UNIT-1: SOLAR ENERGY

Solar radiation

Solar radiation is the energy emitted by the Sun, which travels to Earth in the form of
electromagnetic waves. It's like a warm blanket that keeps our planet cozy and
supports life.

Imagine the Sun as a giant lightbulb, constantly sending out rays of light. These rays,
called solar radiation, travel through space and reach Earth's atmosphere. Some of
the radiation bounces off clouds and other particles in the atmosphere, while some
passes through and reaches the ground.

Sunlight has different components, like the colors of a rainbow. Some components,
like ultraviolet (UV) rays, can be harmful to our skin and eyes. But other components,
like visible light, are essential for plants to make food through photosynthesis. Plants
are the base of our food chain, so sunlight is crucial for life on Earth.

Solar radiation also plays a role in Earth's climate. It warms the planet's surface,
driving weather patterns and ocean currents. Changes in solar radiation can affect
global temperatures and contribute to climate change.

Scientists study solar radiation to understand its effects on Earth and develop ways
to harness its energy for electricity and other purposes.

Beam and diffuse radiation

Beam radiation is the direct sunlight that reaches Earth's surface without being scattered by
the atmosphere. It is the most intense type of solar radiation and travels in a straight line.
Beam radiation is typically strongest at noon when the sun is directly overhead.
Diffuse radiation is sunlight that has been scattered by molecules and particles in the
atmosphere. This scattering causes the light to travel in different directions, so it appears to
come from all over the sky. Diffuse radiation is less intense than direct radiation, but it can
still be a significant source of energy.
The amount of beam and diffuse radiation that reaches Earth's surface depends on several
factors, including the sun's position in the sky, the amount of clouds and other particles in the
atmosphere, and the time of year.

Feature Beam radiation Diffuse radiation

Origin Direct sunlight Scattered sunlight

 Intensity Strongest Less intense

Direction Travels in a straight line Travels in all directions

Variability Highly variable Less variable

• Beam radiation: Solar panels use beam radiation to generate

electricity. Concentrating solar power (CSP) systems use mirrors and lenses
to concentrate beam radiation, which can be used to generate heat or power
a turbine.
• Diffuse radiation: Diffuse radiation can be used to illuminate buildings and
other structures. It can also be used to grow plants in greenhouses.

Overall, beam and diffuse radiation are important components of the solar radiation that
reaches Earth's surface. They play a role in Earth's climate and can be used to generate
energy and provide other benefits.
 Solar constant
The solar constant is a measure of the amount of solar radiation received per unit
area at a given distance from the sun outside Earth's atmosphere. It represents the
average solar electromagnetic radiation (mostly visible and near-infrared) that
reaches the top of Earth's atmosphere per unit area, perpendicular to the sun's rays
when Earth is at its average distance from the sun (about 1 astronomical unit).
The value of the solar constant is approximately 1361 watts per square meter
(W/m²). This value can vary slightly due to changes in solar activity, Earth's orbit, and
other factors but is often used as an average value for solar irradiance at the outer
edge of Earth's atmosphere.
Solar radiation received on the Earth's surface varies due to atmospheric conditions,
angle of incidence, and other factors. For instance, the actual solar radiation
reaching the Earth's surface can be less than the solar constant due to absorption,
scattering, and reflection by the atmosphere.

Earth Sun angles

Earth-sun angles play a crucial role in determining the amount and intensity of solar
radiation that reaches Earth's surface. These angles influence various aspects of Earth's
climate, including temperature variations, weather patterns, and the distribution of solar
energy.

Solar Altitude Angle

The solar altitude angle, also known as the solar elevation angle, measures the
angle between the horizontal plane and the direction of the sun. It represents the
height of the sun in the sky, ranging from 0 degrees at sunrise to 90 degrees when
the sun is directly overhead.
Solar Zenith Angle

The solar zenith angle is the complement of the solar altitude angle. It represents the
angle between the vertical direction and the direction of the sun. The solar zenith
angle increases as the solar altitude angle decreases and vice versa.

Solar Azimuth Angle

The solar azimuth angle measures the horizontal angle between the south and the
projection of the sun's rays onto the horizontal plane. It ranges from 0 degrees due
south to 180 degrees due north, and from -90 degrees due west to 90 degrees due
east.

Understanding Earth-sun angles is essential for various applications, including:

• Solar energy: Solar panels are designed to capture solar radiation, and their
orientation is optimized based on the solar altitude and azimuth angles.

• Architecture and building design: Architects consider solar angles when

designing buildings to maximize natural sunlight and minimize energy
consumption.

• Meteorology and climatology: Solar angles are used in weather forecasting

and climate modelling to predict temperature variations, cloud formation, and
precipitation patterns.
 Attenuation and measurement of solar radiation

Attenuation is the reduction in the intensity of solar radiation as it travels through the
Earth's atmosphere. This reduction is caused by a number of factors, including:

• Absorption: The absorption of solar radiation by molecules in the

atmosphere, such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, and ozone.
• Scattering: The scattering of solar radiation by particles in the
atmosphere, such as dust, aerosols, and clouds.
• Reflection: The reflection of solar radiation by clouds, the Earth's
surface, and other objects.

The amount of attenuation that solar radiation experiences depends on a number of

factors, including the wavelength of the radiation, the thickness of the atmosphere,
and the amount of clouds and aerosols in the atmosphere.

Pyranometers

Pyranometers are the most common type of solar radiation measuring instrument.
They measure the total amount of solar radiation that reaches a horizontal surface,
including both direct and diffuse radiation. Pyranometers are used to assess the
overall availability of solar energy at a location.

There are two main types of pyranometers: thermal pyranometers and photovoltaic
pyranometers.

• Thermal pyranometers measure the heating effect of solar radiation on an

absorber element. The temperature difference between the absorber element
and a reference element is then converted into an electrical signal.

• Photovoltaic pyranometers use a photovoltaic cell to convert solar radiation

directly into an electrical signal.

Pyranometers are typically calibrated to measure solar radiation in watts per square
meter (W/m²).

Pyrheliometers

Pyrheliometers measure the direct solar radiation that reaches a surface

perpendicular to the sun's rays. They are used to study the intensity of sunlight and
its variation throughout the day.

Pyrheliometers typically use a tracking mechanism to keep the sensor pointed

directly at the sun. The sensor converts the solar radiation into an electrical signal,
which is then recorded by a data logger or transmitted to a computer for analysis.
Pyrheliometers are typically calibrated to measure solar radiation in watts per square
meter per steradian (W/m²sr). A steradian is a unit of solid angle that is equal to 1/4π
of a sphere.

Other Solar Radiation Measuring Instruments

In addition to pyranometers and pyrheliometers, there are a number of other solar

radiation measuring instruments available. These instruments are used to measure
specific aspects of solar radiation, such as ultraviolet (UV) radiation, infrared
radiation, and spectral radiation.

• UV radiometers measure the intensity of UV radiation, which is a type of

electromagnetic radiation that can be harmful to human health.

• Infrared radiometers measure the intensity of infrared radiation, which is a

type of electromagnetic radiation that is associated with heat.

• Spectroradiometers measure the intensity of solar radiation at different

wavelengths. This information can be used to study the spectral composition
of solar radiation.

A pyroheliometer is a device that measures the direct irradiance of the sun, also
known as Direct Normal Irradiance (DNI). It is a type of solar radiometer.

The diagram shows the main components of a pyroheliometer:

• Tube: The tube is blackened inside to absorb as much solar radiation as

possible.
• Thermocouples: The thermocouples are a set of two wires made of different
metals that are joined together. When the temperature of the junction
changes, a voltage is generated.
• Black absorber plate: The black absorber plate is located at the bottom of
the tube. It is made of a material that has a high absorptivity for solar
radiation.
• Insulation: The insulation surrounds the tube and the black absorber plate to
prevent heat loss.
• Temperature compensation: The temperature compensation is a device that
measures the temperature of the tube and adjusts the output of the
thermocouples to compensate for temperature changes.
• Two-axis tracking mechanism: The two-axis tracking mechanism ensures
that the pyroheliometer is always pointed directly at the sun.

Working principle:
 1. The black absorber plate absorbs solar radiation and heats up.
2. The heat from the black absorber plate is transferred to the thermocouples.
3. The thermocouples generate a voltage proportional to the amount of heat they
receive.
4. The voltage output of the thermocouples is measured and converted to a
power measurement.

Image:

Example:

A pyroheliometer is used to measure the DNI at a solar power plant. The DNI is used
to calculate the amount of electricity that the solar power plant will generate.

Applications:

Pyroheliometers are used in a variety of applications, including:

• Solar energy research and development

• Solar power plant design and operation
• Calibration of other solar radiometers
• Atmospheric research
Advantages:

Pyroheliometers are very accurate and reliable instruments. They can measure DNI
to an accuracy of better than 1%.

Disadvantages:

Pyroheliometers are relatively expensive and require careful maintenance.

Local Solar time

Local solar time (LST) is the time that is determined by the position of the sun in the
sky relative to a specific location on the Earth. It is based on the apparent solar day,
which is the interval between two successive transits of the Sun across the local
meridian.

LST is different from standard time, which is a human-created time system that
divides the Earth into time zones. Standard time is based on the mean solar day,
which is the average length of a solar day over a year.

The difference between LST and standard time is due to two factors:

• The Earth's rotation: The Earth rotates on its axis at a non-uniform speed, so
the solar day is not exactly 24 hours long.
• The Earth's orbit: The Earth's orbit around the Sun is not a perfect circle, so
the apparent solar day varies throughout the year.

As a result of these factors, LST can be as much as 16 minutes ahead or behind of

standard time.

LST is still used in some applications, such as navigation and astronomy. However,
for most purposes, standard time is more convenient.

Here is a formula for calculating LST:

LST = GMT + (longitude * 15°) + Equation of Time

Where:

• GMT is the Greenwich Mean Time

• longitude is the longitude of the location in degrees
• Equation of Time is a correction factor that accounts for the Earth's rotation and
orbit
The Equation of Time can be found in tables or calculated using a formula.

Derived solar angles

Derived solar angles are a set of angles that can be calculated from the latitude of a
location, the solar declination, and the hour angle. These angles are used to
describe the position of the sun in the sky relative to a specific location on the Earth.

The three main derived solar angles are:

• Solar altitude angle (α): The angle between the line that points to the sun
and the horizontal. At sunrise and sunset, this angle is 0°.

• Solar azimuth angle (γ): The angle between the line that points to the sun
and south.

• Solar zenith angle (θ): The angle between the line that points to the sun and
the zenith, which is the point directly overhead. The zenith angle is the
complement of the solar altitude angle.

Sunrise, sunset, and day length

Sunrise

Sunrise is the time when the upper limb of the Sun appears above the horizon. This
occurs when the Earth's rotation causes the location to move into the Sun's light.
The exact time of sunrise varies throughout the year due to the tilt of the Earth's axis
and the Earth's orbit around the Sun.

Sunset

Sunset is the time when the upper limb of the Sun disappears below the horizon.
This occurs when the Earth's rotation causes the location to move out of the Sun's
light. The exact time of sunset also varies throughout the year due to the tilt of the
Earth's axis and the Earth's orbit around the Sun.

Day length

Day length is the amount of time between sunrise and sunset. It is also known as the
diurnal period. Day length varies throughout the year due to the tilt of the Earth's axis
and the Earth's orbit around the Sun.
 Flate Plate Collectors

Flat-plate collectors are a type of solar thermal collector that converts solar radiation into
heat, typically used to heat water or air. They are classified as both liquid collectors and air
collectors, depending on the medium used to transfer the heat.
A. A typical liquid collector,

• Transparent cover: The transparent cover allows sunlight to pass through to

the absorber plate, but prevents heat from escaping back to the
atmosphere. The cover is typically made of glass or plastic.
• Absorber plate: The absorber plate is a dark-colored surface that absorbs
sunlight and converts it into heat. The absorber plate is typically made of
copper or aluminum.
• Heat transport fluid: The heat transport fluid is a liquid that circulates through
the tubes in the absorber plate and transfers the heat to a storage tank. The
heat transport fluid is typically water, but other fluids such as glycol can also
be used.
• Tubes: The tubes are attached to the absorber plate and carry the heat
transport fluid.
• Insulation: The insulation helps to prevent heat loss from the collector to the
surrounding environment.

How a liquid collector works

Sunlight passes through the transparent cover and is absorbed by the absorber
plate. The absorber plate heats up and transfers the heat to the heat transport fluid
in the tubes. The heat transport fluid then circulates to a storage tank, where it heats
up the water in the tank. The heated water can then be used for domestic hot water,
space heating, or other applications.

Advantages of liquid collectors

Liquid collectors have a number of advantages over other types of solar collectors,
including:

• Higher efficiency: Liquid collectors are more efficient than air

collectors, meaning that they can convert more sunlight into heat.
• Ability to store heat: Liquid collectors can be used to store heat for later
use, which makes them ideal for applications such as space heating.
• Durability: Liquid collectors are durable and can withstand a variety of weather
conditions.

Disadvantages of liquid collectors

Liquid collectors also have a few disadvantages, including:

• Cost: Liquid collectors can be more expensive than air collectors.

• Complexity: Liquid collectors are more complex than air collectors and require
more maintenance.
• Potential for freezing: In cold climates, the heat transport fluid in liquid
collectors can freeze, which can damage the collector.

Overall, liquid collectors are a versatile and efficient type of solar collector that is
well-suited for a variety of applications.

B. Typical Air Collectors or Solar Air Heaters

The diagram shows a typical solar air collector. The main components of a solar air
collector are:
 • Absorber plate: The absorber plate is a dark-colored surface that absorbs
sunlight and converts it into heat. The absorber plate is typically made of
copper or aluminum.

• Fins: The fins are attached to the absorber plate and help to increase the
surface area of the absorber plate, which allows it to absorb more heat.

• Glass cover: The glass cover allows sunlight to pass through to the absorber
plate, but prevents heat from escaping back to the atmosphere.

• Insulation: The insulation helps to prevent heat loss from the collector to the
surrounding environment.

• Blower fan: The blower fan circulates air through the collector.

How a solar air collector works

Sunlight passes through the glass cover and is absorbed by the absorber plate. The
absorber plate heats up and transfers the heat to the air that is circulating through
the collector. The heated air then exits the collector and can be used for space
heating, water heating, or other applications.

Advantages of solar air collectors

Solar air collectors have a number of advantages over other types of solar collectors,
including:

• Simple design: Solar air collectors are simple in design and easy to install and
maintain.
• Cost-effective: Solar air collectors are typically less expensive than liquid solar
collectors.
• Versatile: Solar air collectors can be used for a variety of
applications, including space heating, water heating, and drying agricultural
products.

Disadvantages of solar air collectors

Solar air collectors also have a few disadvantages, including:

• Lower efficiency: Solar air collectors are less efficient than liquid solar
collectors, meaning that they can convert less sunlight into heat.
• Less effective in cold climates: Solar air collectors are less effective in cold
climates because the air that is circulating through the collector can freeze.
Overall, solar air collectors are a versatile and cost-effective type of solar collector
that is well-suited for a variety of applications.

Concentrating Collectors

Concentrating collectors, also known as concentrating solar power (CSP) systems, are a
type of solar technology that uses mirrors or lenses to concentrate sunlight onto a receiver,
which then heats a fluid to produce steam. The steam is then used to drive a turbine to
generate electricity.

A. Parabolic Trough Collector

A parabolic trough collector is a type of concentrating solar collector that uses a

parabolic-shaped reflector to focus sunlight onto a receiver tube. The receiver tube is
typically filled with a fluid, such as water or oil, which is heated by the concentrated
sunlight. Parabolic trough collectors can achieve high temperatures, making them
suitable for applications such as power generation and desalination.

B. Mirror Strip Reflector

A mirror strip reflector is a type of concentrating solar collector that uses a series of
flat mirrors to focus sunlight onto a receiver tube. The mirrors are typically arranged
in a V-shaped configuration, and the receiver tube is located at the focus of the
parabola. Mirror strip reflectors are less expensive than parabolic trough collectors,
but they are also less efficient.

C. Fresnel Strip Collector

A Fresnel strip collector is a type of concentrating solar collector that uses a series of
Fresnel lenses to focus sunlight onto a receiver tube. Fresnel lenses are thin,
lightweight lenses that are able to focus sunlight without the need for a curved
reflector. Fresnel strip collectors are more efficient than mirror strip reflectors, but
they are also more expensive.

D. Flat Plate Collector with Adjustable Mirrors

A flat plate collector with adjustable mirrors is a type of solar collector that uses a flat
plate absorber to absorb sunlight. The mirrors are used to track the sun and focus
sunlight onto the absorber. Flat plate collectors with adjustable mirrors are more
efficient than flat plate collectors without mirrors, but they are also more complex and
expensive.

E. Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CPC)

A compound parabolic concentrator (CPC) is a type of concentrating solar collector

that uses a combination of parabolic and flat surfaces to focus sunlight onto a
receiver tube. CPCs are more efficient than flat plate collectors, but they are also
more complex and expensive.

Summary Table

Collector Type Description Advantages Disadvantages

High efficiency,
Uses a parabolic-
Parabolic suitable for More expensive
shaped reflector to
trough high- than flat plate
focus sunlight onto
collector temperature collectors
a receiver tube.
applications

Uses a series of Less expensive

Less efficient
Mirror strip flat mirrors to focus than parabolic
than parabolic
reflector sunlight onto a trough
trough collectors
receiver tube. collectors

Uses a series of
More efficient More expensive
Fresnel strip Fresnel lenses to
than mirror strip than mirror strip
collector focus sunlight onto
reflectors reflectors
a receiver tube.

Uses a flat plate More complex

Flat plate More efficient
absorber to absorb and expensive
collector with than flat plate
sunlight and than flat plate
adjustable collectors
adjustable mirrors collectors
mirrors without mirrors
to track the sun. without mirrors

Uses a
Compound combination of More complex
More efficient
parabolic parabolic and flat and expensive
than flat plate
concentrator surfaces to focus than flat plate
collectors
(CPC) sunlight onto a collectors
receiver tube.

Storage of solar energy- thermal storage

Thermal energy storage is a method of storing solar energy for later use. There are
two main types of thermal energy storage:

• Sensible heat storage stores thermal energy by raising the temperature of a

material.
 • Latent heat storage stores thermal energy by changing the phase of a
material, such as from solid to liquid or from liquid to gas.

Type of Storage Description Materials

Sensible heat Stores thermal energy by raising the Water, rocks,

storage temperature of a material. concrete

Latent heat Stores thermal energy by changing the Paraffin wax, salt
storage phase of a material. hydrates, ice

Thermal energy storage systems can be used to store solar energy for a variety of
applications, including:

• Space heating
• Water heating
• Industrial process heat
• Power generation

Thermal energy storage is a promising technology that can help to make solar
energy more reliable and affordable.

Here are some of the benefits of thermal energy storage:

• Increased efficiency: Thermal energy storage can be used to improve the

efficiency of solar energy systems by storing excess solar energy during the
day and using it at night or when the sun is not shining.
• Reduced reliance on fossil fuels: Thermal energy storage can help to
reduce reliance on fossil fuels by providing a clean and renewable source of
energy.
• Lower costs: Thermal energy storage can help to lower the cost of solar
energy by reducing the need for expensive batteries.

Thermal energy storage is a versatile technology that can be used in a variety of

applications. With continued development, thermal energy storage has the potential
to play a major role in the future of solar energy.