UNIT-I

MAGNETIC DIELECTRIC AND SUPER CONDUCTING MATERIALS

MAGNETIC MATERIALS
INTRODUCTION
The detailed study of magnetic behavior of materials is very important for
proper utilization on such magnetic materials. Magnetic materials are the materials
which can be made to behave as magnets by applying external magnetic field.
The magnetic effects in magnetic materials are due to atomic magnetic dipoles
in the materials. These dipoles result from the effective current loops of electrons in
atomic orbits. The electric currents in an atom are due to the orbital and spin
motions of its electrons.
When the electron revolves around the positive nucleus, orbital magnetic
moment arises. Similarly, when the electron spins, spin magnetic moment arises.
Magnetic materials are all capable of being magnetized in a magnetic field. i.e., they
are capable of creating self-magnetic field in the presence of external magnetic field.
They are nearly eleven types of magnetic materials. Some of them are diamagnetic,
paramagnetic, ferromagnetic, anti-ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic etc

IMPORTANT TERMS INVOLVED IN MAGNETISM

Magnetic field: The space around the magnet (or) the current carrying conductor
where the magnetic lines of force acts is called magnetic field.

Magnetic field around a bar magnet

Magnetic Induction (B): In any material is the number of lines of magnetic force
passing perpendicularly through unit area of the material. Unit: weber/m2 (or) tesla.
Bohr Magneton (μB): The atomic unit of magnetic moment to express the orbital
magnetic moment and spin magnetic moment of an electron in an atom is called
Bohr magneton.

eh
Bohr magneton = = B = 9.27 10 −24 Am 2
2m

Intensity of Magnetization (I): Magnetization is the process of converting a non-

magnetic material into a magnetic material. It measures the intensity of
magnetization of the magnetized specimen. It also defined as the magnetic moment
per unit volume.
M
I= Weber/m2 or ampere m-1.
V
Magnetic field intensity (H) is the ratio between the magnetic induction and the
permeability of the medium in which the magnetic field exits.
 B
i.e., H= ampere m-1.

Magnetic permeability (µ) of any material is the ratio of the magnetic induction in
the sample to the applied magnetic field intensity.
B
i.e., µ= Henry m-1.
H

B
 = 0 r =
H

Thus, it measures the amount of produced magnetic induction in the sample per
unit magnetic field intensity.
Magnetic susceptibility (χ) of a material is the ratio between the intensity of
magnetization produced in the sample and the intensity of the applied magnetic field.

I
i.e.,  m =
H

It has no unit. Thus, the measures the amount of magnetization produced in the
sample during the application of magnetic field.
CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS:
Dia magnetic materials:
In dia magnetic material the electron orbits are more or less random and
mostly all the magnetic moments are cancelled. i.e., they have even number of
electrons and has equal number of electrons spinning in opposite directions. Hence
the net magnetic moment is zero. They don’t have magnetism in the absence of
field.

Effect of magnetic field:

When the material is kept in the external magnetic field the electron reorients
in such a way, they align perpendicular to the field direction and their magnetic
moments opposes the external magnetic field. This will reduce the magnetic
induction present in the specimen (i.e.) the magnetic lines of force do not pass
through the specimen.
 Properties:
1. They repel magnetic lines of force.
2. Susceptibility is negative and it is independent of temperature and applied
magnetic field strength.
3. Permeability is less than 1.
4. There is no permanent dipole moment, so they are called weak magnets.
5. Ehen temperature is less than critical temperature diamagnetism becomes
normal material.

Examples: gold germanium, silicon etc.

Para magnetic material:

Fig: Paramagnetic material (a) each atom possesses a permanent magnetic

moment when H = 0, all the magnetic moments are randomly oriented as M =
0. (b) when a magnetic field is H0 is applied, the magnetic moments tend to
orient themselves in the direction of field resulting a positive susceptibility
In the para magnetic material there exists some unpaired electrons which give
rise to spin magnetic moment. Hence the resultant magnetic moment will not be
zero. In the absence of field, the magnetic moments are oriented randomly. Due to
its random orientation some magnetic moments cancelled and the material possess
very less magnetization in it.
Effect of magnetic field:
When an external field is applied the magnetic moments of individual molecules
reorient itself along the direction of magnetic field and the material is magnetized.
Properties:
1. The magnetic lines of force pass through the material.
2. Magnetic susceptibility is positive.
3. Permeability is greater than one.
4. They possess permanent dipole moment.
5. When the temperature is less than Curie temperature, paramagnetic materials
become diamagnetic material.

Examples: CuSO4, MnSO4, Platinum etc.

Ferromagnetic materials:
 In a ferromagnetic material the number of unpaired electrons is more. Hence
even in the absence of magnetic field, the magnetic moments align themselves
parallel to each other and give rise to magnetic field.
Effect of magnetic field:
To this material even if a small magnetic field is applied, the magnetic
moments which are already aligned parallel, reorient itself along the direction of the
magnetic field and they become very strong magnets.

Properties:
1. Since some magnetism already exists in these materials, all the magnetic lines
of force pass through it.
2. They have permanent dipole moment. So, they act as strong magnets.
3. They exhibit magnetization even in the absence of external field. this property
is called spontaneous magnetization.
4. Susceptibility is positive and high.
5. When the temperature is greater than Curie temperature, ferromagnetic
material becomes paramagnetic material.
6. Permeability is very much greater than 1. Examples: Ni, Co, Fe etc.
The comparison of dia, para, ferromagnetic material.
S.n Diamagnetic material Paramagnetic material Ferromagnetic material
o
1. No magnetic moment It has permanent It has permanent magnetic
magnetic moment moment
2. When the external When the external When the external magnetic
magnetic field is applied magnetic field is applied field is applied the electrons
the electrons will align the electrons will align which are already aligned
perpendicular to the field parallel to the field parallel will reorient itself
direction and hence reduce direction and hence along the field direction and
the magnetic induction material is magnetised will be easily magnetsied.
present in the specimen.
3. They are named as weak They are said to be strong They are said to be very strong
magnets magnets magnets.
4. They repel the magnetic The magnetic lines of The magnetic lines of force is
lines force passes through the highly attracted by material.
material
5. The susceptibility is The susceptibility is The susceptibility is positive
negative positive and small and large
6. The susceptibility is The susceptibility varies The susceptibility depends
independent of inversely with absolute upon the temperature
temperature temperature.
7. Permeability is less than 1 Permeability is greater Permeability is very much
than 1 greater than 1
8. When temperature less When temperature less When temperature greater
than critical temperature than curie temperature than curie temperature ferro
dia convert to normal para change to dia change to para material.
material. material.
9. Examples: gold, antimony, Examples: platinium, Examples: iron, nickel,
bismuth, water, hydrogen, chromiuim, aluminium, cobalt, steel, etc.
alcohol copper sulphate,
Domain theory of ferromagnetism:
Domain theory:
Weiss proposed the concept of domain in order to explain the properties of ferro
magnetic materials. According to him a single crystal of ferro magnetic material
consists of large number of small regions called Domains.
In ferromagnetic materials inside the domain all the magnetic moments are
aligned in the same direction. The boundaries which separate different domains are
called domain walls or Bloch walls.

In the absence of the external field the dipole moment of each domain are in
random direction. When external field is applied the following process takes place.
1. Movement of domain walls
2. Rotation of domains
Movement of domain walls:
Under weak external field the domains which are parallel to the field direction
will move as shown in fig. The boundaries of domains are displaced.

Rotation of Domains:
When strong magnetic field is applied all the domains will rotate towards the
field direction as shown in fig. If the applied field is weak the magnetization of the
specimen is due to the domain walls. If the applied field is strong the magnetization
of the specimen is due to rotation of domain.
Types of energy involved in the process of domain growth
(i) Exchange energy
(ii) Anisotropy energy
(iii)Domain wall energy
(iv) Magneto-strictive energy
(i) Exchange energy (or) magnetic field energy (or) magneto - static energy:
 The interaction energy which makes the adjacent dipoles to align themselves
is known as exchange energy (or) magnetic field energy. The exchange
energy has established a single domain in a specimen of ferromagnetic.

Because of the development of the free poles at the ends of the domain, an
external field will be produced around it and the configuration will have a high
value of magnetic field energy. In other words, it is the energy required in
assembling the atomic magnets into a single domain and this work done is
stored as potential energy.
The magnetic energy can be reduced by dividing the specimen into two
domains. The process of subdivision may be carried further, until the reduction
of magnetic energy is less than the increase in energy to form another domain
and its boundary. This boundary is called as domain wall (or) Block wall
(ii) Anisotropy energy: In ferromagnetic crystals there are two directions of
magnetization, viz (i) Easy direction (ii) Hard direction
In easy direction of magnetization, weak field can be applied and in hard
direction of magnetization, strong field should be applied. For producing the same
saturation magnetization along both the hard and easy direction, strong fields are
required in the hard direction than the easy direction.
Therefore the excess of energy required to magnetize the specimen along hard
direction over that required to magnetize the specimen along easy direction is
called Crystalline anisotropy energy.
(iii) Domain wall energy (OR ) Bloch wall energy
Block wall is a transition layer which separates the adjacent domains,
magnetized in different directions. The energy of domain wall is due to both
exchange energy and anisotropic energy.
Based on the spin alignments, two types of Bloch walls may arise,
namely (i) Thick wall (ii) Thin wall
(jv) Magneto strictive energy
When the domains are magnetized in different directions, they will either
expand (or) shrink. Therefore, there exists a deformation (i.e.,) change in dimension
of the material, when it is magnetized. This phenomenon is known as
magnetostriction and the energy produced in this effect is known as
magnetostriction energy.
Hysteresis:
When a ferromagnetic material is made to undergo through a cycle of
magnetization, the variation of B with respect to H can be represented by a closed
hysteresis loop. i.e., it refers to lagging of magnetization behind the magnetizing field.
Hysteresis on basis of domains.
When Ferro magnetic material is subjected to magnetic field there is increase
in the value of resultant magnetic moment due to two processes.
I. The movement of domain walls
II. Rotation of domains
 When a small external field is applied, the domains walls are displaced slightly
in the easy direction of magnetization. This gives rise to small magnetization
corresponding to initial portion of hysteresis curve (OA) as in fig.
Now if the field is removed, then the domains return to its original state, and
it is known as reversible domains.
When the field is increased, large number of domains contributes to the
magnetization and thus the magnetization increases rapidly with H.
Now, even when the field is removed, because of the displacement of domain
wall to a very large distance. The domain boundaries do not come back to their
original position. This process is indicated as AB and this domain are called
irreversible domains.
At point “B’ all the domains have not magnetized along easy direction. Now
when the field is further increased, the domains start rotating along the field
direction and the anisotropic energy is stored in the hard direction, represented as
BC in fig.
Thus, the specimen is aid to attain the maximum magnetization. At this
position, even after the removal of external field the material possess maximum
magnetization, called residual magnetism (or) retentivity, represented by OD.
Actually, after the removal of the external field, the specimen will try to attain
the original configuration by the movement of Bloch wall. But this movement is
stopped due to presence of impurities, lattice imperfections. Therefore, to overcome
this, a large amount of reverse magnetic field is applied to specimen. The amount of
energy spent to reduce the magnetization to zero is called coercivity by OE.

HARD AND SOFT MAGNETIC MATERIALS:

The magnetic materials may be classified into the following two types depending
upon the ease with which they can be magnetized or demagnetized:
1) Soft magnetic materials,
2) Hard magnetic materials.
Soft magnetic materials
Definition: Materials which are easy to magnetize and demagnetize are called soft
magnetic materials.
The soft magnetic materials retain a small amount of magnetic energy, even
after the magnetic field is removed. These materials are also known as temporary
magnets.The soft magnetic materials must have easily moving domain walls.
Examples: (i) Iron and Silicon alloys (silicon steel)
(ii) Nickel- Iron alloys, and
 (iii)Iron-Cobalt alloys.
Properties of soft magnetic materials
❖ The nature of the hysteresis loop for a soft material is steep. Figure3 shows
the hysteresis loop (or B-H Curves) for soft magnetic materials.

Fig. Hysterisis loop for a soft magnetic material

❖ These materials have small hysteresis loss due to small hysteresis loop area.
❖ These materials have a large value of susceptibility and permeability.
❖ The coercivity and retentivity are small.
❖ The Eddy current loss is small due to its higher resistivity.
❖ These materials are free from irregularities like strain or impurities. Its
Magnetostatic energy is very small.
Applications
Soft magnetic materials are widely used in transformer cores, electric
machinery cores, and memory cores in computer, inductors, and relays.
Hard magnetic materials
Definition: Materials which retain their magnetism and are difficult to demagnetize
are called hard magnetic materials.
The hard magnetic material retain a considerable amount of magnetic energy,
even after the magnetic field is removed. These materials are also known as
permanent magnets.
In order to keep the permanent magnets magnetized for a longer time, the
movement of domain walls must be prevented. The hard magnetic materials are
prepared by heating magnetic materials to the required temperature and then
suddenly cooling them by dipping in a cold liquid. In a hard magnetic material, the
impurities are purposely introduced to make them hard.
Examples:
(i) High carbon steel,
(ii) tungsten steel
(iii) chromium steel
(iv) cobalt steel
(v) Al-Ni-Co alloys and barium ferrite are the examples of
hard magnetic materials.
 Properties of hard magnetic materials
❖ The nature of hysteresis curve is as shown in fig. It is very broad and has
a large area.

Fig Hysteresis curve for a hard magnetic material.

❖ They have large hysteresis loss due to large hysteresis loop area
❖ These materials have low valve of susceptibility and permeability.
❖ The coercivity and retentivity are large.
❖ The eddy current loss is very high.
❖ These materials have large amount of impurities and lattice defects. The
magnetostatic energy is very large.
Applications
The hard magnetic materials are widely used in meters, motors, electron
tubes, transducers, permanent magnet and latching relays.
The distinction between soft and hard magnetic materials is shown in fig.3.30
and the comparison between them is tabulated below.
Comparison between hard and soft magnetic materials
S.no Hard magnetic material Soft magnetic material

1. The above fig. Shows the nature of hysteresis

The above fig. Shows the nature of loop of soft magnetic materials
Hysteresis loop of hard magnetic materials

2 Hard magnetic materials are magnetic Soft magnetic materials are magnetic
materials which cannot be easily materials which can be easily magnetized and
magnetized and demagnetized. demagnetized.

3 They have large hysteresis loss due to large They have small hysteresis loss due to small
hysteresis loop area. hysteresis loop area.
4 These materials have small values for These materials have large values for
permeability and susceptibility. permeability and susceptibility.
5 The eddy current loss is more due to its The eddy current loss is more due to its higher
smaller resistivity. resistivity.

6 In a hard magnetic material, the domain To obtain soft magnetic materials the domain
wall movement is difficult owing to Crystal walls must be able to move easily and
imperfections and is irreversible in nature. reversibly so that magnetization changes by
large amounts for small changes in the
magnetizing field.
7 The coercivity and retentivity are large. The coercivity and retentivity are small.
8 In these materials, the irregularities (in the These materials are free from irregularities
crystal structure) like mechanical strains Like strains or impurities. Its magnetostatic
will be more. Its magnetostatic energy is Energy is very small.
large.
9 These are produced by heating the These are manufactured as follows:
materials and then plunging it suddenly Heating the pure material to a temperature
into cold oil (Quenching process) which where sufficient movement of the atoms is
Sets up internal stresses. So mechanical possible for them to settle into an ordered
Strains are purposely introduced to make lattice, followed by a slow cooling (annealing
It hard magnetic material. process) so as not to disturb it.
Examples: Alnico alloy, Cunifes, Cunico Examples: Iron silicon alloy, Ferrous nickel
10 and Silmanal. Alloy, Ferrite and Garnets.
11 These are used to produce permanent These are used in electro-magnetic machinery
magnets. Permanent magnets are used in and in transformer cores. These are used in
Magnetic detectors, microphones, flux Switching circuits, microwave isolators, shift
Meters, voltage regulators, damping Registers and matrix storage of computers
devices,And magnetic separators. And to produce electromagnets.

Ferrites
Ferrites are magnetic compounds made of two or more metal ions. The general
formula for ferrites is X2+ Fe3+ O4
Examples: Ni2+ Fe3+ O4 - Nickel ferrite, Zn2+ Fe3+ O4 – Zinc ferrite
Structure: Ferrites formed usually have face centered cubic structure of oxygen ions
closely packed together with divalent and trivalent metal ions in the interstitial sites.
This structure is called spinal structure. There are two types of ferrite structures.
(i) Regular spinal (ii) Inverse spinal
Regular spinal: Eg. Mg2+Fe3+O4
 In this type each metal atom is surrounded by 4 O2- ions in a tetragonal
fashion. For example if the the metal atom is Mg2+ then structure is a shown and it
is called ‘A’ site. Totally there will be 8 tetrahedral sites.
Each Fe3+ is surrounded by six o2_ ions and forms octahedral fashion. Totally
there will be 16 such octahedral sites in the unit cell. This is indicated as B site.

Thus in regular spinal each divalent metal ion exists in a tetrahedral form and
trivalent metal ion in octahedral form. Hence the sites A and B form a regular spinal
ferrite structure.
Inverse spinal:

In this, the trivalent occupies all A sites and half B sites. Thus left out B sites
will be occupied by the divalent. It is inverse of regular spinal ferrite structure.
Properties:
1. It has net magnetic moment.
2. Above Curie temperature I become Para magnetic and below Curie
temperature it behaves as ferrimagnetic material.
3. The susceptibility is positive and very large.
4. Spin alignment is antiparallel of different magnitude.
5. Mechanically, it has pure iron character.
6. They have high permeability and high resistivity.
Application:
1. They are used to produce ultrasonic by magnetostriction method.
2. They are used in audio and video transformers.
3. They are used in radio receiver.
4. They are used in computers and data processing unit.
5. They are used as amplifier.
 DIELECTRIC MATERIAL:

Types of Polarisation:

Dielectric polarization is the displacement of charged particles under the action of

the external electric field.The four types of polarization in dielectric are:(i)
Electronic polarization, (ii) Ionic polarization, (iii) Orientation polarization (iv)
Space-charge polarization

(i) Electronic polarization

Electronic polarization occurs due to displacement of positively charged
nucleus and negative charged electrons in opposite direction, when an external
electric field is applied, and thereby creates a dipole moment in dielectric.
The induced dipole moment µ = eE
Wheree–Electronic polarization
Monoatomic gases exhibit this kind of polarization, electronic polarizability is
proportional to the volume of the atoms and independent of temperature.
Calculation of Electronic polarizability
1. Without field:
Let us consider a classical model of an atom. Assume the charge of nucleus
of the atom is “Ze”. The nucleus is surrounded by an electron cloud of charge “–Ze”
which is distributed in a sphere of radius “R”
Total negative charge
The charged density of the charged sphere  =
Volume of the sphere
− Ze
=
4R 3
3
− 3 Ze
= ………. (1)
4 R 3
2. With Field:
When the dielectric is placed in a d.c electric field E, two phenomenons occur.
(i) Lorentz Force: Electric field tends to separate the nucleus electron
cloud from their equilibrium position.
(ii) Coulomb force: After separation an attractive coulomb force arises
between the nucleus and the electron cloud which tries to maintain the
original position.

Let x be the displacement made by the electron cloud from the positive core.
Since the core is heavy, it will not move, when compared to the movement of electron
cloud. Here x<<R, where R is the radius of the atom. Since Lorentz and Coulomb
force are equal and opposite in nature, equilibrium is reached.
At equilibrium,
 Lorentz force =
Coulomb force
Lorentz force FL= Charge x field
=–Ze.E (–ve sign indicates the repulsive force)…………… (2)
charge  Total negative charge (Q)enclose d in the sphere of radius x ……… (3)
coulomb force FC =
40 x 2

Total negative charges(Q) enclosed

= Charge density X Volume of the sphere of radius x
in the sphere of radius x

− 3 Ze 4 3
=  x
4 R 3 3
− Zex 3
Q=
R3 ……. (4)

− Zex 3
Ze
Sub (4) in (3), we get, Coulomb force (FC) = .
4 o x 2 R3
− Z 2e2 x
= ……… (5)
4o R 3
At equilibrium, Coulomb force and Lorentz force must be equal
FL = F C
− Z 2e2 x
– ZeE =
4o R 3
Zex
E =
4o R 3
4o R 3 E
x= ……… (6)
Ze
The displacement of electron cloud (x) is proportional to applied electric field (E)
Dipole moment
Now the two electric charges +Ze and –Ze are displaced by a distance x under
the influence of the field and form an induced dipole moment,

Induced dipole moment µe = Magnitude of charge x displacement

= Zex
Substitute the value of x from (6)
4o R 3 E
= Zex
Ze
µe = 4o R E
3

µe = E (or) µe =  e
E

 = 4o R is called electronic polarization proportional to the volume of the

3
e

atom.
(ii) Ionic polarization
Ionic polarization arises due to displacement of cations(+ve) and anions(–ve)
from its original position in opposite direction, in the presence of electric field.
Eg: Nacl crystal
Let us assume that there are one cation and one anion present in each unit
cell of the ionic crystal (Nacl) crystal

When the electric field is applied, let x1 and x2 be the distance to which positive
and negative ions move from their equilibrium position. The resultant dipole moment
per unit cell is given by Induced dipole moment = charge x displacement
i = e( x1 + x2 ) ……………. (1)

Where x1 is the shift of +ve ion and x2 is the shift of –ve ion, from their equilibrium
positions. When the field is applied, the restoring force is proportional to
displacement.
For +ve ion,
Restoring force F  x1
F = 1 x1 ……………. (2)
For –ve ion,
Restoring force F  x2
F =  2 x2 …………… (3)

1 and  2 are restoring constant, which depends on the masses of the ions (m) and
angular frequency of the molecule (  ) If ‘m’is the mass of the +ve ion and ‘M’ is the
mass of –ve ion and 0 is the angular frequency, then
1 = m02 …………… (4)

 2 = M02 …….. (5)

Sub for 1 in (2), the restoring force for +ve ion
F = m02 x1 ………… (6)

We know F = eE ……… (7)

Equating (6) and (7)
eE= m0 x1
2

eE
x1 = ………… (8)
m02
Similarly for –ve ion
 eE
x2 = …………… (9)
M02
Adding (8) and (9) we get
eE  1 1 
x1 + x2 = + ……… (10)
02  m M 
Sub (10) in (1)
e2 E  1 1 
i = 2  + 
 o m M
i = i E
e2  1 1 
i = +
 2 o  m M 
Ionic polarizability (i) is inversely proportional to square of natural frequency
of ionic molecules and directly proportional to its reduced mass which is given by
1 1
[𝑚+𝑀]
(iii) Orientation polarization
The orientation polarization takes place only in the presence of polar molecules
in dielectric medium When a dielectric which consists of polar molecules kept in an
electric field, the molecules align themselves along the field direction.
This type of polarization exists in solids having high dielectric constant
Eg: In the case of CH3Cl molecules
➢ +ve and –ve charges do not coincide
➢ The Cl– has more electro negativity than hydrogen
➢ The Cl atoms pull the bonded electrons towards it than hydrogen atoms.
➢ Hence a net dipole moment occurs

When the field is applied positive portion align along the direction of the field and
negative portion along in opposite direction of the field. This kind of polarization is
called orientation polarization.
From Langevin theory of Para magnetism, net intensity of magnetization
N 2 B
=
3k B T
ie., the same principle can be applied to the application of electric field in dielectrics,
N 2 E
Orientation polarization P0 =
3k B T
Where N is the number of atoms
Po = N o E
Where o is the orientation polarizability
 2
o =
3k B T
Therefore, orientation polarizability is inversely proportional to the temperature of
the material.
(iv) Space-charge polarization
The space-charge polarization occurs due to diffusion of ions, along the field
direction and giving rise to redistribution of charges in the dielectric.
➢ Without the application of external field, the ions are randomly arranged
➢ When the field is applied, the ions diffuse and arranged in their corresponding
opposite direction
➢ Normally this type of polarization occurs in ferrites and semiconductor

Total electric polarization:

The electrical polarization is the sum of electronic polarization, ionic
polarization, orientation polarization and space charge polarization.
Since, space-charge polarization is very small when compared to other kinds
of polarization. It can be neglected
Total polarizability is given by,
 = e + i + o
e2  1 1   2
= 4o R + 2  +  +
3

 o  m M  3k BT
We know, total polarization P = NE
 e2  1 1   2 
P = NE 4o R + + +
3

  2 o  m M  3k BT 
This equation is called as Langevin-Debye equation

Frequency Dependence:
Electronic Polarization:
• Electronic Polarization is the fastest polarization
• It will complete at the instant (quick) field is applied
• The reason is that electrons are very lighter in weight (not heavy particles)
• This kind of polarization occurs during every cycle of applied field with 10 15
Hz as frequency
Ionic Polarization:
• Ionic Polarization is slightly slower than electronic polarization
• Because ions are heavier than electron cloud
• The time taken for displacement is larger
• This kind of polarization takes place with 1013 Hz as frequency
Orientation Polarization:
• Orientation polarization is still slower than ionic polarization
• The polar molecules in liquids can easily aligned compared to solids
• This type of polarization occurs in audio and radio frequencies 106 to 1011 Hz
• The relaxation time of liquid is smaller than solids
Space-Charge Polarization:
• It is the slowest of all polarizations with less than 100 Hz
• Here, the ions have to diffuse (jump) over several inter-atomic distance.
• This process occurs at very low frequency in the order 102 Hz

DIELECTRIC BREAKDOWN:
When a dielectric is placed in an electric field, and if the electric field is
increased, the dielectric loses its insulating property and becomes conducting (ie)
large amount of current flows through it this phenomenon is called dielectric
breakdown
The electric field strength at which the dielectric breakdown occurs is known
as dielectric strength. There are different mechanisms by which dielectric
breakdown take place.
They are(i) Intrinsic (or) avalanche breakdown
(ii) Thermal breakdown]
(iii) Chemical and Electrochemical breakdown
(iv) Discharge breakdown
(v) Defect breakdown
(i) Intrinsic (or) Avalanche breakdown
When a dielectric is subjected to electric field then the electrons in the valence
band acquire sufficient energy to go conduction band by crossing the energy gap and
hence becoming conducting electrons. Therefore, large current flows are called
intrinsic or zener breakdown
This conduction electron on further application of field collides with the
valence electron in the covalent bond and hence more number of electrons becomes
conduction. This process continues and hence very large current flows through the
dielectric and hence called avalanche breakdown
Characteristics
❖ It occurs at low temperature
❖ It requires large electric fields
❖ Breakdown occurs in thin samples
❖ It occurs within short span of time (milliseconds)
(ii) Thermal breakdown
 When a dielectric is subjected to electric field, heat is generated; this generated
heat is dissipated(liberated) by the dielectric.
In some cases the heat generated will be very high compared to the heat
dissipated. Under such conditions the temperature inside the dielectric increases
and heat may produce breakdown. This type of breakdown is known as the thermal
breakdown.
Characteristics
❖ It occurs at high temperature
❖ It requires moderate electric fields
❖ It depends on size and shape of dielectric
❖ It occurs in the order of milliseconds
(iii)Chemical and electrochemical breakdown
If temperature is increased, the mobility of ions will increase and hence
dielectrics become conducting this type of breakdown is called chemical and
electrochemical breakdown.
Characteristics
❖ It occurs only at low temperature
❖ It occurs even in the absence of electric field
(iv) Discharge breakdown
In some dielectrics occluded gas bubbles may be present, when this type of
discharge dielectric is subjected to electric field the gas present in the material will
easily ionize and hence produce the ionization current which is known as discharge
breakdown
Characteristics
❖ It occurs at low voltages
❖ It occurs due to presence of gas bubbles
❖ It depends upon the frequency
(v) Defect breakdown
Some dielectrics have defect such as cracks, hole, pores, blowholes etc., these
vacant position may be moisture or an impurity leads to breakdown called as defect
breakdown
Remedies to avoid breakdown
✓ It must have low dielectric loss
✓ It should have less density
✓ It should be defect free
✓ It must have high resistivity
Ferroelectric materials:
Definitions: When a dielectric material exhibits electric polarization even in the
absence of external field then it is known as ferro-electricity and these materials
are termed as ferro-electrics.
Eg Rochelle salt, barium titanate, lead zirconate etc.,
Properties
➢ The dielectric constant of these ferro-electric materials does not vary with
respect to temperature
➢ The dielectric constant reaches maximum value only at a particular
temperature called curie temperature
➢ The polarization does not varies linearly with respect to electric field hence
these materials are also called as non-linear dielectrics
 ➢ They exhibit domain structure as in ferromagnetism

Uses
➢ Ferro-electric materials are used to produce ultrasonics, transducer and
microphones
➢ Ferro-electric are also used in sonar, strain gauges etc
➢ Ferro-electric ceramics are used as capacitors to store electric energy
➢ They are used as memory core in computers:

Super conducting materials:

Definition:
The phenomenon of disappearance of electric resistance of the material below
a certain temperature when they are cooled to a sufficiently low temperature is called
super conductivity (exhibit infinite conductivity). The temperature at which the
resistance disappears is known as the critical temperature or transition temperature
denoted by Tc. Thus, the Transition temperature or Critical temperature is the
temperature at which the sudden transition takes place from the state of normal
conductivity to that of super conductivity.
Superconductors or superconducting materials
Materials which exhibit the superconducting phenomena are called
superconducting materials. They have infinite electrical and thermal conductivities
and zero resistivity. Good conductors of electric current such as silver copper, and
gold are not superconductors. The superconducting materials are relatively poor
conductors at room temperature.
Example:
It is found that the metals such as tin, lead, tantalum, bismuth, antimony
etc., exhibit superconductivity. Non transition metals like Berrylium and Aluminium
, transition metals like Niobium, Molybdenum and Zinc exhibit superconductivity.
Some semiconductors like Silicon, Germanium, Selenium and Tellurium are
transformed into superconductors at low temperatures. Alloys of Nb, V, Ti and Ge
are also superconductors at transition temperature greater than 10K.The various
superconducting elements and compounds are tabulated with their transition
temperature.
Properties of superconductors:
➢ Zero electrical resistance:
 A superconductor is characterized by zero electrical resistivity.
Superconductors have almost zero resistance and infinite conductance below the
critical temperature.
2. Persistent current.
When the superconductor in the form of a ring is placed in a magnetic field,
then the current is induced in it. Once a current is started in a loop of super
conducting material, it will continue to keep flowing around the loop as long as the
loop is held below the critical temperature.

Such a steady current which flows through a superconducting ring without

any decrease in its strength as long as the material is in super conducting state is
called persistent current. It persists even after the removal of magnetic field.

3. Effect of temperature.
When the temperature of a superconducting material is increased, the
material transforms into a normal material above the critical temperature T C. The
transition is reversible when material is cooled below T C, it again goes into the
superconducting state.
4. Effect of magnetic field.
Superconductivity vanishes if a sufficiently strong magnetic field is applied.
The minimum field required to destroy the superconductivity property is called
critical magnetic field. It is given by
  T 2 
H c = H 0 1 −   
  T0  

HO – Field required to destroy the superconducting property,

HC – Minimum field required to destroy the superconducting property
TC – Transition temperature of the material.

5. Diamagnetic property (Meissner effect)

When a normal conducting material is placed in a magnetic field, the magnetic
lines of force penetrate through the material. If the superconductor is cooled in
magnetic field down to the transition temperature, then at that transition, the lines
of force are pushed out. Thus, the material behaves as perfect diamagnetic material.
Thus, the expulsion of magnetic flux during the transition from normal to
superconducting state is called Meissner effect.

6. Effect of heavy current.

When large value of electric current is applied, the superconducting property
is destroyed. The application of current induces a magnetic field. Thus, the induced
magnetic field in the conductor destroys the superconducting property.

7.Isotopic effect.
The transition temperature is inversely proportional to the square root of the
atomic mass of the isotope.
8. Effect of pressure:
Certain materials are brought into the superconducting state by increasing
the pressure.