TISSUES

CLASS-9TH CHAPTER-6TH
• A group of cells with similar shape and function are termed as tissues.

• They form a cellular organizational level, intermediate between the cells and
organ system.

• Organs are then created by combining the functional groups of tissues.

• The study of tissue is known as histology and study of disease-related to tissue

is known as histopathology.

• The standard tools for studying tissues is by embedding and sectioning using
the paraffin block.
Animal tissues are grouped into four types:

• Connective Tissue
• Muscle Tissue
• Nervous Tissue
• Epithelial Tissue

• The collection of tissues are joined in structural units to serve a standard

function of organs. The primary purpose of these four types of tissue differs
depending on the type of organism.

• For example, the origin of the cells comprising a particular tissue type also
differs.
Connective Tissues
• They are the group of
tissues made up of cells
separated by non-living
material, called as an
extracellular matrix.

• This tissue provides shape

to the different organs
and maintains their
positions. For example,
blood, bone, tendon,
adipose, ligament and
areolar tissues
Epithelial Tissue
• They are formed by cells
which cover the external
parts of the body organs and
lines the organ surfaces
such as the surface of the
skin, the reproductive tract,
the airways, and the inner
lining of the digestive tract.
Nervous Tissue
• They are the main tissue
components of the brain and spinal
cord in the central nervous system.

• While, in the peripheral nervous

system, the neural tissue forms the
cranial nerves and spinal nerves.
Muscle Tissue
• They are involved in producing
force and generating motion,
either for the locomotion or for
other body movements within
internal organs.
B. Animal tissues: Animal tissues are classified into four types based on the
functions they perform:

• Epithelial
• Connective
• Muscular
• Nervous
Epithelial tissues: Form the covering of the external surfaces, internal
cavities and organs of the animal body. Various types of epithelial tissues are:
• Simple squamous epithelium: Single layer of flat cells.
• Location in the human body: Lining of the mouth, oesophagus, lung,
alveoli, etc.
• Cuboidal epithelium: Consists of cube like cells.
• Location in the human body: Lining of the kidney tubules and ducts of
the salivary glands. It’s function is secretion and absorption.
• Columnar epithelium: Consists of elongated or column-like cells.
• Location in the human body: Inner lining of the intestine and gut. Its
function is of secretion and absorption.
• The covering or protective tissues in the animal body are epithelial tissues.

• Epithelium covers most organs and cavities within the body. It also forms a
barrier to keep different body systems separate.

• The skin, the lining of the mouth, the lining of blood vessels, lung alveoli and
kidney tubules are all made of epithelial tissue.

• Epithelial tissue cells are tightly packed and form a continuous sheet.

• They have only a small amount of cementing material between them and almost
no intercellular spaces.

• Obviously, anything entering or leaving the body must cross at least one layer of
epithelium.
• As a result, the permeability of the cells of various epithelia play an important
role in regulating the exchange of materials between the body and the external
environment and also between different parts of the body.

• Regardless of the type, all epithelium is usually separated from the underlying
tissue by an extracellular fibrous basement membrane.

• Differing structures that correlate with their unique functions.

• For example, in cells lining blood vessels or lung alveoli, where transportation of
substances occurs through a selectively permeable surface, there is a simple flat
kind of epithelium. This is called the simple squamous epithelium (squama
means scale of skin).

• Simple squamous epithelial cells are extremely thin and flat and form a delicate
lining.
• The oesophagus and the lining of the mouth are also covered with squamous
epithelium.

• The skin, which protects the body, is also made of squamous epithelium.

• Skin epithelial cells are arranged in many layers to prevent wear and tear.

• Since they are arranged in a pattern of layers, the epithelium is called stratified
squamous epithelium.

• Where absorption and secretion occur, as in the inner lining of the intestine, tall
epithelial cells are present.

• This columnar (meaning ‘pillar-like’) epithelium facilitates movement across the

epithelial barrier. In the respiratory tract, the columnar epithelial tissue also
has cilia, which are hair-like projections on the outer surfaces of epithelial cells.
• This type of epithelium is thus ciliated columnar epithelium.

• Cuboidal epithelium (with cube-shaped cells) forms the lining of kidney tubules
and ducts of salivary glands, where it provides mechanical support.

• Epithelial cells often acquire additional specialisation as gland cells, which can
secrete substances at the epithelial surface.

• Sometimes a portion of the epithelial tissue folds inward, and a multicellular

gland is formed. This is glandular epithelium.
Location of muscle fibres
Connective tissues: Specialised to connect various body organs. Various types of
connective tissues:, are:

• Areolar tissue: Found in the skin and muscles, around the blood vessels,
nerves, etc.

• Adipose tissue: Acts as the storage site of fats; found between the internal
organs and below the skin; acts as an insulator for the body.

• Dense regular connective tissue: Main components are tendons and

ligaments; tendons connect muscles to bones, while ligaments connect two
bones together.

• Skeletal tissue: Main components of skeletal tissues are cartilage and bone.

• Fluid tissue: Blood is the vascular tissue present in animals.

• The cells of connective tissue are loosely spaced and embedded in an intercellular
matrix.

• The matrix may be jelly like, fluid, dense or rigid.

• The nature of matrix differs in concordance with the function of the particular
connective tissue.

• Blood has a fluid (liquid) matrix called plasma, in which red blood corpuscles
(RBCs), white blood corpuscles (WBCs) and platelets are suspended. The plasma
contains proteins, salts and hormones.

• Bone cells are embedded in a hard matrix that is composed of calcium and
phosphorus compounds.

• Two bones can be connected to each other by another type of connective tissue
called the ligament.
• This tissue is very elastic. It has considerable strength. Ligaments contain
very little matrix and connect bones with bones.

• Blood flows and transports gases, digested food, hormones and waste
materials to different parts of the body.

• Bone is another example of a connective tissue. It forms the framework that

supports the body.

• It also anchors the muscles and supports the main organs of the body. It is a
strong and nonflexible tissue.

• Tendons connect muscles to bones and are another type of connective tissue.

• Tendons are fibrous tissue with great strength but limited flexibility.
• Another type of connective tissue, cartilage, has widely spaced cells. The solid
matrix is composed of proteins and sugars.

• Cartilage smoothens bone surfaces at joints and is also present in the nose, ear,
trachea and larynx.

• The cartilage of the ears, but we cannot bend the bones in our arms.

• Areolar connective tissue is found between the skin and muscles, around blood
vessels and nerves and in the bone marrow.
• It fills the space inside the organs, supports internal organs and helps in
repair of tissues.

• Fat storing adipose tissue is found below the skin and between internal
organs.

• The cells of this tissue are filled with fat globules. Storage of fats also lets it
act as an insulator.
MUSCULAR TISSUE
• Muscular tissue consists of elongated cells, also called muscle fibres. This tissue
is responsible for movement in our body.

• Muscles contain special proteins called contractile proteins, which contract and
relax to cause movement.

• Some muscles by conscious will. Muscles present in our limbs move when we
want them to, and stop when we so decide.

• Such muscles are called voluntary muscles These muscles are also called
skeletal muscles as they are mostly attached to bones and help in body
movement.
• Under the microscope, these muscles show alternate light and dark bands or
striations when stained appropriately.

• Smooth muscles or involuntary muscles control such movements.

• They are also found in the iris of the eye, in ureters and in the bronchi of the
lungs.

• The cells are long with pointed ends (spindle-shaped) and uninucleate (having
a single nucleus). They are also called unstriated muscles .

• The muscles of the heart show rhythmic contraction and relaxation

throughout life.
• These involuntary muscles are called cardiac muscles . Heart muscle cells are
cylindrical, branched and uninucleate.

• As a result, they are also called striated muscles. The cells of this tissue are
long, cylindrical, unbranched and multinucleate (having many nuclei).

• The movement of food in the alimentary canal or the contraction and

relaxation of blood vessels are involuntary movements.
a) striated muscle, (b) smooth muscle, (c) cardiac muscle
Muscular tissues: Main function of muscular tissues is to provide movement to
the body. Muscular tissues are of three types:

• Striated muscles or skeletal muscles or voluntary muscles: Cells are

cylindrical, unbranched and multinucleate.

• Smooth muscles or involuntary muscles: Cells are long, spindle-shaped

and possess a single nucleus.

• Cardiac muscles or involuntary muscles: Cells are cylindrical, branched

and uninucleate.
Nervous tissues: Present in the brain, spinal cord and nerves.

• Neuron: Cells of the nervous tissue.

• A neuron: consists of a cell body, an axon and a dendrite

• All cells possess the ability to respond to stimuli.

• However, cells of the nervous tissue are highly specialised for being stimulated
and then transmitting the stimulus very rapidly from one place to another
within the body.
• The brain, spinal cord and nerves are all composed of the nervous tissue.

• The cells of this tissue are called nerve cells or neurons. A neuron consists of
a cell body with a nucleus and cytoplasm, from which long thin hair-like parts
arise.

• Usually each neuron has a single long part (process), called the axon, and
many short, branched parts (processes) called dendrites.
• Usually each neuron has a single long part (process), called the axon, and
many short, branched parts (processes) called dendrites.

• An individual nerve cell may be up to a metre long. Many nerve fibres bound
together by connective tissue make up a nerve.

• The signal that passes along the nerve fibre is called a nerve impulse. Nerve
impulses allow us to move our muscles when we want to.

• The functional combination of nerve and muscle tissue is fundamental to most

animals. This combination enables animals to move rapidly in response to
stimuli.
Plant tissues
• Plant tissues are of various types and they are made up of similar types of
cells.

• They are different from animal tissues since there are several differences
between the animal and plant cell.

• On the basis of the dividing capacity, plant tissues are of two types:

1. Meristematic tissues: Consist of actively-dividing cells. Meristematic

tissues are of three types:
• Apical meristem: Present at the growing tips of stems and roots. Important
function: To increase the length of stems and roots.
• Intercalary meristem: Present at the base of leaves or internodes.
Important function: For the longitudinal growth of plants.

• Lateral meristem: Present on the lateral sides of the stems and roots.
Important function: To increase the thickness of stems and roots.

2. Permanent tissues: Formed from meristematic tissues, the cells in the

tissue loose the ability to divider Permanent tissues are divided into two
categories:

• Simple permanent tissue: Consist of only one type of cells.

• Types of simple permanent tissues:
• Parenchyma: Composed of unspecialized living cells with relatively thin
cell walls, intercellular space, present in soft parts of the plant. Their main
function is storage.
Section of a stem
• The flexibility in plants is due to another permanent tissue, collenchyma.

• It allows bending of various parts of a plant like tendrils and stems of

climbers without breaking. It also provides mechanical support.

• The cells of this tissue are living, elongated and irregularly thickened at the
corners. There is very little intercellular space.
• It consists of relatively unspecialised cells with thin cell walls. They are living
cells.

• They are usually loosely arranged, thus large spaces between cells
(intercellular spaces) are found in this tissue.

Collenchyma
• Composed of living and elongated cells with cell walls irregularly thickened at
the corners.
• No intercellular space. It provides mechanical support and elasticity to plant.
It helps in bending of leaves and stems.

• It contains chlorophyll and performs photosynthesis, and then it is called

chlorenchyma.

• In aquatic plants, large air cavities are present in parenchyma to help them
float. Such a parenchyma type is called aerenchyma
Sclerenchyma
• Composed of long, narrow, and thick-walled cells.

• This tissue is made up of dead cells and there are no intercellular spaces.
Sclerenchyma cells are dead, present in seeds, nuts, the husk of a coconut,
fibers of jute etc.

• Sclerenchyma It is the tissue which makes the plant hard and stiff. It is
made of sclerenchymatous tissue. The cells of this tissue are dead.

• They are long and narrow as the walls are thickened due to lignin.

• Often these walls are so thick that there is no internal space inside the cell
Various types of simple tissues: (a) Parenchyma (b) Collenchyma (c) Sclerenchyma
(i) transverse section, (ii) longitudinal section.
• The epidermis is usually made of a single layer of cells.

• In some plants living in very dry habitats, the epidermis may be thicker since
protection against water loss is critical.

• The entire surface of a plant has an outer covering epidermis.

• It protects all the parts of the plant. Epidermal cells on the aerial parts of the
plant often secrete a waxy, water resistant layer on their outer surface.

• This aids in protection against loss of water, mechanical injury and invasion
by parasitic fungi.

• Since it has a protective role to play, cells of epidermal tissue form a

continuous layer without intercellular spaces.
Guard cells and epidermal cells: (a) lateral view, (b)
surface view
• Most epidermal cells are relatively flat. Often their outer and side walls are
thicker than the inner wall.

• Small pores here and there in the epidermis of the leaf. These pores are called
stomata.

• Stomata are enclosed by two kidney-shaped cells called guard cells.

• They are necessary for exchanging gases with the atmosphere. Transpiration
(loss of water in the form of water vapour) also takes place through stomata.

• Epidermal cells of the roots, whose function is water absorption, commonly

bear long hairlike parts that greatly increase the total absorptive surface area.

• In some plants like desert plants, epidermis has a thick waxy coating of cutin
(chemical substance with waterproof quality)
• As plants grow older, the outer protective tissue undergoes certain changes.

• A strip of secondary meristem located in the cortex forms layers of cells which
constitute the cork.

• Cells of cork are dead and compactly arranged without intercellular spaces.
They also have a substance called suberin in their walls that makes them
impervious to gases and water.
ii)Complex permanent tissue: Made up of more than one type of cells
(Conducting tissues.)
Types of complex permanent tissues:

Xylem: Conducts water and minerals from the roots to the different parts of the
plant.
Composed of four different types of cells—tracheid's, vessels, xylem parenchyma
and xylem fibres.

Phloem: Conducts food material from the leaves to the different parts of the
plant.
Composed of four different types of cells—sieve tubes, companion cells, phloem
parenchyma and phloem fibres.

Protective tissue: It is made of a single layer of cells. E.g., epidermis. The

epidermis of the leaf bears stomata.