BHADRAK ENGINEERING SCHOOL & TECHNOLOGY

(BEST), ASURALI, BHADRAK

Geotechnical
Engineering
(Th-02)
(As per the 2023-24 syllabus of the SCTE&VT,
Bhubaneswar, Odisha)

Third Semester
Civil Engg.
Prepared By : Er. A.K. Mohapatra
TOPIC WISE DISTRIBUTION OF PERIODS AND MARKS

No. of
Sl. Periods Expected
Chapter Topics as per
No. Mark
syllabus
1. Chpt-1 Introduction 02 02
2. Chpt-2 Preliminary Definitions 06 18
and relationship
3. Chpt-3 Index Properties of Soil 04 06
4. Chpt-4 Classification of Soils 06 06
5. Chpt-5 Permeability and 07 18
Seepage
6 Chpt-6 Compaction & 08 14
Consolidation
7. Chpt-7 Shear Strength 06 10
8. Chpt-8 Earth Pressure on 07 08
Retaining Structure
9. Chpt-9 Foundation 14 18
Engineering

TOTAL 60 100

CHAPTER NO-1
 INTRODUCTION
Learning objectives
Introduction
1.1 Soil and Soil Engineering.
1.2 Scope of Soil Mechanics.
1.3 Origin and formation of soil

INTRODUCTION OF SOIL
➢ The word “Soil” is derived from the Latin word solium which, according to Webster’s
dictionary, means the upper layer of the earth that may be dug or plowed specifically, the
loose surface material of the earth in which plants grow.
➢ The above definition of soil is used in the field of agronomy where the main concern is in
the use of soil for raising crops.
➢ In geology, earth’s crust is assumed to consist of unconsolidated sediments, called mantle or
regolith, overlying rocks. The term ‘soil’ is used for the upper layer of mantle which can
support plants.
➢ The material which is called soil by the agronomist or the geologist is known as top soil in
geotechnical engineering or soil engineering. The top soil contains a large quantity of
organic matter and is not suitable as a construction material or as a foundation for structures.
➢ The top soil is removed from the earth’s surface before the construction of structures.
1.1 SOIL AND SOIL ENGINEERING.

• The term ‘soil mechanics’ was coined by Dr. Karl Terzaghi in 1925 when his book Erdbau
mechanic on the subject was published in German.

• According to Terzaghi, ‘Soil mechanics is the application of the laws of mechanics and
hydraulics to engineering problems dealing with sediments and other unconsolidated
accumulations of solid particles produced by the mechanical and chemical disintegration
of rock, regarding of whether or not they contain an admixture of organic constituents.

DEFINITION OF SOIL ENGINEERING AND GEOTECHNICAL

SOIL ENGINEERING:-
Soil Engineering in an applied science dealing with the applications of principles of soil mechanics
to practical problems. It has a much wider scope than soil mechanics, as it details with all
engineering problems related with soils. It includes site investigations, design and construction of
foundations, earth-retaining structures and earth structures.

1.2 SCOPE OF SOIL MECHANICS.

Soil Engineering has vast application in the construction of various Civil Engineering works. Some
of the important applications are as under.

(1) Foundations:– Every civil engineering structure, whether it is a building, a bridge, or a dam,
is founded on or below the surface of the earth. Foundations are required to transmit the load of
the structure to soil safely and efficiently.
A foundation is termed shallow foundation when it transmitted the load to upper strata of earth. A
foundation is called deep foundation when the load is transmitted to strata at considerable depth
below the ground surface. Pile foundation is a type of deep foundation. Foundation engineering is
an important branch of soil engineering.

(2) Retaining Structures: – When sufficient space is not available for a mass of soil to
spread and form a safe slope, a structure is required to retain the soil. An earth retaining structure
is also required to keep the soil at different levels on its either side. The retaining structure may
be rigid retaining wall or a sheet pile bulkhead which is relatively flexible (Fig. ). Soil
engineering gives the theories of earth pressure on retaining structures.

(3) Stability of Slopes: – If soil surface is not horizontal, there is a component of weight of
the soil which tends to move it downward and thus causes instability of slope. The slopes may be
natural or man-made Fig. 1.4 shows slopes in filling and cutting. Soil engineering provides the
methods for checking the stability of slopes.
(4) Underground structures: – The design and construction of underground structures, such
as tunnels, shafts, and conduits, require evaluation of forces exerted by the soil on these structures.
These forces are discussed in soil engineering. Fig. 1.5 shows a tunnel constructed below the
ground surface and a conduit laid below the ground surface.

(5) Pavement Design: – A pavement is hard rust placed on soil (sub grade) for the purpose of
proving a smooth and strong surface on which vehicles can move. The pavement consists of
surfacing, such as a bitumen layer, base and subtheme (Fig. 1.6). The behavior of sub grade under
vicious conditions of loading and environment change is studied in soil engineering.

(6) Earth Dam: – Earth dams are the structures in which soil is used as a construction material.
The earth dams are built for creating water reservoirs. Since the failure of an earth dam may cause
widespread catastrophe care is taken in its design and construction. It requires thorough knowledge
at soil engineering.
(7) Miscellaneous soil: - The geotechnical engineer has sometimes to tackle miscellaneous
problems related with soil. Such as soil heave, soil subsidence, frost heave, shrinkage and swelling
of soils.

1.3 ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF SOIL

Soil is the thin layer of material covering the earth’s surface and is formed from the weathering of
rocks. It is made up mainly of mineral particles, organic materials, air, water and living
organisms—all of which interact slowly yet constantly.

Soil is a valuable resource that needs to be carefully managed as it is easily damaged, washed or
blown away. If we understand soil and manage it properly, we will avoid destroying one of the
essential building blocks of our environment and our food security.

Soil forms continuously, but slowly, from the gradual breakdown of rocks through weathering.
Weathering can be a physical, chemical or biological process:

• Physical weathering—breakdown of rocks from the result of a mechanical action.

Temperature changes, abrasion (when rocks collide with each other) or frost can all cause
rocks to break down.
• Chemical weathering—breakdown of rocks through a change in their chemical makeup.
This can happen when the minerals within rocks react with water, air or other chemicals.
• Biological weathering—the breakdown of rocks by living things. Burrowing animals help
water and air get into rock, and plant roots can grow into cracks in the rock, making it split.
 POSSIBLE SHORT TYPE QUESTIONS WITH ANSWER
Q -1What is soil ?
Ans- Soil is the thin layer of material covering the earth’s surface and is formed from the
weathering of rocks. It is made up mainly of mineral particles, organic materials, air, water and
living organisms—all of which interact slowly yet constantly.

Q -2 Define the origin of soil.

Ans- Soil is the thin layer of material covering the earth’s surface and is formed from the
weathering of rocks. It is made up mainly of mineral particles, organic materials, air, water and
living organisms—all of which interact slowly yet constantly.

Q -3What do you mean by geo-tech engg. ? [2016-s]

Ans- it is the science that explain mechanics of soil and rock and its applications to the
development of human kind.

POSSIBLE LONG TYPE QUESTIONS

Q-1 Describe briefly about the scopes of soil mechanics.
Q-2 Describe the process of formation of soil.
 CHAPTER NO-2

PRELIMINARY DEFINITIONS AND RELATIONSHIP.

Learning objectives

2.1 Soil as a three Phase system

2.2 Water Content, Density, Specific gravity ,Voids ratio,
Porosity, Percentage of air voids, air content,
Degree of saturation, density Index,
Bulk,Saturated/dry/submerged density
Interrelation of various soil parameter

2.1 SOIL AS A THREE PHASE SYSTEM

A soil mass consists of solid particles which from a porous structure. The voids in the soil mass
may be filled with air, with water or partly with air and partly with water. In general, a soil mass
consists of solid particles, water and air. The three constituents are blended together to form a
complex material (Fig. 2.1. a) . However, for convenience, all the solid particles are segregated and
placed in the lower layer of the three-phase diagram (Fig. 2.1b). Likewise, water and air particles
are placed separately, as shown. The 3-phase diagram is also known as Block diagram. It may be
noted that the constituents cannot be

In a 3-phase diagram it is conventional to write values on the left side and the mass on the right side
(Fig.) The mail simple of a gives soil mass in designated as V. It is equal to the sum of the volume
of solids (V1), the volume of water (F) and the volume of air (Va). The volume of voids (Vv) is
equal to the sum of the volumes, the water and air
The soil mass of the soil… is represented as M. the mass of air (ma) is very small and is neglected.
Therefore, the social mass of the soil is equal to the mass of solids (M2) and the mass of water
(Mw). Fig. shows the 3-phase diagram in which the weights are written on the right side.

2.2 WATER CONTENT, DENSITY, SPECIFIC GRAVITY,VOIDS

RATIO ,POROSITY, PERCENTAGE OF AIR VOIDS, AIR
CONTENT, DEGREE OF SATURATION, DENSITY INDEX, BULK
/SATURATED/DRY/SUBMERGED DENSITY, INTERRELATION
OF VARIOUS SOIL PARAMETERS
 WATER CONTENT: - The water content (w) is defined as the ratio of the mass water to
the mass of solids.
𝑊𝑤
w = 𝑊𝑠
The water content is also known as the moisture content (m). It is expressed as a percentage, but
whenever used in equation used as a decimal. The water content of the fine-grained soils, such as
silts and clays, in generally more than that of the coarse grained soils, such as gravels and sands.
The water content of some of the fine-gained soils may be even more than 100%, which
indicates that more than 50%of the total mass is that of water. The water
content of a soil is an important property.

• The water content of the fine-grained soils, such as silts and clays, in generally more than that of
the coarse grained soils, such as gravels and sands.
• The water content of some of the fine-gained soils may be even more than 100%, which
indicates that more than 50%of the total mass is that of water. The water content of a soil is an
important property.

DENSITY
• it is defined as the mass per unit volume of a soil mass.
• It is denoted by ‘ρ’
SPECIFIC GRAVITY (G):-
The specific gravity of solid particles (G) is defined as the ratio of the mass of a given
volume of solids to the mass of an equal volume of water at 40C. Thus, the specific
gravity is given by
𝜌𝑠
G= 𝜌𝑤

*The mass density of water 𝜌𝑤 at 40C is one gm/ml,1000 kg/m3 or 1 Mg/m3.

The specific gravity of solids for most natural soils falls in the general range of 2.65 to 2.80, the
smaller values are for the coarse-grained soils. Table gives the average values of specific gravity
for different soils. It may be mentioned that the specific gravity of different particles in a soil
mass may not be the same. Whenever

VOIDS RATIO: - It is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of
solids.
𝑉𝑣
e= 𝑉

The void ratio is expressed as a decimal, such as 0.4,0.5, etc. For coarse grained soils, the void
ratio is generally smaller than that for fine-grained soils. For some soils, void ratio may have a
value even greater than unity.
POROSITY

• It is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume. The Porosity is
generally expressed as percentage.
𝑉𝑣
n= 𝑉

• However, in equations, it is used as a ratio. For example; a porosity of 50% will be used
as 0.5 in equations.
• The porosity of a soil cannot exceed 100% as it would mean Vv is greater than V, which
is absurd. Porosity is also known as percentage voids.
• Both porosity and void ratio are measures of the denseness (or looseness) of soils. As the
soil becomes more and more dense, their values decrease. The term porosity is more
commonly used in other disciplines such as agricultural engineering. In soil engineering,
the term void ratio is more popular. It is more convenient to use void
• ratio than porosity. When the volume of a soil mass changes, only the numerator (i.e.Vv)
in the void ratio changes and the denominator (i.e.Vs) remains constant.
• However, if the term porosity is used, both the numeration and the denominator change
and it become inconvenient.

Relationship between the void ratio and the porosity as under.

The porosity should be expressed as a ratio (and not percentage)

PERCENTAGE OF AIR VOIDS (na):-

It is the ratio of the volume of air to the total volume.
𝑉𝑎
na= 𝑉

It is represented as a percentage.

AIR CONTENT (ac) : - Air content is defined as the ratio of the volume of air to the
volume of voids.
𝑉𝑎
ac =𝑉𝑣

The Air content is usually expressed as a percentage. Both air content and the
percentage air voids are zero when the soil is saturated (Va= 0).

Relationship between the percentage air voids and the air content can be obtained.

DEGREE OF SATURATION (S) - The degree of saturation (S) is the ratio of the volume
of
water to the volume of voids. It is also represents as Sr.
𝑉𝑤
S= 𝑉𝑣
The degree of saturation is generally expressed as a percentage. It is equal to zero when the soil
is absolutely dry and 100% when the soil is fully saturated. Degree of saturation is used as a
decimal in expressions.

DENSITY INDEX:-
It the most important index property of a cohesion less soil. It is also known as Density Index
(ID).It is also known as relative density or degree of density. It is used to express the relative
compactness of a natural soil deposit.

It is the ratio of the difference between voids ratio of the soil in its loosest state
and its natural voids ratio to the difference between voids ratio in the loosest and
densest states.

𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥−𝑒
ID or Dr= 𝑋 100
𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥−𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛
 Where emax= Maximum void ratio of the soil in the loosest condition.
emin= Minimum void ratio of the soil in the densest condition.
e = void ratio of the soil in the natural state.
emax will found out from γmin i,e in the loosest condition.
emin will found out from γmax i,e in the densest condition.
‘e’ will found out from γd i,e in the natural condition.

emax -The relative density of a soil gives a more clear idea of the denseness than does the void
ratio.

BULK UNIT WEIGHT:-

The bulk unit weight is defined as the total weight per total volume.
𝑤
γ=
𝑣
It is also known as total unit weight (γ) or wet unit weight.
In SI units it is express as N/mm3 or KN/mm3

DRY UNIT WEIGHT:-

The dry unit weight is defined as the weight of solids per total volume.

𝑊𝑠𝑎𝑡
γd =
𝑣

SATURATED UNIT WEIGHT:-

The saturated unit weight is the bulk unit weight when the soil is fully
saturated.
𝑊𝑠𝑢𝑏
γsat = 𝑣
 INTERRELATION OF VARIOUS SOIL PARAMETERS
(A) RELATION BETWEEN E, G, W AND S:-

Air
Va

Water
Vw

Soil solid
Vs

ew= represents volume of water

e= represents volume of voids
Degree of saturation
𝑠 = 𝑉𝑤/𝑉𝑣 = 𝑒𝑤/𝑒
𝑒𝑤 = 𝑠 × 𝑒 − − − − − − − − − − − −(𝑖)
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑒𝑤 = 𝑒
𝑊𝑤 ϒ𝑤
𝑤= = 𝑒𝑤 × ×1
𝑊𝑑 ϒ𝑠
ϒ𝑠
𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝐺 = ϒ𝑠 = 𝐺 × ϒ𝑤
ϒ𝑤𝑜𝑟
𝑤 = 𝑒𝑤 × ϒ𝑤/𝐺 × ϒ𝑤 = 𝑒𝑤/𝐺
𝑒𝑤 = 𝑤 × 𝐺 − − − − − − − − − −(𝑖𝑖)
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑖) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑖𝑖)
𝑒𝑤 = 𝑤 × 𝐺 = 𝑠 × 𝑒
𝑤×𝐺 = 𝑠×𝑒
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑠 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤 = 𝑤𝑠𝑎𝑡
𝑒 = 𝑤𝑠𝑎𝑡 × 𝐺

(B)RELATION BETWEEN ϒD, G AND E:-

𝑊𝑑 𝑉𝑠
ϒ𝑑 = = ϒ𝑠 ×
𝑉 𝑉
𝑉𝑠 = 1
𝑉 =1+𝑒
𝑉𝑠 1
ϒ𝑑 = ϒ𝑠 × = ϒ𝑠 × + 𝑒
𝑉 1
ϒ𝑠
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝐺 =
ϒ𝑤
ϒ𝑠 = 𝐺 × ϒ𝑤
 ϒ𝑤
ϒ𝑑 = 𝐺 ×
1+𝑒
ϒ𝑤
1+𝑒 =𝐺×
ϒ𝑑
ϒ𝑤
𝑒 = (𝐺 × )−1
ϒ𝑑

(C) RELATION BETWEEN ϒD, ϒ AND W:-

𝑊𝑤
𝑤=
𝑊𝑑
𝑊𝑑 𝑊
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 1 + 𝑤 = 𝑊𝑤 + =
𝑊𝑑 𝑊𝑑

𝑊
𝑊𝑑 =
1+𝑤
𝑊𝑑 𝑊 𝑊
ϒ𝑑 = = × 𝑉 = × (1 + 𝑤)
𝑉 1+𝑤 𝑉
ϒ
ϒ𝑑 =
1+𝑤

PROBLEMS
Example:-1
A soil sample as a porosity of 40%. The specific gravity of solid is 2.7. Calculate void ratio, dry density,
unit weight of the soil if 50% saturated, unit weight of soil if completely saturated.
Solution:-
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑛 = 40% = 0.4, 𝐺 = 2.7

𝑉𝑜𝑖𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 (𝑒) = 𝑛/1 − 𝑛 = 0.4/1 − 0.4 = 0.67%

ϒ𝑤 2.7 × 9.81 15.89𝑘𝑛 9.81𝑘𝑛

ϒ𝑑 = 𝐺 × +𝑒 = + 0.67 = (ϒ𝑤 = )
1 1 𝑚3 𝑚3
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑖𝑠 50% 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 (𝑠 = 0.5)
𝐺
𝑒= 𝑤×
𝑠
w=s×e/G=0.5×0.67/2.7=0.12
ϒ
ϒ𝑑 =
1+𝑤

17.85𝑘𝑛
ϒ = ϒ𝑑 × (1 + 𝑤) = 15.89 × (1 + 0.12) =
𝑚3
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 (𝑠 = 1)
 𝐺
𝑒= 𝑤×
𝑠
𝑒 0.67
𝑤𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 𝑠 × = 1 × = 0.25
𝐺 2.7

19.86𝑘𝑛
ϒ𝑠𝑎𝑡 = ϒ𝑑 × (1 + 𝑤𝑠𝑎𝑡) = 15.89 × (1 + 0.25) =
𝑚3

Example:-2
An undisturbed sample of soil has a volume of 100cm3 and mass of 190gm, on oven drying for 24 hours
the mass is reduced to 160gm. If the specific gravity of grains is 2.68, determine the water content, void
ratio and degree of saturation of soil.

Solution:-
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 (𝑀𝑤) = 190 − 160 = 30𝑔𝑚
𝑀𝑑 = 160𝑔𝑚
𝑤 = 𝑀𝑤/𝑀𝑑 = 30/160 = 0.19
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑀 = 190𝑔𝑚
𝑀 190 1.9𝑔𝑚
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜌 = = =
𝑉 100 𝑐𝑚3
ϒ = 𝜌 × 9.81 = 1.9 × 9.81 = 18.64𝑘𝑛/𝑚3
ϒ 18.64 15.66𝑘𝑛
ϒ𝑑 = + 𝑤 = + 0.19 =
1 1 𝑚3
ϒ𝑤
𝑊𝑒 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤 ϒ𝑑 = 𝐺 × +𝑒
1
ϒ𝑤 9.81
𝑒 = (𝐺 × ) − 1 = (2.68 × ) − 1 = 0.67
ϒ𝑑 15.69

𝐺 2.68
𝑊𝑒 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑠 = 𝑤 × = 0.19 × = 0.76 = 76%
𝑒 0.67

Example 4: Determine unit weights, water content, based on known volume and weight
(English units)

Requirements:

Determine moist unit weight of soil, dry unit weight of soil, and water content.

Solution:

𝑊𝑡 100 𝑙𝑏𝑠
1. 𝑀𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡 (𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙)𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡, 𝑔𝑡 = = = 100 𝑝𝑐𝑓 (𝑓𝑡3)
𝑉𝑡 1
 𝑊𝑠 80 𝑙𝑏𝑠
2. 𝐷𝑟𝑦 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡, 𝑔𝑑 = = = 80 𝑝𝑐𝑓 (𝑓𝑡3) .
𝑉𝑡 1
3. 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 100 − 80 = 20 𝑙𝑏𝑠
𝑊𝑤 20
4. 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 (𝑀𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒)𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡: 𝑤 (%) = 𝑊𝑠 ´ 100 (%) = 80𝑥100 % = 25%

POSSIBLE SHORT TYPE QUESTIONS WITH ANSWER

Q-1 Define water content.[2015-s]

Ans- The water content (w) is defined as the ratio of the mass water to the mass of solids.
𝑊𝑤
w=
𝑊𝑠
The water content is also known as the moisture content (m). It is expressed as a percentage, but
whenever used in equation used as a decimal.

Q-2 Define void ratio .[w-2018,s-2010,2006]

Ans- It is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of

solids.
𝑉𝑣
e= 𝑉
Q-3 Describe the relation between the void ratio and porosity.[s-19 BP]

Ans-

Q-4 Define air content of soil.[2014,2020,2010]

Ans- Air content is defined as the ratio of the volume of air to the
volume of voids.
𝑉𝑎
ac =𝑉𝑣

Q-5 Define degree of saturation. [S2015,S2020]

Ans- The degree of saturation (S) is the ratio of the volume of

water to the volume of voids. It is also represents as Sr.
𝑉𝑤
S= 𝑉𝑣

POSSIBLE LONG TYPE QUESTIONS

Q-1 write the relationship between the Specific gravity, unit weight, water content and void
ratio.[S2017]

Q-2 Describe the three phase system of soil.[S-2018]

Q-3 Derive the relation between the e,w,G & S.[2015,2019W]

 CHAPTER NO-3

INDEX PROPERTIES OF SOIL

Learning objectives
3.1 Water Content
3.2 Specific Gravity
3.3 Particle size distribution , Sieve analysis
Wet mechanical analysis, Particle size distribution curve and its uses
3.4 Consistency of Soils- Atterberg’s Limits , Plasticity Index,
Consistency Index, Liquidity Index.

3.1WATER CONTENT DETERMINATION:

➢ The water content of a soil is an important parameter that controls its
behaviour.
➢ It is a quantitative measure of the wetness of a soil mass.
➢ The water content of soil mass can be deter
➢ mined by the following methods:
➢ 1. Oven drying method
➢ 2. Pycnometer method
(1) Oven drying method:
• The oven drying method is a standard laboratory method and this is a very accurate
method.
• In this method the soil sample is taken in a small, non-corrodible, air tight container.
• The mass of the sample and that of the container are obtained using an
accurate weighing balance.
• The soil sample in the container is then dried in an oven at a temperature of
110°c ± 5°c for 24 hours.
• The water content of the soil sample is then calculated from the following
equation:
W = Mw/Ms
𝑀2−𝑀3
= 𝑀3−𝑀1 × 100
Where M1 = mass of container with lid
M2 = mass of container, lid and wet soil
M3 = mass of container, lid and dry soil
 (2)Pycnometer method:

pycnometer

• A pycnometer is a glass jar of about 1 litre capacity and fitted with a brass conical cap by
means of screw type cover.

• The cap has a small hole of 6 mm diameter at its apex. A rubber or fibre washer is placed
between the cap and the jar to prevent leakage.

• There is a mark on the cap and also on the jar. The cap is screwed down to the same mark such
that the volume of the pycnometer used in the calculations

remains constant.

• The pycnometer method for the determination of water content can be used only if the specific
gravity of solid particle is known.

• A sample of wet soil about 200 to 400 gm is taken in the pycnometer and weighed.

• Water is then added to the soil in the pycnometer to make it about half full.

• The contents are thoroughly mixed using a glass rod to remove the entrapped air. More and
more water is added and stirring process continued till the pycnometer is filled flush with the
hole in the conical cap.

• The pycnometer is wiped dry and weighed.

• The pycnometer is then completely emptied. It is washed and filled with water, flush with the
top hole.

• The pycnometer is wiped dry and weighed.

• Let M1 = mass of pycnometer

M2 = mass of pycnometer + wet soil

M3 = mass of pycnometer + wet soil + water

M4 = mass of pycnometer filled with water only

The mass M4 is equal to mass M3 minus the mass of solids Ms plus the mass of an

equal volume of water.

𝑀𝑠
𝑀4 = 𝑀3 – 𝑀𝑠 + 𝛾𝑤
𝐺𝛾𝑤
𝑀𝑠
𝑀4 = 𝑀3 – 𝑀𝑠 +
𝐺
1
= 𝑀3 – 𝑀𝑠 (1 − )
𝐺
1
𝑀𝑠 = (𝑀3 – 𝑀4)( 1 − )
𝐺
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑡 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 𝑀2 – 𝑀1
𝐺−1
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑀𝑤 = (𝑀2 – 𝑀1) – (𝑀3 – 𝑀4)( )
𝐺
𝑀𝑤
𝑤 = × 100
𝑀𝑠
𝑀2−𝑚1 𝐺−1
[(
𝑀3−𝑀4
( 𝐺
)– 1] × 100

• This method for the determination of the water content is suitable for coarse
grained soils from which the entrapped air can be easily removed.
 3.2 SPECIFIC GRAVITY:

• The specific gravity of soil solids can be determined by density bottle

method.:
(i) A 50 ml density bottle or
(ii) A 500 ml flask or
(iii) A pycnometer

• The density bottle method is the most accurate method and is suitable for all types of soil.
Density bottle method
• The flask or pycnometer is used only for coarse grained soils.
• The density bottle method is the standard method used in the laboratory.
• In the above three methods the sequence of observation is same.
• The mass M1 of the empty, dry, bottle is first taken.
• A sample of oven dried soil cooled in a desiccator is put in the bottle and the
mass M2

Density bottle

• The flask or pycnometer is used only for coarse grained soils.

• The density bottle method is the standard method used in the laboratory.
• In the above three methods the sequence of observation is same.
• The mass M1 of the empty, dry, bottle is first taken.
• A sample of oven dried soil cooled in a desiccator is put in the bottle and the
mass M2 is taken.
• The bottle is then filled with distilled water gradually removing the entrapped air either by
applying vacuum or by shaking the bottle.
• The mass M3 of the bottle, soil and water is taken.
• Finally, the bottle is emptied completely and thoroughly washed and clean water is filled to the
top and the mass M4 is taken.
• If the mass of solid Ms is subtracted from M3 and replaced by the mass of water equal to the
volume of solid the mass M4 is obtained.

3.3 PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION , SIEVE ANALYSIS

WET MECHANICAL ANALYSIS, PARTICLE SIZE
DISTRIBUTION CURVE AND ITS USES

Particle size distribution

• The percentage of various sizes of particle in a given dry soil sample is found by a
particle size analysis or mechanical analysis.

• Mechanical analysis means separation of a soil into its different size fractions.

The mechanical analysis is performed in two stages

a) Sieve analysis
b) Sedimentation analysis or wet mechanical analysis

• The first stage is meant for coarse grained soil only while the second stage is performed
for fine grained soils.

• In general a soil sample may contain both coarse grained particles as well as fine
Particles and hence both the stages of the mechanical analysis may be necessary.

Sieve analysis
In the Indian standard the sieves are designated by the size of the aperature in mm.

➢ The sieve analysis can be divided into two parts i.e the coarse analysis and fine
analysis.
➢ An oven dried sample of soil is separated into two fractions by sieving it through a
4.75 mm I.S sieve.
➢ The portion retained on it is termed as the gravel fraction and is kept for the coarse
analysis while the portion passing through it is subjected to fine sieve analysis.
 ➢ The following sets of sieves are used for coarse sieve analysis: IS: 100, 63, 20, 10
and 4.75 mm.
➢ The sieves used for fine sieve analysis are : IS : 2 mm, 1.0 mm, 600, 425, 300, 212,
150 and 75 micron.
➢ Sieving is performed by arranging the various sieves one over the other in the order
of their mesh openings – the largest aperature sieve being kept at the top and the
smallest aperature sieve at the bottom.
➢ A receiver is kept at the bottom and a cover is kept at the top of whole assembly.
➢ The soil sample is put on the top sieve and the whole assembly is fitted on a sieve
shaking machine.
➢ The amount of shaking depends upon the shape and the number of particles.
At least 10 minutes of shaking is desirable for soils with small particles.

➢ The portion of the soil sample retained on each sieve is weighed.

➢ The percentage of soil retained on each sieve is calculated on the basis of the total mass
of soil sample taken and from this percentage passing through each sieve is calculated.

Wet mechanical analysis

➢ In the wet mechanical analysis or sedimentation analysis the soil fraction finer than 75
micron size is kept in suspension in a liquid (usually water) medium.
➢ The analysis is based on stokes law according to which the velocity at which grains settle
out of suspension, all other factors being equal, is dependent upon the shape, weight and
size of the grain.
➢ However in the usual analysis it is assumed that the soil particles are spherical and -have
the same specific gravity.
➢ With this assumption the coarser particles settle more quickly than the finer ones.

Particle size distribution curve and its uses

The results of mechanical analysis (sieve and hydrometer analyses) are generally presented by
semi-logarithmic plots known as particle-size distribution curves. The particle diameters are
plotted in log scale, and the corresponding percent finer in arithmetic scale. As an example, the
particle-size distribution curves for two soils are shown in Figure 2. The particle-size distribution
curve for soil A is the combination of the sieve analysis results presented in Table 2 and the
results of the hydrometer analysis for the finer fraction. When the results of sieve analysis and
hydrometer analysis are combined, a discontinuity generally occurs in the range where they
overlap. This is because soil particles are generally irregular in shape. Sieve analysis gives the
intermediate dimension of a particle; hydrometer analysis gives the diameter of a sphere that
would settle at the same rate as the soil particle.
 The percentages of gravel, sand, silt, and clay-size particles present in a soil can be obtained
from the particle-size distribution curve. According to the Unified soil classification soil A in
Figure 2 has:

• Gravel (size limit - greater than 4.75 mm) = 0%

• Sand (size limits - 4.75 to 0.075 mm) = percent finer than 4.75 mm diameter - percent
finer than 0.075 mm diameter = 100 - 62 - 38%
• Silt and clay (size limit - less than 0.075 mm) = 62%

3.4 CONSISTENCY OF SOILS- ATTERBERG’S LIMITS ,

PLASTICITY INDEX, CONSISTENCY INDEX, LIQUIDITY
INDEX.
CONSISTENCY OF SOIL ON ATTERBERG LIMIT
• Consistency means the relative ease with which soil can be deformed.
• Consistency denotes degree of firmness of the soil which may be termed as soft, firm, stiff or
hard.
• Fine grained soil may be mixed with water to form a plastic paste which can be moulded into
any form by pressure.
• The addition of water reduces the cohesion making the soil still easier to mould.
• Further addition of water reduces the until the material no longer retains its shape under its own
weight, but flows as a liquid.

• Enough water may be added until the soil grains are dispersed in a suspension.
 • If water is evaporated from such a soil suspension the soil passes through various stages or
states of consistency.
• Swedish agriculturist Atterberg divided the entire range from liquid to solid state into four
stages :
(i) Liquid state
(ii) Plastic state
(iii) Semi – solid state
(iv) Solid state
He sets arbitrary limits known as consistency limit or Atterberg limit for these divisions in terms
of water content
• Thus consistency limits are the water content at which the soil mass passes from one state to
the next.
• The Atterberg limits which are most useful are :
(i) Liquid limit
(ii) Plastic limit
(iii) Shrinkage limit

Liquid Limit:
• Liquid limit is the water content corresponding to the arbitrary limitbetween liquid and plastic
state of consistency of a soil.

• It is defined as the minimum water content at which the soil is still in the liquid state but has a
small shearing strength against flowing which can be measured by standard available means.

• With reference to the standard liquid limit device, it is defined as the minimum water content at
which a part of soil cut by a groove of standard dimension, will flow together for a distance of 12
mm under an impact of 25 blows in the device.
Plastic limit:
• Plastic limit is the water content corresponding to an arbitrary limit between the plastic and the
semi-solid state of consistency of a soil.
• It is defined as the minimum water content at which a soil will just begin to crumble when
rolled into a thread approximately 3 mm in diameter.

Shrinkage limit:
• Shrinkage limit is defined as the maximum water content at which a reduction in water content
will not cause a decrease in the volume of a soil mass.
• It is lowest water content at which a soil can still be completely saturated.

Plasticity Index:
• The range of consistency within which a soil exhibit plastic properties is called plastic range
and is indicated by plasticity index.
• Plasticity index is defined is defined as the numerical difference between the liquid limit and
the plastic limit of a soil.
Ip= wl - wp
• When plastic limit cannot be determined , the plasticity index is reported as NP (Non plastic).
• When the plastic limit is equal to or greater than the liquid limit the plasticity index is reported
as zero.

Plasticity:
• Plasticity is defined as that property of a soil which allows it to be deformed rapidly, without
rupture, without elastic rebound and without volume change.

Consistency Index:
• The consistency index or the relative consistency is defined as the ratio of the liquid limit
minus the natural water content to the plasticity index of soil

𝑊𝑙−𝑊
Ic =
𝐼𝑝
Where,w is the natural water content of the soil
• If consistency index of a soil is equal to unity, it is at the plastic limit.
• Similarly a soil with Ic equal to zero is at its liquid limit.
• If Ic exceeds unity the soil is in a semi – solid state and will be stiff.
• A negative consistency index indicates that the soil has natural water content greater than the
liquid limit and hence behaves just like a liquid.

Liquidity index:
• The liquidity index or water plasticity ratio is the ratio, expressed as a
percentage, of the natural water content of a soil minus its plastic limit
to its plasticity index:
𝑊−𝑊𝑝
IL =
𝐼𝑝
Where w is the natural water content of the soil.
 PROBLEMS

Example – 1
• During a test for water content determination on a soil sample by
pycnometer, the following observations were taken
(1) Mass of wet soil sample = 1000 gm
(2) Mass of pycnometer with soil and filled with water = 2000 gm
(3) Mass of pycnometer filled with water only = 1480 gm
(4) Specific gravity of solids = 2.67
Determine the water content.

Solution

Example-2
The mass of an empty gas jar was 0.498 Kg. When completely filled with water its
mass was 1.528 Kg. An oven dried sample of soil mass 0.198 Kg was placed in the jar
and water was added to fill the jar and its mass was found to be 1.653 Kg. Determine
the specific gravity of particle.

Solution: we know that

𝑀2−𝑀1
G=(𝑀2−𝑀1)−(𝑀3−𝑀4)
0.198
=
0.198−(1.653−1.528)
=2.71

Example 3:
A soil has a liquid limit of 25 % and plastic limit is 15 %. Determine the plasticity index. If the
water content of the soil in its natural condition in the field is 20 %, find the liquidity index and
relative consistency.

Solution:
wl = 25 % wp = 15 % w = 20 %
plasticity Index Ip = wl - wp
= 25 – 15 = 10 %
 𝑊−𝑊𝑝
Liquidity index = Il = × 100
𝐼𝑝

0.2−0.15
= × 100 = 50 %
0.1

𝑊𝑙−𝑊
Relative consistency = Ic = × 100
𝐼𝑝
0.25−0.2
= × 100 = 50 %
0.1

POSSIBLE SHORT TYPE QUESTIONS WITH ANSWER

Q-1 Define plasticity index.[S2018]
Ans-• The range of consistency within which a soil exhibit plastic properties is called plastic
range and is indicated by plasticity index.
• Plasticity index is defined is defined as the numerical difference between the liquid limit and
the plastic limit of a soil.
Ip= wl - wp

Q -2 What do you mean by the specific gravitgy?[2018]

Ans – The specific gravity of the soil particles lie within the range of 2.65 to 2.85. Soils containing
organic matter and porous particles may have specific gravity values below 2.0. Soils having heavy
substances may have values above 3.0.
Q-3 What are the methods of determining the water content of soil?
Ans-A. Oven drying method
B. pycnometer method

Q-4 Define the liquid limit.

Ans- • It is defined as the minimum water content at which the soil is still in the liquid state but has
a small shearing strength against flowing which can be measured by standard available means.

Q-5 Define plastic limit.

Ans-• Plastic limit is the water content corresponding to an arbitrary limit between the plastic
and the semi-solid state of consistency of a soil.
• It is defined as the minimum water content at which a soil will just begin to crumble when
rolled into a thread approximately 3 mm in diameter.

POSSIBLE LONG TYPE QUESTIONS

Q-1 Describe the atterberg’s limits of consistency index.[s2016,2018,2019]

Q-2Describe the procedure of finding the specific gravity of soil by pycnometer method.
 CHAPTER NO-4
CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL.

Learning objectives

4.1 General.
4.2 I.S. Classification ,Plasticity chart

4.1 GENERAL.

Purpose of soil classification:

➢ The purpose of soil classification is to arrange various types of soil into specific groups
based on physical properties and engineering behavior of the soils with the objective of
finding the suitability of soils for different engineering application , such as in the
construction of earth dams , highway ,and foundations of building , etc.

➢ For different areas of applications and with the need for simplicity and acceptable
terminology, several soil classification system s have been developed over the years, three
of which are listed below.

1. Highway research board classification system

2. Unified soil classification system
3. Indian standard soil classification.

Highway Research Board (HRB) classification System:

➢ The Highway Reach Board classification system, also known as Revised Public Roads
Administration classification system ,is used to find the suitability of a soil , as sub grade
material in pavement construction .This classification system is based on both particle
size ranges and plasticity characteristic .soil are divided into 7 primary group designated
as A -1 , A-2………A-7 , as shown in table .

➢ Group A-1, is divided into two sub groups A-1 and A-1 and group A-2into four sub
groups, A-2-4 , A-2-5 ,A-2-6 and A-2-7 .A characteristic group index is used to describe
the performance of a soil as sub grade material.

➢ Ground index is not used to place a soil in a particular group ; it is actually a means of
rating the value of soil as a sub grade material within its own group .The higher the value
of the group index, the proper is the quality of the material. The group index of a soil
depends upon.
 (i) Amount of material passing the 75-micron sieve,
(ii) Liquid limit
(iii) Plastic limit
Group index is given by the following equation:
Group index=0.2a+0.005ac+0.01bd
Where
a=that portion of percentage passing 75 micron sieve greater than 35 and not exceeding 75
expressed as whole number(0 to 40)
b=that portion percentage passing 75 micron sieve greater than 15 and not exceeding 55
expressed as whole number(0 to 40)
c=that portion of the numerical liquid limit greater than 40 and not exceeded 60 expressed as a
positive whole number (0 to 20)

d=that portion of the numerical plasticity index greater than 10 and not exceeding 30
expressed as a positive whole number (0 to 20).
Unified soil classification System

➢ The Unified soil classification system is based on the Airfield Classification system that
was developed by A Casagrande .the system based on both grain size and plasticity
characteristic of soil. The unified Soil classification (USC)system was adopted jointly by
the Corps of Engineers ,U.S. army and U.S. Bureau of Reclamation during 1950s.

1. Coarse-grained soils – if more than 50% by Weighty is retained on No. 200 ASTM
sieve.
2. Fine –grain soil- if more than 50% by weight passes through No. 200 ASTM sieve
3. Organic soils.

The soil component are assigned group symbols as indicated below :

Coarse –grained soils: Gravel: G Sand: S

Fine grained soils: Silt: M Clay’s Organic soil’s

4.2 - I.S. CLASSIFICATION, PLASTICITY CHART

➢ Indian standard soil classification system (IS 1498-1970 classification and identification
of soil for general engineering purpose) is esssentially based on unified soil classification
system and the salient features and given in the following discussion.
In the system soils are broadly divided into 3 division

1. coarse- grained soil –if more than 50% by mass is retain on 75 micron IS sieve.

2. Fine grained soil –if more than 50% by mass passes through 75 micron IS sieve.

➢ Highly organic soils and other miscelliouns soil material . The soil content larger % of
fibrous organic matter such as peat and particles of decompose vegetation. In addition
 shorten soil containing shells ,concretions cinders and other non soil material insufficient
quantities are also grouped in this division.

➢ Coarse grained soils are grouped as gravels and sands with group symbols G and S

➢ Gravels(G) if more than 50% by mass of the coarse grained fraction passed through 4.75
mm IS sieve . Depending on the gradation gravels(G) and sands (S) are further described
using
➢ group symbols are indicated below.

➢ GP- poorly graded gravel which does not meet all graduation requirement of GW

➢ SW-Well graded sand for which Cu >6 and Cc lies between 1 &3

➢ GM-silty gravel if lp > 4 for fine- grained fraction.

➢ GC-Clayey gravel if Ip < 7 for fine-grained fraction.

➢ SM-Silty sand if Ip < 4 for fine grained fraction.

➢ SC- Clayey sand if Ip > 7 for fine- grained fraction.

➢ In the case of coarse –grained soils mixed with fines if Ip lies between 4 and 7 one has to
use proper judgment in dealing with this border line case.

➢ Generally non-plastic classification is favored in such cases. For example a sand with
10% fines with Cu > 6 ,Cc between 1 and 3 and Ip = 6 would be classified as SW –SM
rather than SW-SC.

➢ Fine-grained soils are grouped under following three subdivisions with respective group
symbols:
➢ Inorganic silts and very fine sands(M)

➢ Inorganic clays(C)

➢ Organic silts ,Organic clays and Organic matter (O)

➢ Depending on liquid limit which is considered a good index of compressibility

fine grained soils are described as possessing (i)low compressibility (L) when liquid limit is less
than 35 percent .

(ii) intermediate or medium compressibility (I) when liquid limit lies between
35 percent and 50 percent

(iii ) high compressibility (H) when liquid limit is greater than 50 percent.
 ➢ The plasticity chart originally devised by A. Casagrande and slightly modified by IS is
used to classify fine-grained soils in the laboratory.

➢ The A-line having the equation:

➢ Ip=0.73 (Wl-20)

➢ And the two vertical lines at wl=35and wl=50 divide the chart into six regions with group
symbols marked as shown in Fig.4.4 if the plotted position lies below A-line, the soil has
to be checked for organic odour by slight heating. If no organic odour is smelt than only
it should be classified as inorganic silt. In case of doubt, the soil should be oven-dried and
its liquid limit determined

➢ GW- Well graded gravel for which Cu >4 and Cc lies between 1&3
➢ again. In the case of organic soils there will be large reduction in liquid limit on drying
(reduction generally>25%).

Plasticity chart

Soil Soil Symbol Particle size range and description

component
Coarse Boulder None Round to angular , bulky hard ,rock
grained particle , average diameter more than
Components 300mm
Cobble None Round to angular, bulky hard, rock particle
average diameter smaller than 300 mm but
retained on 80 mm sieve.
Gravel G Rounded to angular, bulky hard, rock
particle, passing 80 mm sieve but retained on
4.75 mm sieve.Coarse:80 mm to 20 mm sieve
Fine:20 mm to 4.75 mm sieve
Sand S Rounded to angular bulky hard, rocky
particle, passing 4.75 mm sieve retained on
75 micron sieve Coarse:4.75 mm to 2.0 mm sieve
Medium:2.0 mm to 425 micron sieve
Fine: 425 micron to 75 micron sieve
Fine – silt M Particles smaller than 75-micron sieve
grained indentified by behavior; that is slightly
Components plastic or non-plastic regardless of moisture
and exhibits little or no strength when air dried
Clay C Particles smaller than 75- micron sieve
identified by behavior, than is, it can made to
exhibit plastic properties within a certain
range of moisture and exhibits considerable
strength when air dried
 POSSIBLE SHORT TYPE QUESTIONS WITH ANSWER
Q-1 write the soil classification systems[w-2018]
Ans-1. Highway research board classification system
2. Unified soil classification system
3. Indian standard soil classification.

Q-2 – Define Indian standard soil classification system [2018-S, 2019-S]

Ans- Indian standard soil classification system (IS 1498-1970 classification and identification of
soil for general engineering purpose) is esssentially based on unified soil classification system
and the salient features and given in the following discussion.
In the system soils are broadly divided into 3 division

1. coarse- grained soil –if more than 50% by mass is retain on 75 micron IS sieve.

2. Fine grained soil –if more than 50% by mass passes through 75 micron IS sieve.

Q-3 What is meant by D10 of sand particles ? [2007-s]

Ans- D10 of sand represents a size in such that that 10% of the sand are finer than this size.

Q-4 What is meant by SP in soil classification ? [2007-w]

Ans- sp means poorly graded sand.

POSSIBLE LONG TYPE QUESTIONS

Q -1 Describe the IS classification system of soil.[ 2014,2016-s]
Q-2 Describe briefly about the soil classification system. [2013,2018,2019-n]
 CHAPTER NO-5

PERMEABILITY AND SEEPAGE

Learning objectives

5.1 Concept of Permeability, Darcy’s Law,Co-efficient of Permeability.

5.2 Factors affecting Permeability.
5.3 Constant head permeability and falling head permeability Test.
5.4 Seepage pressure, effective stress, phenomenon of quick sand.

5.1 CONCEPT OF PERMEABILITY, DARCY’S LAW, CO-

EFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITY.
• The property of soil which permits flow of water (or other any liquid) through it is called
the permeability in otherworld, the permeability in the case with which water can flow
through it.

• Permeability is very important engineering property of soil.

• The knowledge of permeability is essential in a number of soil engineering problems

such as: Settlement of Buildings, Yield of wells, Seepage through and below the earth
surface.

• Permeability controls the hydraulic stability of soil masses.

• The permeability of soils is also required in the design of filters required to prevent
piping in hydraulic structure.

Darcy’s Law:-
The flow of free water through soil is governed by Darcy’s law. In 1856, Darcy experimentally
that for laminar flow in a homogeneous soil, the velocity of flow (v) is given by

v= k I ------------------------ (1)

Where, k= coefficient of permeability, i= hydraulic gradient and v = velocity of flow in laminar

flow in homogeneous soil
 The above equation is known as Darcy’s law, which is one of the corner stones of soil
engineering. The discharge ‘q’ is obtained by multiplying the velocity of flow (v) by the total
cross-sectional area (A) normal to the direction of flow

Thus, q= vA = k i A ----------------------(2)
Note: - 1) The velocity of flow is also known as discharge velocity or superficial velocity.
2) The area A in the above equation includes both the solids and the voids.

Co-efficient of Permeability:-
• The coefficient of permeability can be defined using the equation 1. If the hydraulic
gradient is unity, the coefficient of permeability is equal to the velocity of flow.
Or,
• The coefficient of permeability is defined as the velocity of flow which would occur
under unit hydraulic gradient. The co-efficient of permeability is equal to the velocity of
flow.
• The coefficient permeability has the dimensions of velocity [L/T].
• The coefficient of permeability measured in mm/sec, cm/sec, m/sec, m/day or other
velocity units. The coefficient of permeability depends upon the particle size and upon
many factors.
• According to USBR, the soil having co-efficient permeability greater than 10- 3mm/sec
are classified as pervious and those with a value less than 10-5 to 10-3mm/sec are
designated as semi-pervious.

5.2 FACTORS AFFECTING PERMEABILITY

The following factors affect the permeability of soils.
(1) Particle Size.
(2) Structure of soil mass.
(3) Shape of particles.
(4) Void ratio.
(5) Properties of water.
(6) Degree of saturation.
(7) Adsorbed water.
(8) Impurities in water.

1) Particle Size: - Co-efficient of permeability of soil is proportional to the square of particle size
(D). The permeability of coarse grained soils is very large as compared to that of fine-grained
soils. The permeability of coarse sand may be more than one million times as much that of clay.

(2) Structure of soil mass: - The coefficient C takes into account the shape of flow passage. The
size of flow passage depends upon the structural arrangement. For same void ratio, the
permeability is more in the case of flocculated structure as compared to that in the disperses
structure.
Stratified soil deposits have greater permeability parallel to the plane of stratification than that
perpendicular to this plane. Permeability of soil deposit also depends upon shrinkage cracks,
joints, fissures and shear zones. Loess deposits have greater permeability in the vertical direction
than in the horizontal direction.

The permeability of natural soil deposit should be determined in undisturbed condition. The
disturbance caused during sampling may destroy the original structure and affect the
permeability.

The effect of disturbance is more pronounces in case of fine-grained soils than in the case of
coarse-grained soils.

(3) Shape of Particles: - The permeability of a soil depends upon the shape of particles. Angular
particles have greater specific surface are as compared with the rounded particles.

4) Void Ratio: -
value of the coefficient of permeability. Based on the other concepts, it has been established that
the permeability of soil varies as e2 or e2/ (1 oils have e versus log k plot as a straight line
deposit, the void ratio for
For a given soil, the greater the void ratio, the higher is the(f / 1+e)

5) Properties of Water: - The co-efficient of permeability is directly proportional to the unit

weight of water (Dw) and is inversely proportional to its viscosity (_). The coefficient of
permeability increases with an increase the temperature due to reduction in the viscosity.

(6) Degree of Saturation:- if the soil is not fully saturated, it contains air pocket formed due to
entrapped air or due to air liberated from percolating water. Whatever may be the cause of
presence of air in soils, the permeability is reduced due to presence of sir which causes blockage
of passage. Consequently, the permeability of partially saturated soil is considerably smaller than
that of fully
saturated soil. In fact Darcy’s Law not strictly applicable to such soils.

(7)Adsorbed Water: - The fine grained soils have a layer of adsorbed water strongly attached to
their surface. This adsorbed water layer is not free to move under gravity. It causes an
obstruction to flow of water in the pores and henc reduces the permeability of soils.

It is difficult to estimate the void occupied by the adsorbed water. According to one estimate, the
void ration occupied by adsorbed water is about 0.10. The effective void ratio available for flow
of water is thus about (e - 0.1) and not ‘e’. In some cases, at very low hydraulic gradient, the
coefficient of permeability of fine grained soils becomes negligible small due to presence of
adsorbed water.

(8) Impurities in Water: - Any foreign matter in water has a tendency to plug the flow passage
and reduce the effective voids and hence the permeability of soils.
5.3 CONSTANT HEAD PERMEABILITY, FALLING HEAD
PERMEABILITY TEST.

Constant head permeability

The coefficient of permeability of a relatively more permeable soil can be determined in a
laboratory by the constant –head permeability test.

1. The test is conducted in an instrument known as constant-head Permeameter.

2. It consists of a metallic mould, 100 mm internal diameter, 127.3 mm effective height and 1000
ml capacity according to IS : 2720 (Part XVII).
3. The mould is provided with a detachable extension collar, 100 mm diameter and 60 mm high,
required during compaction of soil.
4. The mould is provided with drainage base plate with recess for porous stone.
5. The mould is fitted with a drainage cap having an inlet valve and an air
release valve.
6. The drainage base and cap have fittings for clamping to the mould.

1. The above figure shows a schematic sketch.

2. The soil sample is placed inside the mould between two porous discs.
3. The porous discs should be at least ten times more permeable than the soil.
4. The porous discs should be deaired before these are placed in the mould.
5. The water tubes should also be deaired.
6. The sample can also be prepared in the permeameter by pouring the soil into it and tamping it
to obtain the required density.
 7. The base is provided with a dummy plate, 12 mm thick and 108 mm in diameter, which is
used when the sample is compacted in the mould.

8. It is essential that the sample is fully saturated. This is done by one of the following three
methods:-

i. By pouring the soil in the permeameter filled with water and thus depositing the soil under
water.

ii. By allowing water to flow from the base to the top after the soil has been placed in the mould.
This is done by attaching the constant-head reservoir to the drainage base. The upward flow is
maintained for sufficient time till all the air has been expelled out.

iii. By applying a vacuum pressure of about 700mm of mercury through the drainage cap for
about 1.5 minutes after closing the drainage valve. Then the soil is saturated by allowing deaired
water to enter from drainage base. The air-release valve is kept open during saturation process.

9. After the soil sample has been saturated, the constant-head reservoir is connected to the
drainage cap.
10. Water is allowed to flow out from the drainage base for some time till a steady-state is
established.

11. The water level in the constant-head chamber in which the mould is placed is kept constant.

12. The chamber is filled to the brim at the start of the experiment.

13. The water which enters the chamber after flowing through the sample spills over the chamber
and collected in a graduated jar for convenient period.

14. The head causing flow (h) is equal to the difference in water levels between the constant-
head reservoir and the constant-head chamber.

15. If the cross-sectional area of the specimen is A, the discharge is given by

q= k i A
or, q = k (h/l) A
or, k= (q l) / (A h)
where, L= Length of specimen, h= head causing flow.

Falling head permeability Test.

For relatively less permeability soils the quantity of water collected in the graduated jar of the
constant-head permeability test is very small and cannot be accurately. For such soils, the
variable-head permeability test is use in the.permeameter mould is the same as used in the
constant-head permeability test.
1) A vertical, graduated stand pipe of known diameter is fitted to the top of
permeameter.
2) The sample is placed between two porous discs.

3) The whole assembly is placed in a consta brim at the start of the test. (See the below figure
shows a schematic sketch).

4) Tee porous discs and water tubes be de in-situ, undisturbed sample is available, the same can
be
soil is taken in the mould and compacted to required density.

5) The valve at the drainage base (not shown in figure) is closed and vacuum pressure is applied
slowly through the drainage cap to remove air from the soil.

6) The vacuum pressure about 15 minutes.

7) The sample is saturated by allowing deaired water to flow upward from the drainage base
when under vacuum.

8) When the soil is saturated, both the top and bottom outlets are closed.

9) The standpipe is filled with water to required height.

10) The test is stated by allowing the water in the stand pipe to flow through the
sample to constant

11) As the water flows through the soil, the water level

12) The time required for the water level to fall from a known initial head (known as final head (

13) The head is measured with reference to the level of water in the constant
head chamber.

Let us consider the in small time

Let the discharge through the sample be constant head chamber filled with water to de-aired
before the sample is placed. If used; otherwise the pressure is increased to 700 mm of mercury
and maintained for constant-head chamber from which it overflows and spills out. in the
standpipe falls. h2) is determined. instant when the head is h. For the infinitesimal
dt, the head falls by dh.
 𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤, 𝑎 𝑑ℎ = − 𝑞 𝑑𝑡
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ‘𝑎’ 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒.
𝑂𝑟 , 𝑎 𝑑ℎ = − (𝐴 𝑋 𝑘 𝑋 𝑖)𝑋 𝑑𝑡
ℎ
𝑂𝑟, 𝑎 𝑑ℎ = − 𝐴 𝑋 𝑘 𝑋 𝐿 𝑋 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑ℎ
𝑂𝑟, 𝐴 𝑘 𝐿 = −
𝑎 ℎ

Where, t = (t2 –t1), the time interval during which the head reduces from h1 to h2).

5.4 SEEPAGE PRESSURE, EFFECTIVE STRESS PHENOMENON

OF QUICK SAND
➢ As water flows through the soil, it extends a force on the soil. The force acts in the direction
of flows. This force is known as drag force or seepage force. The pressure induced in the
soil is known as seepage pressure.

➢ By virtue of the viscous friction exerted on water flowing through soil energy transfer is
effected between the water and soil. The force corresponding to this energy transfer is called
the seepage force or seepage pressure. Thus, seepage pressure is the pressure exerted by
water on the soil through which percolates.

Effective stress-
➢ It can be defined as the stress that keeps particle together.
➢ In soil it is the combined effect of pore water pressure and total stress that keeps together.
➢ In equation it is total stress minus pore pressure.
The phenomenon of Quick Sand:-
When flow takes place in an upward direction, the seepage pressure also acts in the upward
direction and the effective pressure is reduced. If the seepage pressure becomes equal to the
pressure due to submerged weight of the soil, the effective pressure is reduced to zero, in such
case, a cohesionless soil loses all its shear strength, and the soil particles have a tendency to
move up in the direction of flow.
This phenomenon of lifting of soil particles is called quick condition, boiling condition or quick
sand. Thus, during the quick condition,

• The hydraulic gradient at such a critical state is called hydraulic gradient. For loose
deposits of sand or sand or silt, if voids ratio e is taken as 0.67 and G as 2.67, the critical
hydraulic gradient works out to be unity.
• It should be noted that quick sand is not a type of sand but a flow condition occurring
within a cohesionless soil when its effective pressure is reduced to zero due to upward
flow of water.

POSSIBLE SHORT TYPE QUESTIONS WITH ANSWER

Q-1 Define permeability. [2014-S,2019-S]
Ans- The property of soil which permits flow of water (or other any liquid) through it is called the
permeability in otherworld, the permeability in the case with which water can flow through it.
Q-2 Define Darcys law . [2018-S,2020-N]
Ans – The flow of free water through soil is governed by Darcy’s law. In 1856, Darcy
experimentally that for laminar flow in a homogeneous soil, the velocity of flow (v) is given by

v= k I ------------------------Equation no -1
Where, k= coefficient of permeability, i= hydraulic gradient and v = velocity of flow in laminar
flow in homogeneous soil

The above equation is known as Darcy’s law, which is one of the corner stones of soil
engineering. The discharge ‘q’ is obtained by multiplying the velocity of flow (v) by the total
cross-sectional area (A) normal to the direction of flow

Thus, q= vA = k i A ----------------------Equation no – 2

Q -3 Define seepage pressure.

Ans- As water flows through the soil, it extends a force on the soil. The force acts in the direction of
flows. This force is known as drag force or seepage force. The pressure induced in the soil is known
as seepage pressure.

Q-4 what is quick sand condition?

Ans- When flow takes place in an upward direction, the seepage pressure also acts in the upward
direction and the effective pressure is reduced. If the seepage pressure becomes equal to the
pressure due to submerged weight of the soil, the effective pressure is reduced to zero, in such
case, a cohesionless soil loses all its shear strength, and the soil particles have a tendency to
move up in the direction of flow.

Q -5 Define concept of flow net.

Ans-1. The graphical method of flow net construction, first given by Forchheimer (1930), is
based on trail sketching.

2. The hydraulic boundary conditions have a great effect on the general shape of the flow net,
and hence must be examined before sketching is started.

The flow net can be plotted by trial and error by observing the properties of flow net and
by following practical suggestion given by A.Casagrande.
 POSSIBLE LONG TYPE QUESTIONS

Q-1 Discuss about the factors affecting the permeability. [2011-S,2013-S,2017-S,2019-S-

BP,2020-N]
Q-2 write the applications of flow net.
Q-3 Explain falling head permeability test with neat sketch. [2016-S]
 CHAPTER NO-6

COMPACTION AND CONSOLIDATION

Learning objectives
6.1 Compaction, light and heavy compaction test. Optimum Moisture
Content of Soil. maximum dry density, zero air void line, Factors
affecting Compaction, Field compaction methods and their
suitability.
6.2 Consolidation, distinction between compaction and consolidation.
Terzaghi’s model analogy of compression /Spring showing the
process of consolidation-Field implication

6.1 COMPACTION, LIGHT AND HEAVY COMPACTION TEST.

OPTIMUM MOISTURE CONTENT OF SOIL. MAXIMUM DRY
DENSITY, ZERO AIR VOID LINE.FACTORS AFFECTING
COMPACTION.FIELD COMPACTION METHODS AND THEIR
SUITABILITY.

COMPACTION
Compaction is the application of mechanical energy to a soil so as to rearrange its particles and
reduce the void ratio.

It is applied to improve the properties of an existing soil or in the process of placing fill such as in
the construction of embankments, road bases, runways, earth dams, and reinforced earth walls.
Compaction is also used to prepare a level surface during construction of buildings. There is usually
no change in the water content and in the size of the individual soil particles.

The objectives of compaction are:

• To increase soil shear strength and therefore its bearing capacity.

• To reduce subsequent settlement under working loads.
• to reduce soil permeability making it more difficult for water to flow through.

LIGHT AND HEAVY COMPACTION TEST

Laboratory Compaction
The variation in compaction with water content and compactive effort is first determined in the
laboratory. There are several tests with standard procedures such as:

• Indian Standard Light Compaction Test (similar to Standard Proctor Test)

• Indian Standard Heavy Compaction Test (similar to Modified Proctor Test)

Indian Standard Light Compaction Test

Soil is compacted into a 1000 cm3 mould in 3 equal layers, each layer receiving 25 blows
of a 2.6 kg rammer dropped from a height of 310 mm above the soil. The compaction is
repeated at various moisture contents.
Indian Standard Heavy Compaction Test
It was found that the Light Compaction Test (Standard Test) could not reproduce the densities
measured in the field under heavier loading conditions, and this led to the development of the
Heavy Compaction Test (Modified Test). The equipment and procedure are essentially the same
as that used for the Standard Test except that the soil is compacted in 5 layers, each layer also
receiving 25 blows. The same mould is also used. To provide the increased compactive effort, a
heavier rammer of 4.9 kg and a greater drop height of 450 mm are used.

OPTIMUM MOISTURE CONTENT OF SOIL, MAXIMUM DRY

DENSITY,ZERO AIR VOID LINE

To assess the degree of compaction, it is necessary to use the dry unit weight, which is an indicator
of compactness of solid soil particles in a given volume. The laboratory testing is meant to establish
the maximum dry density that can be attained for a given soil with a standard amount of compactive
effort.

In the test, the dry density cannot be determined directly, and as such the bulk density and the
moisture content are obtained first to calculate the dry density as ,

where = bulk density, and w = water content.

Dry density can be related to water content and degree of saturation (S) as
 Thus, it can be visualized that an increase of dry density means a decrease of voids ratio
and a more compact soil.

Similarly, dry density can be related to percentage air voids (na) a

Factors Affecting Compaction

The factors that influence the achieved degree of compaction in the laboratory are:
➢ Plasticity of the soil
➢ Water content
➢ Compactive effort

Field compaction methods and their suitability.

Compaction Equipment
Most of the compaction in the field is done with rollers. The four most common types of

rollers are

1. Smooth-wheel rollers (or smooth-drum rollers)

2. Pneumatic rubber-tired rollers

3. Sheepsfoot rollers

4. Vibratory rollers

➢ Smooth-wheel rollers are suitable for proof rolling subgrades and for finishing operation of fills
with sandy and clayey soils. These rollers provide 100% coverage under the wheels, with ground
contact pressures as high as 310 to 380 kN/m2 (45 to 55 lb/in2). They are not suitable for
producing high unit weights of compaction when used on thicker layers.
➢ Pneumatic rubber-tired rollers are better in many respects than the smooth-wheel rollers. The
former are heavily loaded with several rows of tires. These tires are closely spaced—four to six in
a row. The contact pressure under the tires can range from 600 to 700 kN/m2 (85 to 100 lb/in2),
and they produce about 70 to 80% coverage. Pneumatic rollers can be used for sandy and clayey
soil compaction. Compaction is achieved by a combination of pressure and kneading action.
6.2 CONSOLIDATION, DISTINCTION BETWEEN COMPACTION
AND CONSOLIDATION. TERZAGHI’S MODEL ANALOGY OF
COMPRESSION /SPRING SHOWING THE PROCESS OF
CONSOLIDATION-FIELD IMPLICATION
According to Terzaghi (1943), “a decrease of water content of a saturated soil without replacement
of the water by air is called a process of consolidation.” When saturated clayey soils-which have a
low coefficient of permeability-are subjected to a compressive stress due to a foundation loading,
the ore water pressure will immediately increase; however, due to the low permeability of the soil,
there will be a time lag between the application of load and the extrusion of the pore water and,
thus, the settlement.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN COMPACTION AND CONSOLIDATION:

Consolidation and compaction are totally different process. Though both process results a reduction
in volume, it is important to know the difference between them. These are:

a. Compaction reduces volume of soil by rapid mechanical methods like tamping, rolling and
vibration; whereas consolidation process reduces volume gradually by static, sustained loading.

b. Compaction decreases volume by expelling air from partially saturated or dry soil; whereas
consolidation process reduces volume by squeezing out water from saturated soil. In compaction
process water content is not altered

c. Compaction is a human generated pressing method to produce high unit weight of soil. Thus
increasing other properties to have better founding soil. In contrast, consolidation is natural process
where volume of saturated soil mass reduced by static loads from the weight of building or other
structures that is transferred to
soil through a foundation system.

Terzaghi’s model analogy of compression /Spring showing the process of

consolidation-Field implication

Consolidation is a process by which soils decrease in volume. According to Karl von Terzaghi
"consolidation is any process which involves a decrease in water content of saturated soil without
replacement of water by air." In general it is the process in which reduction in volume takes place
by expulsion of water under long term static loads. It occurs when stress is applied to a soil that
causes the soil particles to pack together more tightly, therefore reducing its bulk volume. When
this occurs in a soil

Assumption of Terzaghi’s theory of one-dimensional consolidation

1. The soil is homogenous (uniform in composition throughout).

2. The soil is fully saturated (zero air voids due to water content being so high).
 3. The solid particles and water are incompressible.
4. Compression and flow are one-dimensional (vertical axis being the one of
interest).
5. Strains in the soil are relatively small.
6. Darcy's Law is valid for all hydraulic gradients.
7. The coefficient of permeability and the coefficient of volume
compressibility remain constant throughout the process.
8. There is a unique relationship, independent of time, between the void ratio and
effective stress

Field implication
In 1958 an extension to the terzaghi theory of consolidation of fine-grained soil was presented.
this new theory established the basis for considering variable loading during the consolidation
process as an external condition. in addition the theory included mathematical procedures for
analyzing the permeability variation of the soil during the process of consolidation. the present
paper presents computed results of the extended consolidation theory, to enable soil engineers to
use these theories in practice. certain specific problems of consolidation are covered in this
study, as follows:
1. one-dimensional consolidation of a doubly drained layer of clay. the soil mass is loaded with a
construction loading that is linear in time until the end of construction and is constant thereafter.
tables and charts are presented for the value of the excess pore pressure within the clay mass as a
function of time and space position of the piezometer installation.

2. radial flow to a sand-drain for the time-independent loading but variable permeability. tables and
charts are presented for the exact solution to the equal strain, radial sand-drain problem. in this
problem, the drain is considered to be a perfect drain, with no smear zone. the tabulations presented
are for the average excess pore pressure as a function of time.

3. the effect of variable load for equal-strain sand-drains under radial flow is presented in the form
of tables and charts of average excess pore pressure for conditions of peripheral smear in the case of
constant permeability.

4. The approximate theory of consolidation is presented for sand-drians for equal strain in the case
of construction loading and variable permeability. this case presents tabular and charted values for
the average excess pore pressure where no smear zone is considered. in addition to these specific
problems, gneral procedures are presented for the interpolation of the tabular and charted values, so
that accurate pore pressure predictions can be made for any piezometer position and any time.

POSSIBLE SHORT TYPE QUESTIONS WITH ANSWER

Q-1 Define compaction.[ 2014-S,2020-N]

Ans- Compaction is the application of mechanical energy to a soil so as to rearrange its particles
and reduce the void ratio.

Q-2 Define consolidation. [2011-S,2019-S-BP,2020-N]

Ans- According to Terzaghi (1943), “a decrease of water content of a saturated soil without
replacement of the water by air is called a process of consolidation.”

Q-3 Define maximum dry density.[2019-W]

Ans- Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) is the water content at which the soil attains maximum
dry density. Maximum Dry Density (MDD) is the dry density of soil corresponding to Optimum
Moisture Content.

Q-4 What is zero air void line. [2019-W ,2020-N,2014-S]

Ans- Zero air void line is the line that shows the relationship between the water content and the dry
unit weight of the soil with a 100% degree of saturation or at zero void is called the zero air void
line or 100% degree of saturation line
.
Q-5 What are the factors affecting compaction? [2019-N-S]
Ans- Plasticity of the soil
Water content
Compactive effort

POSSIBLE LONG TYPE QUESTIONS

Q-1 Discuss the difference between compaction and consolidation.[2015-S,2016-S,2018-W]

Q -2 Write the assumptions of Terzaghis analysis of consolidation.[ 2014-S,2016-S]
Q-3 Write the field applications of consolidation.
Q-4 what are the equipments are used for compaction of soil in field?.
 CHAPTER NO-7

SHEAR STRENGTH.

Learning objective

7.1 Concept of Shear strength, Mohr- Coulomb failure theory, Cohesion,

Angle of internal friction. Strength envelope for different types of
soil.measurement of shear strength;direct shear test,triaxial shear
test,unconfined compression test,vane shear test

7.1 CONCEPT OF SHEAR STRENGTH, MOHR- COULOMB

FAILURE THEORY, COHESION, ANGLE OF INTERNAL
FRICTION, STRENGTH ENVELOPE FOR DIFFERENT
TYPES OF SOIL.MEASUREMENT OF SHEAR
STRENGTH;DIRECT SHEAR TEST,TRIAXIAL SHEAR
TEST,UNCONFINED COMPRESSION TEST,VANE SHEAR
TEST

The maximum shearing resistance of soil against continuous shear deformation along potential
failure plane is known as shear strength of soil. The plane along which failure of soil takes place
due to sliding is known as failure plane. Failure will take place on the plane on which the shear
stress exceeds the shear resistance. However, if the soil has weak planes, the failure will be located
in the weakest zone. Failure may not take place along the plane of maximum shear stress, i.e., the
plane which makes 450 with the principal planes.

The shearing resistance of soil is composed of two components: Normal stress dependent and
normal stress independent. Examples of the above two cases are:

1. Frictional resistance between the particles at the point of contact

2. Cohesion or force of attraction between soil particles. It is characteristic of soil state and is
independent of normal stress across the plane.

Mohr-Coulomb Theory of Failure

Various theories of failure of soil have been proposed by many soil scientists. Of these, the one
proposed by Coulomb and generalised by Mohr has been the most useful for failure problems dealing
 with soil and hence has got wide acceptance amongst the soil scientists. This failure theory is known
as Mohr-Coulomb failure theory.
According to Mohr, the failure of soli along a plane takes place when the shear stress
on that plane exceeds the shear resistance of the soil. The shear resistance is a
function the normal stress on the failure plane. It is expressed as
tt= S f (s )
Where = S = Shear stress at failure = Shear resistance f t
If the normal stress and shear stress are plotted, a curve is obtained. This curve is called the shear
envelope. Coulomb assumed the relationship between t and s f as linear and gave the following
strength equation.

S = C + s tan f
For most of the cases of stability of soil, Mohr’s failure can be approximated as a straight line for
practical purposes and thus agrees with the above strength equation given by Coulomb.

Angle Of Internal Friction.

angle of internal friction (friction angle) A measure of the ability of a unit of rock or soil to
withstand a shear stress. It is the angle (φ), measured between the normal force (N) and resultant
force (R), that is attained when failure just occurs in response to a shearing stress (S).
Cohesion
A cohesive soil has an attraction between particles of the same type, origin, and nature.
Therefore, cohesive soils are a type of soil that stick to each other. Cohesive soils are the silts
and clays, or fine-grained soils. ... Hence, cohesive soil particles stick to each other.

STRENGTH ENVELOPE FOR DIFFERENT TYPE OF SOIL,

MEASUREMENT OF SHEAR STRENGTH;- DIRECT SHEAR
TEST, TRIAXIAL SHEAR TEST, UNCONFINED COMPRESSION
TEST AND VANE-SHEAR TEST
STRENGTH ENVELOPE FOR DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOIL.

Extensive experimental studies on remoulded clays have shown the shearing strength of soil
mass is controlled by the effective stress and not by the total normal stress on the plane of shear.
The values of shear parameters, i.e., cohesion and angle of shearing resistance do depend upon
the pore water pressure of the soil. Therefore, the

Mohr-Coulomb strength equation may be expressed in terms of effective stress.

t = C¢ + s¢ tan f¢ f

Where c¢and f¢ are termed as effective shear parameters.

In terms of total stresses, the equation takes the form

fuut = C + s tan f

Where u C is the apparent cohesion and u f is the apparent angle of shearing resistance

Measurement of shear strength parameters

Shear tests are conducted on undisturbed soil samples obtained from the field. The test results are
used to plot failure envelope to determine the shear strength parameters. It is to be noted that the
shear strength parameters are fundamental properties of soil and are considered as coefficients
obtained from the geometry of the strength envelope drawn by using shear test results. So, during
test on saturated samples, care should be taken to simulate the field drainage condition.

Following four methods of shear tests are commonly used in the laboratory.

1. Direct shear test

2. Triaxial compression test
3. Unconfined compression test
4. Vane shear test

Direct shear test

The direct shear test apparatus consists of

(i) shear box of square or circular section,
(ii) loading yoke for applying normal force,
(iii) geared jack for applying shear force,
(iv) proving ring to measure shear force, and
(v) strain gauges to measure horizontal displacement and vertical displacement for volume change.

The shear box consists of two halves which can slide relative to each other. The lower half is rigidly
held in position with the bottom of the shear box container, which slides on rollers when pushed by
a jack provided to apply shear force. The geared jack may be driven either by electric motor or by
hand. The upper half of the box is butt against a proving ring. The soil sample is placed and
compacted in the shear box. The sample held in position between a pair of metal grids and porous
stones or plates as shown in the Figure 7. The grid plates, provided with linear slots, are placed
above the top and below the bottom of the specimen. To have proper grip with the soil specimen,
the linear slots in the grid plate are aligned perpendicular to the direction of the shearing force. The
soil specimen is compacted in shear box by clamping together with the help of two screws provided
for the purpose. However, these screws are removed before shearing force is applied. Direct shear
test may be of two types. Strain controlled shear box and stress controlled shear box. The working
principles of two types of shear box are explained in the following paragraphs.

1. Loading yoke 8. Upper part of shear box

2. Steel ball 9. Lower part of shear box
3. Loading pad 10. U-arm
4. Porous stones 11. Container for shear box
5. Metal grids 12. Rollers
6. Soil specimen 13. Shear force applied by jack
7. Pins to fix two halves of shear box
14. Shear resistance measured by proving ringdial gauge
Advantages of direct shear test
1. Direct shear test is a simple test compared to the more complex triaxial test.
2. As the thickness of sample is small, it allows quick drainage and rapid dissipation of pore
pressure during the test.

Disadvantages of direct shear test

1. The distribution of normal stresses and shear stresses over the potential failure plane is not
uniform. The stress is more at the edges and less at the centre. Hence, progressive shear failure
takes place as the shear strength is not mobilised simultaneously at all points on the failure plane.
2. The failure plane is predetermined, which may not be the weakest plane.
3. The area under shear gradually decreases as the test progresses. The corrected area at failure, f
A should be used for computing the values of normal stress and shear stress .
4. There is little control on the drainage of pore water of soil as compared to the
triaxial test.
5. The stress on account of lateral restraint due to side walls of shear box is not accounted for in
the test.
6. There is no provision for measurement of pore water pressure.

Problem 1.
From a direct shear test on undisturbed soil sample, following data have been obtained. Evaluate
the undrained shear strength parameters. Determine shear strength, major and minor principal
stresses and their planes in the case of specimen of sample subjected to a normal stress of 100
kN/m2.

Normal stress (kN/m2) 70 96 114

Shear stress atfailure(kN/m2) 138 156 170

Solution.
 Plot the shear stress versus normal stress to obtain the failure envelope keeping the
scale same for both the stresses.
From the plot in Figure
The angle of shearing resistance,cohesion, kN/m

The shear strength corresponding to the normal stress of 100 kN/m2 is 160 kN/m2.

The coordinate corresponding to (100, 160) is the failure point F. Draw the Mohr's circle so that
the failure envelope is tangent to the circle at F. To do so, draw FC perpendicular to the failure
envelope. With C as centre and CF as radius, draw a circle so as to intersect the normal load axis
at A and B. Point A corresponds to the major principal stress 2 410 kN/m and point B
corresponds to the minor principal stress 20 kN/m .

Tri-axial compression test

Tri-axial shear test is the most extensively used for computation of shear strength parameters. In
this test, the pecimen is compressed by applying all the three principal stresses,
Advantages of triaxial compression test
Followings are the advantages of triaxial compression test over the direct shear test.

1. Unlike the direct shear test in which the soil sample is forced to fail along a predetermined plane,
the specimen in triaxial compression is free to fail along the weakest plane.
2. Distribution of stress is uniform along the failure plane is uniform. The shear strength is mobilized
uniformly at all points on the failure plane.
3. The test procedure has complete control of the drainage conditions. The field drainage conditions
are better simulated in triaxial compression test as
compared to direct shear test.
4. Precise measurements of pore pressure and volume change are possible during
the test.
5. The effect of end restraint does not have considerable effect on the result as failure usually occurs
near the middle of the sample.

Unconfined compression test

Unconfined compression test is a special case of triaxial compression test in which no lateral or
confining stress is applied. A cylindrical soil sample of length 2 to 2.5 times the diameter is used as
test sample. The soil specimen is only to the major principal stress 1 till the specimen fails due to
shearing along a critical failure plane.

Figure 15 shows the simplest form of compression testing machine. It consists of a small load frame
fitted with a proving ring to measure the vertical stress 1 applied to the soil specimen. A separate dial
gauge is used to measure the deformation of the sample.

The sample is conically hollowed at its ends and placed between two conical seatings attached to two
metal plates. The conical seatings reduces end restraints and prevents the tendency of the specimen to
become barrel shaped. The load is applied through a calibrated spring by manually operated screw
jack at the top of the machine. The test sample is compressed at uniform rate of strain by the
compression testing equipment.
The axial deformation and the corresponding axial compressive force are measured. the sample may
undergo brittle failure or plastic failure. In case of brittle failure, a definite maximum load is
indicated by the proving ring which decreases rapidly with further increase of strain. However, no
definite maximum load is indicated by the proving ring dial in case of a plastic failure. In such a case,
the load corresponding to 20% strain is arbitrarily taken as the failure load. The maximum axial
compressive stress resisted by the specimen before failure is called the unconfined compressive
strength.

The unconfined compression test is a quick test in which no drainage is allowed. Since the Mohr's
circle passes through the origin, which is the pole.

Vane shear test

To find shear strength of a given soil specimen.

Need and scope

The structural strength of soil is basically a problem of shear strength.
Vane shear test is a useful method of measuring the shear strength of clay. It is a cheaper and
quicker method. The test can also be conducted in the laboratory. The laboratory vane shear test
for the measurement of shear strength of cohesive soils, is useful for soils of low shear strength
(less than 0.3 kg/cm2) for which triaxial or unconfined tests can not be performed. The test gives
the undrained strength of the soil. The undisturbed and remoulded strength obtained are useful
for evaluating the sensitivity of soil.

EQUIPMENT

1.Vane shear apparatus.

2.Specimen.
3.Specimen container.
4.Callipers.

Experimental procedure

1.Prepare two or three specimens of the soil sample of dimensions of at least 37.5 mm diameter
and 75 mm length in specimen.(L/D ratio 2 or 3).

2.Mount the specimen container with the specimen on the base of the vane shear apparatus. If the
specimen container is closed at one end, it should be provided with a hole of about 1 mm
diameter at the bottom.
 3.Gently lower the shear vanes into the specimen to their full length without disturbing the soil
specimen. The top of the vanes should be atleast 10 mm below the top of the specimen. Note the
readings of the angle of twist.

4.Rotate the vanes at an uniform rate say 0.1o/s by suitable operating the torque application
handle until the specimen fails.

5.Note the final reading of the angle of twist.

6.Find the value of blade height in cm.

7.Find the value of blade width in cm.

POSSIBLE SHORT TYPE QUESTIONS WITH ANSWER

Q-1 Define shear strength of soil. [2014]
Ans- The maximum shearing resistance of soil against continuous shear deformation along potential
failure plane is known as shear strength of soil. The plane along which failure of soil takes place
due to sliding is known as failure plane.

Q -2 what are the methods of determination of shear strength of soil? [19-S-N]

Ans-1. Direct shear test
2. Triaxial compression test
3. Unconfined compression test
4. Vane shear test

Q-3 write the advantages of direct shear test.

Ans-1. Direct shear test is a simple test compared to the more complex triaxial test.
2. As the thickness of sample is small, it allows quick drainage and rapid dissipation of pore
pressure during the test.

POSSIBLE LONG TYPE QUESTIONS

Q-1 Describe briefly the process of direct shear test. [ 2016-S,18-W]
Q-2 Describe about the tri-axial Shear test of soil with neat sketch. [2020-N]
 CHAPTER NO-8

EARTH PRESSURE ON RETAINING STRUCTURES.

Learning objectives

8.1 Active earth pressure, Passive earth pressure, Earth pressure at rest
8.2 Use of Rankine’s formula for the following cases (cohesion less soil only)
i) Backfill with no surcharge, ii)backfill with uniform surcharge

8.1 ACTIVE EARTH PRESSURE, PASSIVE EARTH PRESSURE,

EARTH PRESSURE AT REST
In 1929 Terzaghi (The Father of Soil Mechanics) conducted experiments on the retaining wall and
showed the relation of pressure on the wall if wall changes its position i.e to move inwards to the
backfill, outwards of it or remain at its place.

There are three types of earth pressures on the basis of the movement of the
wall.
1. Earth Pressure at rest
2. Active Earth Pressure
3. Passive Earth Pressure

These are explained below

Pressure at rest:

When the wall is at rest and the material is in its natural state then the pressure applied by material
is known as Earth Pressure at Rest. It is represented by Po.

Active earth pressure:

When the wall moves away from the backfill, there is a decrease in the pressure on the wall and this
decrease continues until a minimum value is reach after which their is no reduction in the pressure
and the value will become constant. This kind of pressure is known as active earth pressure.

Passive earth pressure:

When the wall moves towards the backfill, there is an increase in the pressure on the wall and this
increase continues until a maximum value is reach after which their is no increase in the pressure
and the value will become constant. This kind of pressure is known as passive earth pressure. This
means that when the wall is about to slip due to lateral thrust from the backfill, a resistive force is
applied by the soil in front of the wall.
8.2 USE OF RANKINE’S FORMULA FOR THE FOLLOWING
CASES (COHESION LESS SOIL ONLY) I) BACKFILL WITH NO
SURCHARGE,

Assumptions made by Rankine for the derivation of earth pressure .

• The soil mass is homogeneous and semi-infinite.
• The soil is dry and cohesionless.
• The ground surface is plane, which may be horizontal or inclined.
• The back of the retaining wall is smooth and vertical.
• The soil element is in a state of plastic equilibrium, i.e., at the verge of failure

ACTIVE EARTH PRESSURE:

1.Backfill with no surcharge
Let us consider an element of dry soil at a depth Z below a level soil surface. Initially , the element is
at rest conditions, and the horizontal pressure is given by .
h= k0 .v
Where .v is the vertical stress at C , and . h is the horizontal stress at C. Of course, .v
Ϭz= γZ.
The stresses . h and .v are respectively
minor and major principal stresses, and are indicated by points A and B in the Mohr
circle in fig

2.BACKFILL WITH UNIFORM SURCHARGE

 If the backfill is horizontal and carries a surcharge of uniform intensity q per unit area the
vertical pressure increment, at any depth Z, will increase by q. The increase in the lateral
pressure due to this will be Ka q. Hence lateral pressure at any depth Z is given by
Pa =Ka ;z + Ka q
At the base of the wall , the pressure intensity is
Pa =Ka ;k + Ka q
Figure shows the two alternative methods of plotting the lateral pressure diagram for this case. The
lateral pressure increment due to the surcharge is the same at every point of the back of the wall, and
does not vary with depth Z. The height of the fill Z e , equivalent to the uniform surcharge intensity is
given by the relation,
Ka ;ze = Ka q , ze = .\
This means that the effect of the surcharge of intensity q is the same as that of a fill of height Ze
above the ground surface.

POSSIBLE SHORT TYPE QUESTIONS WITH ANSWER

Q-1 Define active earth pressure. [2016-S]
Ans- When the wall moves away from the backfill, there is a decrease in the pressure on the wall
and this decrease continues until a minimum value is reach after which their is no reduction in the
pressure and the value will become constant. This kind of pressure is known as active earth
pressure.

Q-2 Define earth pressure at rest ?[S-2015]

Ans- When the wall is at rest and the material is in its natural state then the pressure applied by
material is known as Earth Pressure at Rest. It is represented by Po.

Q-3 What are the assumptions of Rankine’s theory.[2015-S]

Ans-
• The soil mass is homogeneous and semi-infinite.
• The soil is dry and cohesionless.
• The ground surface is plane, which may be horizontal or inclined.
• The back of the retaining wall is smooth and vertical.
• The soil element is in a state of plastic equilibrium, i.e., at the verge of failure

Q-4 Draw the elementary profile for a retaining wall.

Ans
-

POSSIBLE LONG TYPE QUESTIONS

Q-1 Derive the Rankines formula for active earth pressure.[S-2015]
Q-2 Describe the types of earth pressure. [2017,2018,2019-W]

CHAPTER NO-9
FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

Learning objectives

9.1 Functions of foundations. shallow and deep foundation, different type of

shallow foundations & deep foundation with sketches, Types of failure-
(General shear ,Local shear & Punching shear)
9.2 Bearing capacity of soil, bearing capacity of soils using Terzaghi’s
 formulae & IS code for strip, Circular footings square footings ,Effect of
water table on bearing capacity of soil
9.3 Plate load test & Standard penetration test

9.1 FUNCTIONS OF FOUNDATIONS. SHALLOW AND DEEP

FOUNDATION
FOUNDATION : It is the bottom most part of the structure that remains in direct contact with
soil and transmits the load of the structure underneath. Functions of the foundation- In addition to
transmitting the load of the superstructure to the soil it provides stability to the structure against
overturning and erosion.

Shallow foundations
Types of Foundations may be broadly classified under two heads: shallow foundations and deep
foundation is shallow if its Terzaghi, a foundation.

According to Terzaghi, a foundation is shallow if its depth is equal to or less than its width. In the
case of deep foundation, the depth is equal to or greater than the width. Apart from deep strip,
rectangular or square foundations, other common forms of deep foundations are: pier foundation,
pier foundation are and well foundation.

The shallow foundations are of the following types : spread footing (or simply, footing), strap
footing, combined footing, and mat or raft footing.

Deep foundation

A deep foundation is a type of foundation that transfers building loads to the earth farther down
from the surface than a shallow foundation does to a subsurface layer or a range of depths.
Fig. shows the common types of shallow foundations.

A spread footing or simply footing is a type of shallow foundation used to transmit the load of an
isolated column, or that of a wall to the subsoil. This is most common type of foundation. The base
of the column or wall is enlarged or spread to provide individual support for the load. Fig. shows
some typical spread footings.

TYPES OF BEARING CAPACITY FAILURES:

Experimental investigations have indicated that when a footing fails due to insufficient bearing
capacity, distinct failure patterns are developed, depending upon type of failure mechanism.
Failure is accompanied by appearance of failure surfaces and by building of sheared mass of
soil.).

1. General shear failure,

2. Local shear failure and
3. Punching shear failure.

1. General shear failure : In the case of general shear failure, continuous failure
surfaces develop between the edges of the footing and the ground surface, as shown in
Fig. When the pressure approaches the value of, the state of plastic equilibrium is reached
initially in the soil around the edges of the footing, and it then gradually spreads
downwards and out wards
2. Local shear failure : In local shear failure, there is significant compression of the soil
under the footing and only partial development of state of plastic equilibrium. Due to this
reason, the failure surfaces do not reach the ground surface and only slight heaving
occurs. The pressure settlement curve is represented by curve b of Fig. 24.2(d), where the
peak of the base resistance may never be reached. In such a failure, titling of foundation
is not expected. Local shear failure is associated with soils of high compressibility and in
sands having relative density lying between 35 and 70 percent. The failure is not sudden,
and it is characterized by occurrence of relatively large settlements which would not be
acceptable in practice.
3. Punching shear failure : Punching shear failure occurs where there is relatively high
compression of soil under the footing, accompanied by shearing in the vertical direction
around the edges of the footing. Punching shear may occur in relatively loose sand with
relative density less than 35%. Punching shear failure may also occur in a soil of low
compressibility if the foundation is located at considerable depth

9.2 BEARING CAPACITY OF SOIL, BEARING CAPACITY OF

SOILS USING TERZAGHI’S FORMULAE & IS CODE FOR
STRIP FOOTING ,CIRCULAR FOOTINGS SQUARE FOOTINGS
Definitions :
1. Footing: A footing is a portion of the foundation of a structure that transmits loads directly to
the soil.
2. Foundation: A foundation is that part of the structure which is in direct contact with and
transmit loads to the ground.
3. Foundation soil : It is the upper part of the earth mass carrying the load of the structure.
4. Bearing capacity : The supporting power of a soil or rock is referred to as its bearing
capacity. The term bearing capacity is defined after attaching certain qualifying prefixes.
5. Gross pressure intensity (q) : The gross pressure intensity q is the total pressure at the base
of the footing due to the weight of the superstructure, self-weight of the footing and the weight of
the earth fill, if any.

6. Net pressure intensity (qn). It is defined as the excess pressure, or the difference in
intensities of the gross pressure after the construction of the structure and the original overburden
pressure.
7. Ultimate bearing capacity (qr). The ultimate bearing capacity is defined as the minimum
gross pressure intensity at the base of the foundation at which the soil fails in shear. (When the term
bearing capacity is used in this book without any prefix, it may be understood to be ultimate
bearing capacity).
8. Net ultimate bearing capacity (qf). It is the minimum net pressure intensity causing shear
failure of soil. The ultimate bearing capacity \S and the net ultimate capacity are evidently
connected by the following relation :

qf =qnf+ϭ

9. Effective surcharge at the base level of foundation (ϭ) . It is the intensity of vertical
pressure at the vase level of foundation, computed assuming total unit weight for the portion of the
soil above the water table and submerged unit weight for the portion below the water table.

10. Net safe bearing capacity (qns ). The net safe bearing capacity is the
net ultimate bearing capacity divided by a factor of safety F

𝑞𝑛𝑓
qns= 𝐹
11. Safe bearing capacity (qs) The maximum pressure which the soil can carry safely
without risk of shear failure is called the safe bearing capacity. It is equal to the net safe bearing
capacity plus original overburden pressure.

12. Safe bearing pressure or Net soil pressure for specified settlement.
It is the intensity of loading that will cause a permissible settlement or specified settlement for
the structure.
13. Allowable bearing capacity or pressure . It is the net loading intensity at which
neither the soil fails in shear nor there is excessive settlement detrimental to the structure.

TERZAGHI’S ANALYSIS

An analysis of the condition of complete bearing capacity failure ,usually termed general shear
failure, can be made by assuming that the soil behaves like an ideally plastic material. The
concept was first developed by Prandtl, and later extended by Terzaghi, Meyerhof and others.
Terzaghi derived a general bearing capacity equation from a modification of equations proposed
by Prandtl.
It shows a footing of width B, and subjected to loading intensity qS to cause failure. The footing
is shallow, i.e., the depth D of the footing is equal to or less than width B of the footing. Also,
the footing is continuous i.e., it is a strip footing ( L>5B).

The loaded soil fails along the composite surface fede1 f1. This region can be divided into five
zones : zone I, two pairs of zone II and two pairs of zone III. When the base of the footing ab
sinks into the ground, zone I (soil wedge abd) immediately deneath the footing is prevented from
undergoing any lateral yield by the friction and adhesion between the soil and the base of the
footing.

The bearing capacity factors are determined with respect to these reduced parameters ._ and ∅_.
The bearing capacity factors corresponding to the local shear failure are indicated with dashes C.′
and CW′ and the bearing capacity reduces to

Assumptions in Terzaghi’s Analysis :

1. The soil is homogenous and isotropic and its shear strength is represented by Comomb’s
equation.
2. The strip footing has a rough base, and the problem is essentially two dimensional.
3. The elastic zone has straight boundaries inclined at 3 = ∅ to the horizontal and the plastic
zones fully develop.
4.it consists of three components which can be calculated separately and added although the
critical surface for these components are not identical.
5. Failure zones do not extend above the base is neglected and the effect of soil around the
footing is considered equivalent to a surcharge.

Based on these values, Terzaghi gave the following semi-empirical equations

for square, circular and rectangular footings :
(a) Frictional cohesive soil

For circular footing :

For square footing:

(b) Cohesive soil

For circular footing :

For rectangular and square footing :

I.S. CODE METHOD FOR COMPUTING BEARING CAPACITY:
General : IS code (IS : 6403-1981), recommends a bearing capacity equation which is similar in
nature to those given by Meyerhof and Brinch Hansen. The code recognizes, depending upon the
deformations associated with the load and the extent of development of failure surface, three
types of failures of soil support beneath the foundations, They are : (a) general shear failure ; (b)
local shear failure ; and (c) Punching shear failure. The first two
types of failures have already been described. The punching shear failure, occurs on soils of high
compressibility. In such failure, there is vertical shear around the footing, perimeter and
compression of soil immediately under the footing, with soil on the sides of the footing
remaining practically un-involved.

3. Bearing capacity equation for strip footing for cohessive soils. : The ultimate net bearing
capacity of strip footing is given by the following equations:

(i) For the case of general shear failure :

(ii) For the case of local shear failure :

Where, ϭ =effective surcharge at the base level of foundation.

= Bearing capacity factors.
Effect of water table :
The effect of water table is taken into account in the form of a correction factor W’ applied to the
‘wedge term’ in Eqs. The value of W’ may be chosen as indicated below :

(a) If the water table is likely to permanently remain at or below a depth of (D+B) beneath the
ground level surrounding the footing, then W’=1

(b) If the water table is located at a depth D or likely to rise to the base of footing or above, then
the value of W’ shall be taken as 0.5.

(c) If the water table is likely to permanently get located at depth D<Dw < (D+B), the W’ be
obtained by linear interpolation. Thus, for the intermediate case, we get the following expression
for W’.
9.3 PLATE LOAD TEST & STANDARD PENETRATION TEST

PLATE LOAD TEST.

➢ The load carrying capacity and extent to which a soil undergoes settlement under a given
load must be known beforehand in order to design a foundation for the structures. In the
field the ultimate bearing capacity and corresponding settlements can be determined with
the help of plate load tests.

➢ The plate load test, which is used to determine bearing capacity and settlement, may be
carried out by either using a gravity loading or truss loading method. A test pit of the
same depth as the foundation and width equal to five times the size of bearing plate is
dug in the ground.

➢ A bearing plate (usually 30 cm square or diameter and 25 mm thick) is then placed in the
test pit. The size of the bearing plate chosen for a test depends on the type of soil. A
square plate of 45 cm size may be adopted for clayey or silty soil and also for loose to
medium-dense sandy soils having a standard penetration resistance number < 15.

➢ A bearing plate of 30–75 cm may be adopted for carrying out the test in dense sandy or
gravelly soil the standard penetration resistance number of which is between 15 and 30.
The size of test plate further depends on the maximum size of grains.

➢ The test plate is loaded with the help of the hydraulic jack, using either a gravity loading
frame or truss loading frame to bear the reaction. The gravity loading method of the plate
load test is shown in Fig. 9.18A and B.

➢ The loading frame rests on the columns built on the sides of the test pit. The loading
frame is loaded with sand bags, rocks, or concrete blocks. The applied load is transmitted
to the ground using an extension pipe and through the bearing plate.

➢ Four dial gauges are placed diagonally on each corner of the bearing plate to measure the
settlement. The applied load is controlled using a hydraulic jack placed between the
loading frame and extension pipe.
Standard penetration test
Standard penetration resistance value : The standard penetration resistance is determined at a
number of selected points at intervals of 75 cm in the vertical direction or change of strata if it
takes place earlier and the average value beneath each point is determined between the level of
base of the footing and the depth equal to 1.5 to 2 times the width of foundation.

In computing the value, any individual value more than 50 percent of the average calculate shall
be neglected and average recalculated (the values for all loose seams shall however be included).

Knowing the value of N, the value of Φ is read from fig. The ultimate net bearing capacity is
then calculated from the formula :

Where the shape factors, depth factors and inclination factors are determined
as described earlier, and the bearing capacity factors Nq and Ny

POSSIBLE SHORT TYPE QUESTIONS WITH ANSWER

Q -1 Define footing.[S-2019]
Ans- A footing is a portion of the foundation of a structure that transmits loads directly to the soil.

Q-2 What is ultimate bearing capacity? [2015,2017]

Ans- The ultimate bearing capacity is defined as the minimum gross pressure intensity at the base
of the foundation at which the soil fails in shear. (When the term bearing capacity is used in this
book without any prefix, it may be understood to
be ultimate bearing capacity).

-
Q -3 Define safe bearing capacity. [S-2019]
Ans-The maximum pressure which the soil can carry safely without risk of shear failure is called
the safe bearing capacity. It is equal to the net safe bearing capacity plus original overburden
pressure.

POSSIBLE LONG TYPE QUESTIONS

Q-1 Describe different types of failure in case of foundation. [2020N]
Q-2 Describe briefly the types of bearing capacity failures. [2010, 2014]
Q-3 Describe briefly about the types of foundations. [S-2017]
.