a signal that is the result of a conversion of
data from another form.
› The use of long-distance communication using electric signals started with
the invention of the telegraph by Morse in the 19th century. Communication
by telegraph was slow and dependent on a metallic medium. Extending the
range of the human voice became.
› Extending the range of the human voice became possible when the
telephone was invented in 1869. Telephone communication at that time also
needed a metallic medium to carry the electric signals that were the result of
a conversion from the human voice.
› The communication was, however, unreliable due to the poor quality of the
wires. The lines were often noisy and the technology was unsophisticated.
Wireless communication started in 1895 when Hertz was able to send high
frequency signals. Later, Marconi devised a method to send telegraph-type
messages over the Atlantic Ocean.
› In telecommunications, transmission media can be divided into two broad
categories: guided and unguided. Guided media include twisted-pair cable,
coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable. Unguided medium is free space.
› Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one device to
another, include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable.
› A signal traveling along any of these media is directed and contained by the
physical limits of the medium.
› Twisted-pair and coaxial cable use metallic (copper) conductors that accept
and transport signals in the form of electric current.
› Optical fiber is a cable that accepts and transports signals in the form of light
Twisted-Pair Cable
› A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each
with its own plastic insulation, twisted together

› One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the
other is used only as a ground reference. The receiver uses the
difference between the two. In addition to the signal sent by the
sender on one of the wires, interference (noise) and crosstalk may
affect both wires and create unwanted signals
› If the two wires are parallel, the effect of these unwanted signals is
not the same in both wires because they are at different locations
relative to the noise or crosstalk sources (e.g., one is closer and the
other is farther). This results in a difference at the receiver.
› By twisting the pairs, a balance is maintained. For example, suppose
in one twist, one wire is closer to the noise source and the other is
farther; in the next twist, the reverse is true. Twisting makes it
probable that both wires are equally affected by external influences
(noise or crosstalk). This means that the receiver, which calculates
Unshielded Versus Shielded Twisted-Pair
Cable
› The most common twisted-pair cable used in communications is referred to
as unshielded twisted-pair (UTP). IBM has also produced a version of twisted-
pair cable for its use, called shielded twisted-pair (STP).
› STP cable has a metal foil or braided mesh covering that encases each pair
of insulated conductors. Although metal casing improves the quality of cable
by preventing the penetration of noise or crosstalk, it is bulkier and more
expensive.
UTP and STP cables
Categories of unshielded twisted-pair cables
› Connectors:
– The most common UTP connector is RJ45 (RJ stands for registered jack)
– The RJ45 is a keyed connector, meaning the connector can be inserted in
only one way.
› Performance
– One way to measure the performance of twisted-pair cable is to compare
attenuation versus frequency and distance.
– with increasing frequency, the attenuation, measured in decibels per
kilometer (dB/km), sharply increases with frequencies above 100 kHz.
Note that gauge is a measure of the thickness of the wire.
Applications
› Twisted-pair cables are used in telephone lines to provide voice
and data channels.
› The local loop—the line that connects subscribers to the central
telephone office— commonly consists of unshielded twisted-
pair cables.
› The DSL lines that are used by the telephone companies to
provide high-data-rate connections also use the high-
bandwidth capability of unshielded twisted-pair cables
Coaxial Cable
› Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency ranges than those
in twisted pair cable, in part because the two media are constructed quite
differently. Instead of having two wires, coax has a central core conductor of
solid or stranded wire (usually copper) enclosed in an insulating sheath,
which is, in turn, encased in an outer conductor of metal foil, braid, or a
combination of the two. The outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield
against noise and as the second conductor, which completes the circuit. This
outer conductor is also enclosed in an insulating sheath, and the whole cable
is protected by a plastic cover.
Coaxial Cable Standards
› Coaxial cables are categorized by their Radio Government (RG) ratings. Each
RG number denotes a unique set of physical specifications, including the
wire gauge of the inner conductor, the thickness and type of the inner
insulator, the construction of the shield, and the size and type of the outer
casing. Each cable defined by an RG rating is adapted for a specialized
function
Coaxial Cable Connectors
› To connect coaxial cable to devices, we need coaxial connectors. The most
common type of connector used today is the Bayonet Neill-Concelman (BNC)
connector.
› Popular types of these connectors: the BNC connector, the BNC T connector,
and the BNC terminator.

The BNC connector is used to connect the end of the cable to a device, such as
a TV set.
The BNC T connector is used in Ethernet networks to branch out to a
connection to a computer or other device.
Performance
› As we did with twisted-pair cable, we can measure the performance of a
coaxial cable. That the attenuation is much higher in coaxial cable than in
twisted-pair cable. In other words, although coaxial cable has a much higher
bandwidth, the signal weakens rapidly and requires the frequent use of
repeaters.
› Applications
– Analog Telephone Networks: Carried up to 10,000 voice signals.
– Digital Telephone Networks: Supported digital data up to 600 Mbps..
– Current Use: Largely replaced by fiber optic cables for telephone
networks.
– Cable TV networks also use coaxial cables
– Another common application of coaxial cable is in traditional Ethernet
LANs
Fiber-Optic Cable
› A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the
form of light.
› light travels in a straight line as long as it is moving through a single
uniform substance. If a ray of light traveling through one substance
suddenly enters another substance the ray changes direction.
› If the angle of incidence I is less than the critical angle, the ray refracts and
moves closer to the surface.
› If the angle of incidence is equal to the critical angle, the light bends along
the interface.
› If the angle is greater than the critical angle, the ray reflects (makes a turn)
and travels again in the denser substance.
Bending of light ray
› Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel. A glass or
plastic core is surrounded by a cladding of less dense glass or plastic.
› The difference in density of the two materials must be such that a beam of
light moving through the core is reflected off the cladding instead of being
refracted into it.
Propagation Modes

Current technology allows light to travel through optical channels using two modes:
multimode and single mode. Each mode needs a fiber with specific physical
properties. Multimode fibers come in two types: step-index and graded-index.
Multimode
› Multimode fibers get their name because multiple light beams travel
through the core along different paths. The way these beams move inside
the cable is determined by the core's structure.
Multimode, step index
› In multimode step-index fiber, the density of the core remains constant from
the center to the edges.
› A beam of light moves through this constant density in a straight line until it
reaches the interface of the core and the cladding.
› At the interface, there is an abrupt change due to a lower density; this alters
the angle of the beam’s motion.
› The term step-index refers to the suddenness of this change, which
contributes to the distortion of the signal as it passes through the fiber.
Multimode graded-index
› A second type of fiber, called multimode graded-index fiber, decreases this
distortion of the signal through the cable.
› The word index here refers to the index of refraction.
› The index of refraction is related to density. A graded index fiber, therefore,
is one with varying densities. Density is highest at the center of the core and
decreases gradually to its lowest at the edge
Single-Mode
› Single-mode fiber uses a step-index design with a small core diameter and a
low-density material to allow light to travel in nearly horizontal paths.
› The result is that all light beams propagate similarly, arrive at the
destination almost simultaneously, and can be combined with minimal
distortion to the signal.
Connectors for fiber-optic
There are three types of connectors for fiber-optic cables:
› Subscriber channel (SC) connector is used for cable TV. It uses a push/pull
locking system.
› The straight-tip (ST) connector is used for connecting cable to networking
devices. It uses a bayonet locking system and is more reliable than SC.
› MT-RJ is a connector that is the same size as RJ45.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Optical
Fiber
› Higher bandwidth. Fiber-optic cable can support dramatically higher
bandwidths (and hence data rates) than either twisted-pair or coaxial cable.
Currently, data rates and bandwidth utilization over fiber-optic cable are
limited not by the medium but by the signal generation and reception
technology available.
› Less signal attenuation. Fiber-optic transmission distance is significantly
greater than that of other guided media. A signal can run for 50 km without
requiring regeneration. We need repeaters every 5 km for coaxial or twisted-
pair cable.
› Immunity to electromagnetic interference. Electromagnetic noise cannot
affect fiber-optic cables.
› Resistance to corrosive materials. Glass is more resistant to corrosive
materials than copper.
› Light weight. Fiber-optic cables are much lighter than copper cables.
› Greater immunity to tapping. Fiber-optic cables are more immune to
Disadvantages
› Installation and maintenance: Fiber-optic cable is a relatively new
technology. Its installation and maintenance require expertise that is not yet
available everywhere.
› Unidirectional light propagation: Propagation of light is unidirectional. If we
need bidirectional communication, two fibers are needed.
› Cost: The cable and the interfaces are relatively more expensive than those
of other guided media. If the demand for bandwidth is not high, often the
use of optical fiber cannot be justified.
UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS
› Unguided medium transport electromagnetic waves without using a
physical conductor.
› This type of communication is often referred to as wireless communication.
› Signals are normally broadcast through free space and thus are available to
anyone who has a device capable of receiving them.
› spectrum, ranging from 3 kHz to 900 THz, used for wireless communication.
› Unguided signals can travel from the source to the destination in several
ways: ground propagation, sky propagation, and line-of-sight propagation
Electromagnetic spectrum for wireless communication

Propagation methods
Ground Propagation
› In ground propagation, radio waves travel through the lowest
portion of the atmosphere, hugging the earth.
› These low-frequency signals emanate in all directions from the
transmitting antenna and follow the curvature of the planet.
Distance depends on the amount of power in the signal: The
greater the power, the greater the distance.
Sky Propagation
› In sky propagation, higher-frequency radio waves radiate
upward into the ionosphere (the layer of atmosphere where
particles exist as ions) where they are reflected back to earth.
This type of transmission allows for greater distances with
lower output power.
Line-of-Sight Propagation
› In line-of-sight propagation, very high-frequency signals are
transmitted in straight lines directly from antenna to antenna.
Antennas must be directional, facing each other, and either tall
enough or close enough together not to be affected by the
curvature of the earth. Line-ofsight propagation is tricky
because radio transmissions cannot be completely focused
› The section of the electromagnetic spectrum defined as radio
waves and microwaves is divided into eight ranges, called
bands
Radio Waves
› Radio waves, for the most part, are omnidirectional. When an antenna
transmits radio waves, they are propagated in all directions. This means that
the sending and receiving antennas do not have to be aligned. A sending
antenna sends waves that can be received by any receiving antenna. The
omnidirectional property has a disadvantage, too. The radio waves
transmitted by one antenna are susceptible to interference by another
antenna that may send signals using the same frequency or band.
› Radio waves, particularly those waves that propagate in the sky mode, can
travel long distances. This makes radio waves a good candidate for long-
distance broadcasting such as AM radio
Omnidirectional Antenna

› Radio waves use omnidirectional antennas that send out

signals in all directions. Based on the wavelength, strength, and
the purpose of transmission, we can have several types of
antennas.
› Applications :-The omnidirectional characteristics of radio
waves make them useful for multicasting, in which there is one
sender but many receivers. AM and FM radio, television,
maritime radio, cordless phones, and paging are examples of
multicasting
Microwave
› A parabolic dish antenna is based on the geometry of a parabola: Every line
parallel to the line of symmetry (line of sight) reflects off the curve at angles
such that all the lines intersect in a common point called the focus.
› A horn antenna looks like a gigantic scoop. Outgoing transmissions are
broadcast up a stem (resembling a handle) and deflected outward in a series
of narrow parallel beams by the curved head
Infrared Waves
Chapter 8: SWITCHING

Switches are devices capable of creating temporary connections between two

or more devices linked to the switch. In a switched network, some of these
nodes are connected to the end systems Others are used only for routing.
Packet-Switched Networks Overview
› Packet-switched networks send data in small packets instead of a continuous
stream.
› In packet switching, there is no resource allocation for a packet.
› They can be classified into two main types: 1. Datagram networks
2.Virtual-circuit networks.
1,.Datagram Networks
• Definition: In a datagram network, each packet (called a datagram) is
treated independently. The network does not keep track of the connection
state.
• How It Works:
• Packets can take different paths to reach the destination. For example, if
multiple packets are sent from Station A to Station X, they might go
through different routers (switches) and arrive in any order.
• Each packet includes a destination address in its header, which routers
use to forward it through the network.
• Characteristics:
• Connectionless: No setup or teardown phases; each packet is treated as
a standalone unit.
• Dynamic Routing: Each router has a routing table that is updated
periodically to direct packets based on their destination addresses.
• Efficiency:
• Resources are allocated only when packets are being sent, leading to better
utilization compared to circuit-switched networks.
• There can be variable delays since packets may experience different wait
times at switches and may arrive out of order.
• Limitations:
• Packets may be lost or dropped if network resources are insufficient.
• Requires an upper-layer protocol to handle reordering and lost packets.
Delay
› There may be greater delay in a datagram network than in a virtual-circuit
network. Although there are no setup and teardown phases, each packet
may experience a wait at a switch before it is forwarded. In addition, since
not all packets in a message necessarily travel through the same switches,
the delay is not uniform for the packets of a message.
› The packet travels through two switches. There are three transmission times
(3T), three propagation delays (slopes 3τ of the lines), and two waiting times
(w1 + w2). We ignore the processing time in each switch. The total delay is
Virtual-Circuit Networks

• Definition: A virtual-circuit network combines features of circuit-switched

and datagram networks. It establishes a predefined path (virtual circuit) for
packets to follow.
• How It Works:
• There are three phases: setup, data transfer, and teardown.
• During the setup phase, a path is established, and resources may be
reserved.
• Each packet carries a virtual-circuit identifier (VCI), which helps routers
forward packets along the established path.
• Characteristics:
• Connection-Oriented: Involves setup and teardown phases, similar to
circuit-switched networks.
• Local Addressing: The VCI is used for forwarding packets within the
network, which is local to each switch rather than global.
Three Phases
1. Setup
2. Data transfer
3. Teardown
Data-Transfer Phase
› To transfer a frame from a source to its destination, all switches need to
have a table entry for this virtual circuit. The table, in its simplest form, has
four columns.
› This means that the switch holds four pieces of information for each virtual
circuit that is already set up.
Setup Request
› A setup request frame is sent from the source to the destination
a) Source A sends a setup frame to switch 1. b.
b) Switch 1 receives the setup request frame. It knows that a frame going
from A to B goes out through port 3. How the switch has obtained this
information is a point covered in future chapters. The switch, in the setup
phase, acts as a packet switch; it has a routing table which is different
from the switching table. For the moment, assume that it knows the
output port. The switch creates an entry in its table for this virtual circuit,
but it is only able to fill three of the four columns. The switch assigns the
incoming port (1) and chooses an available incoming VCI (14) and the
outgoing port (3). It does not yet know the outgoing VCI, which will be
found during the acknowledgment step. The switch then forwards the
frame through port 3 to switch 2.
c) Switch 2 receives the setup request frame. The same events happen here
as at switch 1; three columns of the table are completed: in this case,
incoming port (1), incoming VCI (66), and outgoing port (2). d.
d) Switch 3 receives the setup request frame. Again, three columns are
completed: incoming port (2), incoming VCI (22), and outgoing port (3).
e) Destination B receives the setup frame, and if it is ready to receive frames
from A, it assigns a VCI to the incoming frames that come from A, in this
case 77. This VCI lets the destination know that the frames come from A,
Acknowledgment
› A special frame, called the acknowledgment frame, completes the entries in
the switching table
a) The destination sends an acknowledgment to switch 3. The
acknowledgment carries the global source and destination addresses so
the switch knows which entry in the table is to be completed. The frame
also carries VCI 77, chosen by the destination as the incoming VCI for
frames from A. Switch 3 uses this VCI to complete the outgoing VCI column
for this entry. Note that 77 is the incoming VCI for destination B, but the
outgoing VCI for switch 3.
b) Switch 3 sends an acknowledgment to switch 2 that contains its incoming
VCI in the table, chosen in the previous step. Switch 2 uses this as the
outgoing VCI in the table.
c) Switch 2 sends an acknowledgment to switch 1 that contains its incoming
VCI in the table, chosen in the previous step. Switch 1 uses this as the
outgoing VCI in the table.
d) Finally switch 1 sends an acknowledgment to source A that contains its
incoming VCI in the table, chosen in the previous step. e. The source uses
this as the outgoing VCI for the data frames to be sent to destination B.
Teardown Phase
› In this phase, source A, after sending all frames to B, sends a special frame
called a teardown request. Destination B responds with a teardown
confirmation frame. All switches delete the corresponding entry from their
tables.
Efficiency:
• If resources are reserved during setup, all packets will experience
similar delays; if not, delays may vary.
• Allows checking resource availability without actual reservation.
Delay:
• There are delays for setup and teardown, but data packets typically
experience less waiting time at switches once the path is established.