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Computer Science

BPSC TRE - 4.0 & STET

Computer
Architecture
(Concept)
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Session - 24
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• Computer architecture is the science of designing and
organizing a computer system's components and
operations.
• It includes the structure of the system, how its components
interact, and how the system's operations are carried out.
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• Computer architecture is concerned with:
• Components: The hardware parts of a computer, such as the CPU,
memory, and I/O subsystems
• Communication: How the components communicate with each other
through computer busses
• Operations: The meaning of the operations that guide the computer's
function
• Interface: What is seen on the machine interface
• Computer architects work to improve existing computer architectures or
develop new systems and hardware. Their research focuses on improving
the speed, scalability, and energy efficiency of computer systems.
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• The significance of computer architecture lies in:

• Optimizing overall system performance by carefully selecting and

coordinating hardware components, software elements and
communication channels.
• Enabling design and development of cost-effective and energy-efficient
computing systems that meet the desired performance criteria.
• Acting as a vital knowledge base for understanding and predicting the
behaviour of complex computer systems under different conditions.
• Facilitating seamless integration and compatibility between diverse
hardware and software components.
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Key Components and Structure of Computer Architecture
• Processor
• Memory
• Input/Output (I/O) Devices
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The five computer architecture levels are:

• Digital Logic Level

• Microarchitecture Level
• Instruction Set Architecture (ISA) Level
• Operating System (OS) Level
• Assembly Language Level
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Level 1: Digital Logic Level
• The Digital Logic Level, also known as the Circuit Level,
represents the foundation of computer architecture. This
level focuses on the design and implementation of
electronic circuits by using digital logic components.

• At this level, binary data is represented by voltage levels

and processed through digital logic gates to perform basic
operations such as addition, subtraction
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Key aspects of the Digital Logic Level include:

• Boolean algebra, which provides a set of rules for

combining logical values (true and false) to construct
more complex logical functions.
• Basic logic gates (AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, XOR,
and XNOR) that manipulate binary data (1 and 0) to
execute elementary operations.
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• Combinational circuits, which generate output signals
based solely on the current input signals, such as
multiplexers, adders, and decoders.
• Sequential circuits, which create outputs depending on both
the present input signals and previous states of the system,
including memory elements like flip-flops and latches.
• The Digital Logic Level serves as the backbone for
constructing more complex computer architecture
components, such as processors and memory systems.
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Level 2: Microarchitecture Level
• Microarchitecture level, often referred to as the
Organization Level, is the layout of a computer's major
internal components and their interconnections.
• Microarchitecture Level addresses the functional aspect of
computer architecture by defining the specific organization
and design of critical system components, such as the
processor and memory units.
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Key aspects of the Microarchitecture Level include:
• Pipelining, which involves the breaking down of instruction
execution into multiple stages to enhance parallelism and
throughput of a processor.
• Superscalar and Very Long Instruction Word (VLIW) designs
that enable multiple instruction execution in a single cycle,
improving overall performance.
• Caching and memory hierarchy, which optimizes the retrieval
and storage of data by placing frequently accessed data in faster
memory units.
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Level 3: Instruction Set Architecture Level
• Instruction Set Architecture Level is the interface between
the hardware components and the software programs.
• It establishes the set of instructions that a processor can
execute and the associated data types, addressing modes,
and memory organization.
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• An instruction set, which is a collection of processor-
specific instructions that define operations such as
arithmetic, data movement, and control flow.
• Data types, which dictate the format and size of the data
being processed, such as integers, floating-point numbers,
and non-numeric data.
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• Addressing modes, which determine the method used to access
memory and manipulate operands for executing instructions.
• Registers, which are high-speed storage locations within the
processor used to store temporary data and facilitate instruction
execution.
• The ISA Level acts as a bridge between the hardware and
software worlds, offering a foundation for writing assembly
language programs and enabling effective communication with
the computer's hardware components.
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Level 4: Operating System Level
• The Operating System Level refers to the abstraction of
hardware components from software applications. The
operating system (OS) manages hardware resources,
such as the processor, memory, and I/O devices, to
ensure the efficient execution of programs and user
tasks.
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Key aspects of the OS Level include:

• Process and thread management, which involves the

creation, scheduling, and termination of executing
programs and their associated threads.
• Memory management, which allocates and deallocates
memory space for programs, manages virtual memory,
and ensures data security through memory protection
mechanisms.
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• File system management, which organizes the storage
and retrieval of data on disk drives and provides access
control mechanisms to safeguard data integrity.
• Input/output management, which controls the
interaction between the computing system and external
devices, such as keyboards, printers, and storage
drives.
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Level 5: Assembly Language Level
• The Assembly Language Level is directly related to the
instruction set architecture.
• It is a low-level programming language that employs human-
readable mnemonics to represent machine code instructions.
• Assembly language serves as an intermediary between high-
level programming languages and the ISA, allowing
developers to write code that runs efficiently on the
computer hardware.
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