ELEMENTARY EDUCATION

B.Ed 1.5 year

Course Code 8623 Units: 1 – 9

Secondary Teacher Education Department

ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY, ISLAMABAD

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 (All rights reserved with the publisher)

Edition: First

Year of Printing: 2017

Quantity: 5000

Composed by: Muhammad Shafique

Printer AIOU Printing Press, Islamabad

Publisher Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad

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 COURS DEVELOPMENT TEAM

Chairperson Dr. Naveed Sultana

Chairperson,
Department of Secondary Teacher Education

Course Development Dr. Sidra Rizwan

Coordinator
Reviewer Dr. Sidra Rizwan
Ms. Tooba Saleem

Editor Ms. Humera Ejaz

Course Coordinator Dr. Sidra Rizwan

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 COURSE INTRODUCTION
Education demands teaching personnel who have sound professional and
academic background. The specialization in Teacher Education provides an
academic opportunity of education and training to prospective teachers,
administrators and other education practitioners in the country.

This particular course focuses on Elementary Education which refers to

grade levels 1 to 8 and is the first rung of the ladder of education system in
Pakistan. The teaching and training at this level is very significant as it lays the
foundation for subsequent levels. Doubtlessly the teacher’s role is indispensable
in modern pedagogy where the teacher is more a personal guide, a facilitator of
learning, and a coordinator. The teachers should be trained to practice the
methods of instruction which involve open and individual directed learning by
accentuating modernly designed arrangements, collaborative work, and
appreciating individual differences among the students.

This course offered by the Secondary Teacher Education Department is

meant to be specifically helpful for students studying in open distance learning
system of AIOU. It is perceived that both the teacher educators and prospective
teachers will benefit most from this course and will be able to prepare young
learners to face the 21st century with new hopes and eager minds.
A teacher has to organize activities such as planning, providing instructions,
carrying orders and discipline, determining pupil achievements. Grading pupils
and maintaining their classrooms as a social and educational organization.
Without information and interpretation of great variety it is not even possible for
them to carry out such types of activities.

The material presented in this book is useful for learning, instruction, and
assessment. We aim to prepare teachers who can adapt the changing curriculum in
order to cope with the dynamic society by being a problem solver and creative
thinker. They should be able to integrate their own experiences with the
surrounding environment to provide the students with best possible learning
opportunities.

This book is organized in nine units, which includes definition, concept

and scope of elementary education in Pakistan, child development at elementary
level with the knowledge to help elementary teachers to follow the teaching
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learning process at this level. Curriculum at Elementary level, teaching strategies
with different activities for primary students. Instructional technology focusing
different types of Audio-Visual aids, guiding principles to use them, and
development of low cost materials. Classroom related problems which deal with
children who deviate, have any criminal behaviour or have disabilities etc.
Classroom management which is crucial to the teaching learning process. Concept
of measurement and evaluation, types of test, grading, reporting along with
statistical computation and information about problems and issues of Elementary
Education.

OBJECTIVES OF THE COURSE

After completion of this course the prospective teachers will be able to:
1. Explain the definitions concept and scope of Elementary Education.
2. Discuss and compare the two different stages of child development.
3. Define the different methods and strategies for elementary level.
4. Define questioning techniques suitable for elementary level.
5. Use different kinds of instructional aids which are suitable to teach
different subjects at elementary level.
6. Explain different learning deficits in elementary level students.
7. Identify students with special needs and take remedial measures for them.
8. Describe the use of audio-visual aids.
9. Explain classroom management skills related to teaching.
10. Differentiate between measurement and evaluation.
11. Compare standardized achievement test and teacher made test.
12. Understand the importance of female education.
13. Explain the role of private sector at elementary level.
14. Analyze teacher training through distance education.

Dr. Sidra Rizwan

Course Coordinator

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Allama Iqbal Open University (AIOU) is pioneer in offering B.Ed (1.5
Year) programme, which is the first initiative of its kind to strengthen teacher
education in Pakistan. B.Ed 1.5 year program is offered to the students who have
already completed at least sixteen years of education. The University is offering
this program in six specialization, one of which is Teacher Education.
The launching of B.Ed 1.5 years was the priority agenda of the Allama Iqbal
Open University postgraduate programs. The Secondary Teacher Education
department is now pleased to present its first B.Ed. 1.5 year program professional
specialization.
The department of Secondary Teacher Education acknowledges and
appreciates the facilitation and encouragement extended by Dr. Shahid Siddiqui
the Vice Chancellor, Allama Iqbal Open University for making the launching of
B.Ed. 1.5 year program possible.
At faculty level, the department cherishes the support of Prof. Dr. Nasir
Mahmood, Dean Faculty of Education in making this launching successful. His
continued efforts and guidance is appreciated.
I would like to acknowledge the course development coordinator Dr. Sidra
Rizwan and the editor Ms. Humera Ejaz who have worked very hard and
diligently for this book to be in your hands. Last but not the least. I would like to
acknowledge all those who have contributed to the course development in one
way or the other.
We will welcome suggestions from teachers, lecturers, teacher educators
and experts to improve the course.

Dr. Naveed Sultana

Chairperson

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 CONTENTS
Course Introduction 4
Objectives of the Course 5
Acknowledgements 6
Course Outline 8
Unit – 1 Elementary Education 21
Unit – 2 Child Development at Elementary Level 55
Unit – 3 Curriculum in Elementary Education 91
Unit – 4 Teaching Strategies for Elementary Education 141
Unit – 5 Instructional Technology 209
Unit – 6 Classroom Related Problems 257
Unit – 7 Classroom Management Skills 275
Unit – 8 Measurement and Evaluation 305
Unit – 9 Problems and Issues of Elementary Education 349

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 COURSE OUTLINES FOR RESEARCH METHODS IN EDUCATION
B.ED 1.5 YEARS PROGRAMME
UNIT - 1 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION
 Definition, Concept and Scope of Elementary Education in Pakistan
 Importance and practice in Comparative Prospective
1. Pakistan
2. India Bangladesh
3. Republic of Korea
4. Japan
5. Canada
 Role of Private and Public Sector Education in Pakistan
 Compulsory Elementary Education

UNIT - 2 CHILD DEVELOPMENT AT ELEMENTARY LEVEL

 The Primary Years
1. Physical motor development
1. Physical Development
2. Motor Development
2. Cognitive and intellectual development
1. Number concept
2. Symbol thought
3. Words
4. Initiative though
5. Dreams
6. Perspective taking
7. Proportional
8. Conservation
I Piaget’s stages of cognitive development
1. Sensori motors
2. Pre-Operational
3. Concrete operation
4. Formal operation
II Information Processing
1. Attention
2. Memory
3. Language

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 III Factors that affect children cognitive development
1. Toys
2. Television
3. Parents
 Personality and Social Development
1. Theories of personality development
1. Piaget theory of cognitive development
2. Kohlberg theory of moral development
4. Freud’s theory of psycho-sexua development
5. Erikson theory of psycho-social development
2. Socialization
1. Forms of Play
2. Role of Television
3. Role of gender
3. Moral development
4. Emotional development
5. Behaviour disorder of childhood
6. The family and child interaction
7. Influence of the parents on their children
1. Authoritarian parents
2. Permissive parents
3. Authoritative parents
4. Divorce
 Middle Childhood
1. Physical & Motor development
1. Physical growth and skills
2. Physical activity helps children develop
3. Handicaps
4. Learning disabilities
2. The cognitive and intellectual development
I Cognitive tasks, skills and process
II The types of cognitive process
(i) Attention process
(ii) Memory
(a) Strategies of remembering
(b) Organization
(c) Imagery
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 (iii) Concrete operation thought
(iv) Conservation
(v) Moral reasoning
III Individual differences in cognition
(i) Intelligence
(ii) Gender difference
(iii) Language Development
3. Personality and Social development in middle childhood
I Self- groups
II Society of children
(i) Peer groups
(ii) Popularity
(iii) Friendship
(iv) Playing games and sports
(v) Helping and sharing co-operating and competing
(vi) Lying and cheating
(vii) Acting aggressively
(viii) Social under standing
(ix) Learning social rules
(x) Solving social problems
4. Adjustment and learning problems of middle childhood
I Sources of adjustment difficulties
(i) Parents
(ii) Social relationship
(iii) School
5. Types of adjustment problem
(i) Aggression
(ii) Regression
(iii) Fears
(iv) Physical symptoms
(v) The family and child interaction

UNIT - 3 CURRICULUM IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION

 Process of Curriculum Development
1. Situational Analysis
2. Selection of Objectives
3. Selection of Content
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 4. Organization of Contents
5. Methods
6. Evaluation
 Language and Language Skill
1. Factor Affecting Language Development
 The Language Art Components
1. Approaches to Listening
2. Oral language Development
3. Approaches to Written Language Development
4. Reading
 Science
1. Content of Elementary Science
2. Content of Elementary Science Programme
3. How to Teach Science
 Mathematics
1. Content of Mathematics Programme
2. Objectives for Mathematics Programme
3. How to Teach Mathematics
I Discovery learning
II Repetition, reinforcement, application
III Active Learning
IV Mathematics Methods
4. Instructional Material for Teaching Concretely
5. Mathematics Learning and Gender
 Social Studies
1. The Meaning of Social Studies
2. How to Teach Social Studies
3. Selecting and Organizing Content
4. Diversity of Topics and Programmes
I Law Education
II Consumer Education
III Global Education
IV Moral education
5. Aids for Teaching Social Studies
6. Skilled Learned Through Social Studies
I Study skills
II Critical thinking skills
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 III Social participants
 Physical and Health Education
1. Health and Physical Education Programme
2. Content and Activities
3. Objectives of Physical and Health Education
I Physical education
II Health education
4. Activities of Physical Education
I Motor skill development
II Stabilising activities
III Locomotive activities
IV Manipulative activities
5. Physical Education and Physical Fitness
6. Goal of Health Education
7. Objectives of Health Education for Primary and Middle Schools
8. Main Streaming the Physical Education

UNIT - 4 TEACHING STRATEGIES FOR ELEMENTARY EDUCATION

 Lecture Method
1. Planning the Lecturer
2. Delivering the Lecture
3. Follow up the Lecture
4. When to Use the Lecture
 Demonstration Method
1. Major Purposes
2. Role of the Teacher
3. Role of a Learner
4. Use of the Learning Resources
5. Method of Evaluation
 Drill Method
1. Difference between Drill and Practice
2. Scope and Limitation
3. Techniques of Drill and Practice
4. Improving the Techniques
5. Advantages of Drill and Practice
6. Disadvantages of Drill and Practice

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 Project Method
1. Scope and Limitation
2. Steps in Project Matter
3. Planning the Project
4. Conducting the Project
5. Evaluating the Project
 Problem Solving Approach/Inquiry Method
1. Major Purposes
2. Role of the Teacher
3. Use of the Learning Resources
4. Method of Evaluation
 Role-Playing---Games and Simulations
1. Purpose of Role-Playing
2. Basic Role-Playing Procedures
3. Hints for Leading role-Playing
4. Games and Simulations
5. Difference Between Games and Simulations
6. Objectives of Simulations
7. Evaluation of Role Playing and Gaming
 Programmed Instructions
1. What is Programmed Instruction?
2. Need for Programmed Instructions
3. Main Feature of Programmed Learning
4. Basic Principles of Programmed Learning
5. Types of Programmed Learning
I The Linear Programme
(i) Important features of linear programming
(ii) Limitation of linear programming
II Branching Programme
Features of Branching model
Techniques in branching programme
Backward branching
Forward branching
Advantages of branching programme
Limitations of branching programme

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 III Mathematics
(i) Basic steps in mathematical programme
(ii) Principles of mathematic
Techniques of Teaching for Different Subjects Especially for Juniors’ Sections
 Classroom Games, Puzzles and Activities of Primary Years
 Question Techniques
1. Questions that focus on the learning process
2. Questions that focus on specific purpose
3. Handing pupil responses to questions
4. Developing skill in using questions
 Communication
1. Objectives of Communication
2. Forms of Communication
3. Communication for Learning
4. Types of Communications
5. Factor Affecting on Communications effectiveness
 Developing Interpersonal Skill and Teaching Style
1. Fostering Personal Relationship with Students
2. Soliciting Feedback from Students
3. Indirect Classroom Leadership
4. Treating Student Individually

UNIT - 5 INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY

 Concept of Educational Technology
 Instructional Technology
 Purpose of Instructional Technology
 Projected Aids and its Kinds
1. Films
2. Film Strips
3. Slides
4. Transparency
5. Over Head Projectors
6. Opaque Projector
 None-Projected Aids and its Kinds
1. Non-Projected two Dimensional Aids
(i) Pictures
(ii) Photographs
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 (iii) Flash cards
(iv) Folding cards
(v) Cartoon
(vi) Maps
(vii) Posters
(viii) Charts
(ix) Flip charts
(x) Graphs
(xi) Chalk board
(xii) Marker Boards
(xiii) Felt Boards
(xiv) Magnetic Boards
2. Non Projected three Dimensional Visual Aids
3. Types of Three Dimensional Aids
(i) Models
(ii) Mock up
(iii) Difference between model & mock up
(iv) Diorama
(v) Exhibits
(vi) Display
(vii) Study Kit
(viii) Specimen
(ix) Real Object
(x) Globe
 Audio-Video Aids
1. Radio
2. Television
3. E.L.V
4. Video
5. Interactive Video
6. Video Text
7. Dial Access
 Activity Aids
1. Computers
2. Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI)
3. E-mail
4. C.D. ROM
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 5. Dramatisation
6. Filed Trips
 Strength and Weakness of Media
 Role of Media and Aids in Elementary Education
 Developing Low Cost Material
 Guiding Principle for the use of A.V Aids

UNIT - 6 CLASSROOM RELATED PROBLEMS

 Students Groups
 Behaviour Problems
1. Anxiety
2. Aggression
 Social Problems
1. Deviation
2. Social Control
 Criminal Behaviour
1. What is Crime?
2. Criminal Behaviour
 Drug Use
 Physical And Sensory Disabilities
1. Mental Retardation
2. Severely and Profound Retarded
3. Trainable Mentally Retarded
4. Educable Mentally Retarded
5. Psycho Social Disadvantages as a Cause for Mental Retardation
 Learning Deficits
1. Attention Deficits
2. Organizational Deficits
3. Memory Deficits
4. Transfer Deficits
 Visual Impairment
1. Causes of Visual Impairment
2. Identification
 Hearing Impairment
1. Identification
2. Causes of Hearing Loss

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  Speech Disabilities
1. Articulation
2. Timing
3. Voice
 Learning Disabilities
1. Definition
2. Dyslexia
3. Minimal Brain Dysfunction
4. General Principles of Instruction for Students with Learning
Disabilities
5. Causes of Learning Disabilities
 Physical Handicaps
1. Characteristics of Children With Physical Handicaps
2. Children with Cardiopulmonary Condition
3. Children with Musculoskeletal Condition
4. Children with these Neurological Condition
 Gifted Children
1. Definition
2. Identifying the Gifted
3. Different Between Gifted and Talented
4. Development Stages of Gifted
5. Approaches to Educating the Gifted

UNIT - 7 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT SKILLS

 Classroom management as related to teaching
 Basic concepts Related to Classroom Management
1. Management
2. Control
(i) Some general tips for classroom control
3. Discipline
 Types of Classroom Problems and their Solutions
1. Refusing Classwork
2. Stealing
3. Dishonesty in school work
4. Restless students
5. Hostility
6. Students who shout
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 7. Students who are mischievous
8. Truant Students
9. Students who are usually absent
10. Cheating
11. Working with parents
 Punishment
 Classroom Climate
1. The Role of the Teacher in Classroom Climate
 Organizational Aspect of Management
1. Schedule
2. Routine
3. Clarity of direction and goal
4. Physical arrangement
5. Appearance of the classroom
 Personal Dimensions of Management
1. Verbal behavior of the teacher
2. Appearance
3. Interaction
4. Non verbal communication
5. Witness
 Points to keep in Mind
 Care of Equipment and Material

UNIT - 8 MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION

 Concept of Measurement and Evaluation
1. Measurement
2. Evaluation
 Types of Tests
1. Standardized Achievement Tests
(i) Characteristic of standardized achievement tests
(ii) Standardized achievement tests batteries
Teacher Made Test
(i) Difference between standardized and teacher made tests
(ii) Advantages of achievement tests
Intelligence Tests

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 Planning, Constructing the Teacher Made Test
1. General Guideline for Writing Test Items
 Characteristics of Good Tests
1. Validity
(i) Factor Influencing Validity
2. Reliability
(i) Factor Influencing Reliability Measures
(ii) Difference Between Validity and Reliability
(iii) Methods Used for Estimating Test Reliability
 Measuring Achievement in Elementary Level
1. The Acquisition of Knowledge
2. The ability to Apply Concept and Principles
3. Communication
4. Problem Solving
5. Attitude
 Grading and Reporting
1. Grading
2. Reporting
 Statistical Computation
 Frequency Distribution
1. Limits of Class-Intervals
2. Mid Points Intervals
 Measure of Central Tendency
1. Mean
2. Direct Method
3. Median
4. Mode
 Measure of Variability
1. Range
2. Semi-Inter-Quartile Range
3. Standard Deviation
4. The Co-efficient of Variance, V
 Percentile and Percentile Rank
 Measure of Relationship or Correlation
1. Rank Difference Correlation
2. Product Moment Correlation

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UNIT - 9 PROBLEMS AND ISSUES OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION

 Female Education
1. Gender roles in Pakistan
2. Importance of female education
3. Rural vs. Urban
4. Role of government in female education
 Dropout
1. Dropout rate increases dramatically after primary schooling
 Curriculum
1. Factor Effecting Curriculum Development in Pakistan
 Health and Family Education
1. Family Life Education during Childhood
2. The Challenges of Teaching HFLE
 Examination System
1. Exam Analysis Report
 Private Schools
1. Medium of Instruction
 Teacher Training
1. Teacher Training Through Distance Education
2. In-service Training Programme

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UNIT – 1

ELEMENTARY EDUCATION

Written by: Dr. Adnan Saleem

Reviewed by: Dr. Sidra Rizwan

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 CONTENTS
Introduction 23
Objectives 23
1.1 Definition, Concept and Scope of Elementary Education in Pakistan 24
1.2 Importance and Practice in Comparative Perspective 27
1.2.1 Pakistan 27
1.2.2 India 30
1.2.3 Bangladesh 33
1.2.4 Republic of Korea 34
1.2.5 Japan 37
1.2.6 Canada 40
1.3 Role of Private and Public Sector Education in Pakistan 44
1.4 Compulsory Elementary Education 53
Summary 53
Activity 54
Self-Assessment 54

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 INTRODUCTION
Education is believed to be the birth right of every human being and for the
reason it has been emphasized by all the religions, by all the nations, by all the societies
and by all the ages of the history .Islam being the final and the most universal religion
stresses the acquisition of knowledge as “Seek knowledge from cradle to grave”. All the
development and the progress we see around us in all the nook and corner of the world is
by dent of education. All those nations who have excelled in the field of education, are
leading the others whereas, those who could not make any reasonable literacy rate are
lagging behind and feel it difficult even to stay at the bottom. Hence, it is of prime
importance to equip the citizens with education and this is how we as a nation can survive
gracefully among the countries of the globe.

OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson the students will be able:-
1- To understand the meaning and definition of elementary education
2- To know about importance and scope of elementary education
3- To explain the elementary education in Pakistani perspective
4- To make a comparison of elementary education in Pakistan, India, Bangladesh,
Republic of Korea, Japan and Canada.
5- To understand the role of private and public sector
6- To know about compulsory elementary education

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1.1 DEFINITION, CONCEPT AND SCOPE OF ELEMENTARY
EDUCATION IN PAKISTAN
Education is believed to be an important condition for development. The difference
between developed and under developed countries is of education. According to the
declaration of 1990; education for all, education is a undamental right for all people,
women and men, of all ages, throughout the world. Education is the most powerful tool to
help improve the quality of life and eradicate poverty.
Elementary education, in Pakistan is considered from pre-school level to grade 8th.
Elementary education is the most important tier in the educational system which provides
base for the next or future education. This stage of education has always been given the
prime importance and that the reason this has been given the priority in all the
educational conferences and policies. It was set as a target in millennium development
goals to be completed in 2015 which unfortunately could not be achieved due to flaws of
administrative nature. Elementary education in Pakistan still demands a very serious
effort to reach at the desired level of performance compatible to the competitive level in
the world. Therefore, re-formulation of objectives, policies, curriculum, infrastructure,
teacher training, and implementation system is of paramount importance and need to be
handled at the top most priority to pace with the world.
There has been much talk and debate regarding quality education in Pakistan.
Ironically, they all revolve around mostly the types, sources and content of education
instead of stages, particularly the most crucial and decisive stage i.e., elementary
education.
There has been little progress in recent years in developing new and existing
programmes for adolescent learners in government schools at elementary level.
Exploratory programmes, counseling programmes, health and physical education
programmes are being cut back in government schools. The education has been narrowed
down to teaching of rote-skills and transmission of knowledge. This mere imitation and
content-centred elementary education has shortchanged the area of personnel
development of the learners. This fact of failure of government elementary education has
been put in the back burner in the face of doing what is easier and less costly, but the
negation of various ongoing sustained social changes experienced by the emerging
learners has become the practice of the day. These social changes are:
 The family pattern of a mother at home and a father working is increasingly
changing.
 The suicide rate in teenagers is increasing due to different types of pressures.

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  It is estimated that pre and early adolescents spend one third of their waking
hours in watching television, surfing social websites on internet and playing
online games.
 75 percent of all advertising is aimed at promoting mobile brands, mobile
networks and mobile packages.
 Lack of a stable home is a big contributor to delinquency.
The elementary level is comprised of the students with most impressionable age
group where various social changes make indelible prints on their minds. These years
represent the last chance for the students to master basic skills, lasting attitude towards
learning and assertion of self and individualistic differences. Success at elementary
school, or the future life, can be determined and predicted for this age group.
The associations such as The National Middle School Association, Pakistan
Montessori Council, and Pakistan Elementary Teachers Association are striving for a
balanced elementary curriculum by organizing frequent conferences and workshops for
the educators who are engaged in imparting basic education. However, the government
should patronize the associations and educational organizations by allocating a large part
of budget. Moreover, the government educationist and administrative authorities should
make sure that the content is cognitive learning oriented.
It must be diversified and exploratory based on real life situations and indigenous
experiences. Consequently, it could enhance the development of problem solving skills
and reflective thinking process among the students. This would also help the students to
acknowledge and appraise their own interests and talents. The areas of curriculum
concerned with basic skills — logical, sequential and analytical — should be taught
through an entertaining pedagogy. Other areas of curriculum like social, moral,
emotional, and physical should be developed through integrative approach towards
prevalent social issues and factors.
In short the elementary level education and knowledge must mirror the immediate
culture, ethnicity, ideology and local socio-economic groups so that the students can
relate themselves and consolidate their knowledge coupled with critical sense. Besides,
this will assist the student to comprehend what he is and help him realise his concepts,
responsibilities, identities, abstractions and attitude towards society. Instead of
departmentalization of subjects there should be coordination and inter-disciplinary trend
among them.
Doubtlessly the teacher’s role is indispensable in modern pedagogy where the teacher
is more a personal guide, a facilitator of learning, and a coordinator. The teachers should
be trained to practice the methods of instruction which involve open and individual
directed learning by accentuating modernly designed arrangements, collaborative work,
5
and respecting individual differences among the students. The list of do’s and don’ts is
long. However, the ground reality demands more implementation than mere suggestions,
planning, revising, and updating the aspects of elementary education.
For implementation the primary parameter is the following statement: “The
elementary education should be projective.” To have insightful understanding of this
projective learning, some factors are inevitable.
1. The very first is involvement. In Pakistan the planning regarding elementary
education takes place without involving those who will be most directly affected by
its activation: students, teachers, parents, and the community. Unluckily, the
assumption which resists this involvement is that the member/actors of education are
unaccustomed to the jargons related to educational policies and are unfamiliar with
the trends in educational programs. But the fact is that the elementary education
cannot be affectively implemented and maintained unless it involves the above
mentioned strata. Their involvement in initial analysis of student’s needs (social,
financial, emotional, physical), in drafting the documents and in providing rationale
for effective elementary education is a must.
2. The second factor for ensuring implementation is commitment and dedication on the
part of the teachers. Commitment can be interpreted as the tendency to adjust new
roles (multirole) in the teachers instead of traditional designs. In this regard teachers’
sufficient and moral support should be maintained by the higher authorities. A
problem witnessed in many schools is that teachers’ behaviors are prone to return to
traditional patterns if sufficient attention from every perspective not maintained.
Teachers’ enthusiasm and energy will remain understandably high if they receive
such attention.
3. Thirdly, other important factors are budgeting/funding and resources. The observable
phenomenon in elementary education is its failure due to absence of substantial
finances. This stage of education, owning to the foundation, requires more energy
and money to implement productively. For the low budget schools, the private school
system could be the inspiration which partially run on funding by the rich families. If
the community has the chance of involvement in the planning process, it definitely is
going to participate in funding process.
Moreover, by doing this the allocation of vast resources could be ensured as the
common pitfall in realizing the implementation is exclusively relying upon the teacher
made material, overlooking a consumable material budget and less updated material
acquisition. Making no provision in this regard is in fact to doom the elementary
education. These major factors if operated well can eliminate the causes of the failure of
the elementary schools.
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 1.2 IMPORTANCE AND PRACTICE IN COMPARATIVE
PERSPECTIVE
1.2.1 Pakistan
Education in Pakistan is overseen by the Federal Ministry of Education and
the provincial governments.
Whereas, the federal government mostly assists in curriculum development, accreditation
and in the financing of research and development. Article 25-A of Constitution of
Pakistan, obligates the state to provide free and compulsory quality education to children
of the age group 3 to 16 years. "The State shall provide free and compulsory education to
all children of the age of five to sixteen years in such a manner as may be determined by
law"
The education system in Pakistan is generally divided into six
levels: Preschool (for the age from 3 to 5 years); primary (grades one through
five); middle (grades six through eight); high (grades nine and ten, leading to
the Secondary School Certificate or SSC); intermediate (grades eleven and twelve,
leading to a Higher Secondary (School) Certificate or HSC); and university programs
leading to undergraduate and graduate degrees.
Considering the large number of seminars held by various institutions in different
capitals of the province as well as Islamabad. More than dozen countries in our region in
South and South East Asia as well as in the North and West of Pakistan the countries
have raised their literacy rate and quality of education. Quaid-e-Azam's word of advice
"character, courage, hard work and perseverance are four pillars on which the whole
super-structure of human life can be built". Having said that it goes to the credit of the
present coalition government to initiate necessary guidelines at different levels of
education. As a case study Punjab leads in its allocation to higher education (Rs.
9,100,000 million), school education (Rs. 16,453,000 million), special education (Rs.
1,825,000 million) literacy and Non-Formal Basic Education (Rs. 1,250,000 million). A
special awareness campaign for promotion of literacy and establishment of Adult
Literacy Centers and Non Formal Basic Education Schools in jails, factories and
industries.
It is mandated in the Constitution of Pakistan to provide free and compulsory
education to all children between the ages of 5-16 years and enhance adult literacy. With
the 18th constitutional amendment the concurrent list which comprised of 47 subjects
was abolished and these subjects, including education, were transferred to federating
units as a move towards provincial autonomy.

7
 The year 2015 was important in the context that it marked the deadline for the
participants of Dakar declaration (Education for All [EFA] commitment) including
Pakistan. Education related statistics coupled with Pakistan’s progress regarding
education targets set in Vision 2030 and Pakistan’s lagging behind in achieving EFA
targets and its Millennium Development Goals(MDGs) for education call for an analysis
of the education system of Pakistan and to look into the issues and problems it is facing
so that workable solutions could be recommended.

Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and Pakistan

Due to the problems in education system of Pakistan, the country is lagging
behind in achieving its MDGs of education. In the MDGs goals, goal number two and
three have purely been laid down for education sector:
Goal 2: The goal 2 of MDGs was to achieve Universal Primary Education (UPE)
by 2015, children everywhere, boys and girls alike, will be able to complete a full course
of primary schooling. By the year 2014 the enrolment statistics showed an increase in the
enrolment of students of the age of 3-16 year while dropout rate decreased. But the need
for increasing enrolment of students remains high to achieve MDGs target. Punjab is
leading province wise in net primary enrolment rate with 62% enrolment. The enrolment
rate in Sindh province is 52%, in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK) 54% and primary
enrolment rate in Balochistan is 45%.
Goal 3: The goal 3 of MDGs was Promoting Gender Equality and Women
Empowerment. It is aimed at eliminating gender disparity in primary and secondary
education by 2005 and in all levels of education not later than 2015. There is a stark
disparity between male and female literacy rates. The national literacy rate of male was
71% while that of female was 48% in 2012-13. Provinces reported the same gender
disparity. Punjab literacy rate in male was 71% and for females it was 54%. In Sindh
literacy rate in male was 72% and female 47%, in KPK male 70% and females 35%,
while in Balochistan male 62% and female 23%.

Education for All (EFA) Commitment

The EFA goals focus on early childhood care and education including pre-
schooling, universal primary education and secondary education to youth, adult literacy
with gender parity and quality of education as crosscutting thematic and programme
priorities.
EFA Review Report October 2014 outlined that despite repeated policy
commitments, primary education in Pakistan is lagging behind in achieving its target of
universal primary education. Currently the primary gross enrolment rate stands at 85.9%
8
while Pakistan requires increasing it up to 100% by 2015-16 to fulfill EFA goals. Of the
estimated total primary school going 21.4 million children of ages 5-9 years, 68.5% are
enrolled in schools, of which 8.2 million or 56% are boys and 6.5 million or 44% are
girls. Economic Survey of Pakistan confirms that during the year 2013-14 literacy
remained much higher in urban areas than in rural areas and higher among males.

IMPORTANCE OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION AND OUR FUTURE PLAN

Vision 2030 of Planning Commission of Pakistan looks for an academic
environment which promotes the thinking minds. The goal under Vision 2030 is one
curriculum and one national examination system under state responsibility. The strategies
charted out to achieve the goal included:
(i) Increasing public expenditure on education and skills generation from 2.7% of
GDP to 5% by 2010 and 7% by 2015.
(ii) Enhance the scale and quality of education in general and the scale and quality
of scientific/technical education in Pakistan in particular.
Problems:
The issues comprehended about the problems which are faced in the
development of education system and promotions of literacy are:-
1) Lack of Proper Planning: Pakistan is a signatory to MDGs and EFA goals.
However it seems that it will not be able to achieve these international
commitments because of financial management issues and constraints to achieve
the MDGs and EFA goals.
2) Social constraints: It is important to realize that the problems which hinder the
provision of education are not just due to issues of management by government
but some of them are deeply rooted in the social and cultural orientation of the
people. Overcoming the latter is difficult and would require a change in attitude
of the people, until then universal primary education is difficult to achieve.
3) Gender gap: Major factors that hinder enrolment rates of girls include poverty,
cultural constraints, illiteracy of parents and parental concerns about safety and
mobility of their daughters. Society’s emphasis on girl’s modesty, protection and
early marriages may limit family’s willingness to send them to school. Enrolment
of rural girls is 45% lower than that of urban girls; while for boys the difference
is 10% only, showing that gender gap is an important factor.
4) Cost of education: The economic cost is higher in private schools, but these are
located in richer settlements only. The paradox is that private schools are better
but not everywhere and government schools ensure equitable access but do not
provide quality education.
9
5) War on Terror: Pakistan’s engagement in war against terrorism also affected the
promotion of literacy campaign. The militants targeted schools and students;
several educational institutions were blown up, teachers and students were killed
in Balochistan, KPK and FATA. This may have to contribute not as much as
other factors, but this remains an important factor.
6) Funds for Education: Pakistan spends 2.4% GDP on education. At national level,
89% education expenditure comprises of current expenses such as teachers’
salaries, while only 11% comprises of development expenditure which is not
sufficient to raise quality of education.
 Poverty, law and order situation, natural disasters, budgetary constraints, lack of
access, poor quality, equity, and governance have also contributed in less
enrolments.
 Inside schools there are challenges which include shortage of teachers, teacher
absenteeism, missing basic facilities and lack of friendly environment.
 Out of school challenges include shortage of schools, distance – especially for
females, insecurity, poverty, cultural norms, parents are reluctant or parents lack
awareness.
Since education is a provincial subject, the provincial education secretariats need to
be strengthened. Special policy planning units should be established in provinces’
education departments for implementation of educational policies and formulation of new
policies whenever needed. The provincial education departments need to work out
financial resources required for realizing the compliance of Article 25-A.
Federal Government should play a supportive role vis-à-vis the provinces for the
early compliance of the constitutional obligation laid down in Article 25-A. Special
grants can be provided to the provinces where the literacy rate is low.
1.2.2 India
Free and compulsory education to all children up to the age of fourteen years is
the Constitutional commitment in India. At the time of adoption of the Constitution in
1950, the aim was to achieve the goal of Universalisation of Elementary
Education (UEE) within the next ten years i.e. by 1960.
Significant efforts have been made in the last fifty years to universalize
elementary education. Since 1950, impressive progress has been made in every sphere of
elementary education. In 1950-51, there were about 210 thousand primary and 14
thousand upper primary schools. Their numbers are now increased to 627 thousand and
190 thousand respectively as in the year 1998-99; thus showing an average annual growth
of 2.30 and 5.58 per cent per annum. As many as 83 per cent of the total 1,061 thousand
habitations have access to primary schooling facilities within 1 km and 76 per cent
10
habitations to upper primary schooling facilities within a distance of 3 km. About 94 and
85 per cent of the total rural population is accessed to primary and upper primary
schools/sections.
Over a period of time, enrolment, both at the primary and upper levels of
education, has increased significantly. From a low of 19 million in 1950-51, it has
increased to about 111 million in 1998-99 at the primary and from 3 to 40 million at the
upper primary level. At present, the enrolment ratio (gross) is 92 and 58 per cent
respectively at the primary and upper primary level of education. The percentage of girl's
enrolment to the total enrolment at the primary and upper primary level of education in
1998-99 was about 44 and 41 per cent. Despite improvement in retention rates, the
dropout rate is still high at 40 and 57 per cent respectively at the primary and elementary
level of education. The Government of India initiated a number of programmes and
projects to attain the status of universal enrolment. Despite all these significant
achievements, the goal of universal elementary education remains elusive and far a
distant dream.

Literacy Scenario
A little less than 50 per cent of the total population in 1991 was illiterate but
since then the country has made considerable progress both in terms of total (7+
population) and adult literacy (15+) rates. Since the latest census based on complete
enumeration was conducted in 1991, beyond that year literacy statistics in India is not
available. However, the same on household sample basis is available from a semi-
government organization, namely the National Sample Survey Organization. The literacy
rate (7+ Population) increased from 52 per cent in 1991 to 62 per cent in 1998, thus
showing an impressive increase of 10 percentage points in a short period of about seven
years. However, no significant improvement is noticed in male/female differential in
literacy rate, which has declined from 25 to 23 per cent during the same period. It may
however be noted that during 1991 to 1998, the increase in female literacy (11 per cent)
was higher than the increase in male literacy (9 per cent).
The significant improvement in literacy rates during 1991 to 1998 is because of
the measures that have been initiated during this period. The literacy programmes in
India are managed by the National Literacy Mission (NLM) launched in 1992 with an
aim to make 100 million literates of the age group 15-35 years by the turn of the century
i.e. 1999. Based on the Ernakulam experience in mobilizing society in the affairs of
literacy programs, the NLM launched Total Literacy Campaigns in a large number of
districts. Since then a number of districts have become total literate districts. The

11
achievement is also because of the fact that during 1990's, a number of innovative
projects and programmes were initiated.

Elementary Education
As mentioned above that free and compulsory education to all children up to the
age fourteen is constitutional commitment. In 1993, the Supreme Court of India declared
education up to fourteen years of age to be a fundamental right of children in India. The
entire school education can be divided in to four parts, namely, primary, upper primary,
secondary and higher secondary levels. The National Policy of Education (1968 & 1986)
and its revised formulation (1992) envisaged a uniform pattern of school education (10+2
pattern, 12 years of schooling) across the states. Since education is on the concurrent list,
i.e. state subject; the States & UTs are free to evolve their own pattern of school
education. Eight years of primary education is envisaged in two stages: a junior stage
covering a period of five years and a senior stage covering a period of 3 years. It needs to
be mentioned that 8 years of compulsory education was envisaged as one integrated unit,
although there were two stages in the cycle. Hence elementary education became the
compulsory component of education in India (Varghese and Mehta, 1999 a). It is this
compulsory stage that has been incorporated as a directive principle in the constitution in
1950. The official age (entry) to obtain admission in Grade I is 6 years but a few States &
UTs have 5 years as entry-age. The Government has recently decided to re-introduce the
Constitutional Amendment Bill, which will make elementary education a fundamental
right.

Number of Schools
There has been substantial expansion of primary and upper primary schools in
the country. Growth of upper primary schools is influenced by the expansion of primary
education in India. The number of primary schools in India increased from 210 thousand
in 1950-51 to 627 thousand in 1998-99, thus showing an average annual growth of 2.30
per cent per annum. During the same period, upper primary schools increased from 14
thousand to 190 thousand, a growth of 5.58 per cent per annum. In other words, primary
schools registered an increase of almost three-fold while upper primary schools increased
by fourteen times during the period 1950-51 to 1998-99. Although it may look very
impressive when compared to primary schools, it needs to be noted that the base of upper
primary education was too narrow in 1950-51 when compared to that at the primary
level. During 1990-98, about 65.8 thousand primary schools were opened against 38.7
thousand upper primary schools.

12
Rural Population having Access to Educational Facilities
In 1986-87, more than 95 per cent rural population had a primary school/section
within a distance of one kilometer compared to 94 per cent in 1993-94. The
corresponding figures at the upper primary level were 84 and 85 per cent. Although the
percentage during 1986-87 to 1993-94 remained almost stagnant but is termed
spectacular because of the massive increase in total number of habitations during the
same period. More than 65 thousand habitations were added during 1986 to 1993. The
facilities distributed according to different population slabs reveal that both the
percentages of habitations and rural population accessed to schools/sections decline with
the decline in the population size. It is only in Daman & Diu that the entire rural
population is accessed to an upper primary school/section within a distance of three
kilometers. Among the major states, Andhra Pradesh (79.43 per cent), Madhya Pradesh
(72.60 per cent), Rajasthan (79.00 per cent) and Uttar Pradesh (82.09 per cent) had a
lower percentage of population served by upper primary schooling facilities than at the
all-India level (Mehta, 1999).
1.2.3 Bangladesh
The educational system in Bangladesh is three-tiered and highly subsidized. The
government of Bangladesh operates many schools in the primary, secondary, and higher
secondary levels. It also subsidizes parts of the funding for many private schools. In the
tertiary education sector, the government also funds more than 15 state universities
through the University Grants Commission.
Bangladesh conforms fully to the UN's Education For All (EFA) objective]and
the Millennium Development Goals (MDG) as well as other education-related
international declarations. Article 17 of the Bangladesh Constitution provides that all
children receive free and compulsory education. The three main educational systems in
Bangladesh are:
1- General Education System
2- Madrasah Education System
3- Technical - Vocational Education System
Each of these three main systems is divided into three levels:
 Primary Level (Class 1-8)
 Secondary Level (Class 9-12)
 Tertiary Level
The Madrasah Education System focuses on religious education, teaching all the
basics of education in a religious environment. Religious studies are taught in Arabic and
the students in some areas also serve the local area masjids. Students also have to
complete all the courses from the General Education System. Many privately licensed
13
Madrasas take in homeless children and provide them with food, shelter and education,
e.g. Jamia Tawakkulia Renga Madrasah in Sylhet.

Educational Management
The overall responsibility of management of primary education lies with the
Ministry of Primary and Mass Education (MOPME), set up as a Ministry in 1992. While
MOPME is involved in formulation of policies, the responsibility of implementation rests
with the Directorate of Primary Education (DPE) headed by a Director General.
The Directorate of Primary Education (DPE) and its subordinate offices in the
district and upazila are solely responsible for management and supervision of primary
education. Their responsibilities include recruitment, posting, and transfer of teachers and
other staff; arranging in-service training of teachers; distribution of free textbooks; and
supervision of schools. The responsibility of school construction, repair and supply of
school furniture lies with the DPE executed through the Local Government Engineering
Department (LGED). The National Curriculum and Textbook Board (NCTB) is
responsible for the development of curriculum and production of textbooks. While the
Ministry of Education (MOE) is responsible for formulation of policies, the Directorate
of Secondary and Higher Education (DSHE) under the Ministry of Education is
responsible for implementing the same at secondary and higher education levels. The
NCTB is responsible for developing curriculum and publishing standard textbooks.

Primary School Certificate (PSC) (5th grade)

At the school level, in the case of non-government secondary schools, School
Management Committees (SMC), and at the intermediate college level, in the case of
non-government colleges, Governing Bodies (GB), formed as per government directives,
are responsible for mobilizing resources, approving budgets, controlling expenditures,
and appointing and disciplining staff. While teachers of non-government secondary
schools are recruited by concerned SMCs observing relevant government rules, teachers
of government secondary schools are recruited centrally by the DSHE through a
competitive examination.
1.2.4 Republic of Korea
Education in South Korea is provided by both public schools and private schools.
Both types of schools receive funding from the government, although the amount that
the private schools receive is less than the amount of the state schools.
South Korea is one of the top-performing Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries in reading literacy, maths and sciences
with the average student scoring 542 and has one of the world’s highest-educated labor
14
forces among OECD countries. The country is well known for its high feverish outlook
on education, where its national obsession with education has been called "education
fever". This obsession with education has catapulted the resource-poor nation
consistently atop the global education rankings where in 2014 national rankings of
students’ math and science scores by the OECD, South Korea ranked second place
worldwide, after Singapore.
In 2015, the country spent 4.7% of its GDP on all levels of education – roughly
equal to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) average
of 4.7% also. A strong investment in education, a militant drive for success as well as the
passion for excellence has helped the resource poor country rapidly grow its economy
over the past 60 years from a war torn wasteland. South Korea’s zeal for education and
its students’ desires to get into a prestigious university is one of the highest in the world,
as the entrance into a top tier higher educational institution leads to a prestigious, secure
and well-paid white collar job with the government, banks, a major South
Korean conglomerate such as Samsung, Hyundai or LG Electronics. With incredible
pressure on high school students to secure places at the nation best universities, its
institutional reputation and alumni networks are strong predictors of future career
prospects. The top three universities in South Korea, often referred to as "SKY", are
Seoul National University, Korea University and Yonsei University. Intense competition
for top grades and academic pressure to be the top student is deeply ingrained in the
psyche of South Korean students at a young age. Yet with only so many places at
universities and even fewer places at top-tier companies, many young people remain
disappointed and are often unwilling to lower their sights with the result of many feeling
as underachievers. There is a major cultural taboo in South Korean society attached to
those who have not achieved formal university education where those who don't hold
university degrees face social prejudice and are often looked down by others as second-
class citizens resulting fewer opportunities for employment, improvement of one's
socioeconomic position and prospects for marriage.
International reception on the South Korean education system has been divided.
It has been praised for various reasons, including its comparatively high test results and
its major role in ushering South Korea's economic development creating one of the
world’s most educated workforces. South Korea's highly enviable academic performance
has gotten British education ministers actively remodeling their own curriculum's and
exams to try to emulate Korea's militant drive and passion for excellence and high
educational achievement. U.S. President Barack Obama has also praised the country's
rigorous school system, where over 80 percent of South Korean high school graduates go
on to university. The nation's high university entrance rate has created a highly skilled
15
workforce making South Korea among the most highly educated countries in the world
with the one of the highest percentage of its citizens holding a tertiary education
degree. Bachelor's degrees are held by 68 percent of South Koreans aged 25–34, the most
in the OECD.

Elementary Education
Elementary schools consist of grades one to six (age 8 to age 13 in Korean
years—6 to 12 in western years).
In elementary school, students learn the following subjects. The curriculum differs from
grades 1-2 to grades 3-6
Grades 1-2:
1- Korean (listening, speaking, reading, writing)
2- Mathematics
3- Disciplined Life
4- Sensible Life
5- Enjoyable Life
6- Physical Education
Grades 3-6:
1- Korean (listening, speaking, reading, writing)
2- English 3- Moral Education
3- Social Studies 5- Mathematics
7- Science 7- Art
8- Music 9- Practical Arts
10- Physical Education
Usually, the class teacher covers most of the subjects; however, there are some
specialized teachers in professions such as physical education and foreign languages,
including English.
Those who wish to become a primary school teacher must major in primary
education, which is specially designed to cultivate primary school teachers. In Korea,
most of the primary teachers are working for public primary schools.
Because corporal punishment has been officially prohibited in every classroom
since 2011, many teachers and some parents raised with corporal punishment are
becoming more concerned about what they see as worsening discipline problems.
However, some teachers infringe the law and raise their students with corporal
punishment.

16
1.2.5 Japan
Entrance into elementary school is a major step in a child's life. Preparation
begins several months in advance. A mother attends meetings sponsored by the school
that her child will attend. The school specifies what it expects the child to know and be
able to do upon entry. Well-organized personal habits, polite use of language, and traffic
safety are among the matters emphasized.
Families make much of the new 1st grader's symbolic entry into a more grown-
up world. Congratulations and gifts are in order. Virtually all children are outfitted with a
personal desk and chair at home, a regulation hard-sided leather backpack (which costs
parents from $75 to $150), school hats and insignia, and various supplies specified by the
school.
The formality and seriousness of the matriculation ceremony for 1st graders
underscores the transition the children are making and the importance that school will
have in their lives. Fifth and 6th graders join school officials and community
representatives in welcoming the new 1st graders and their parents. Mothers and children
dress in their best attire. Speeches from city and school board officials and the principal
emphasize the importance of the child's first symbolic step into society.

Facilities
Japanese school buildings are plain, but functional. Generally, they are three-
story, rectangular, concrete structures which lack central heating or air conditioning.
Room stoves are commonly used in cold weather. The lack of decoration and furnishings
is believed to help the child focus on learning and building character. Yet all schools have
excellent educational facilities, including libraries, music rooms, art rooms, gymnasia,
and playgrounds. Seventy-five percent of public schools have swimming pools. Music
rooms ordinarily include electric organs, pianos, xylophones, percussion instruments of
various kinds, and often a ruled blackboard suitable for teaching music reading. Science
and art rooms are similarly well equipped.
The principal's office and teachers' room are on the ground floor. The desks in
the teachers' room are arranged so that the teachers of a given grade sit facing each other
with desks touching. When not in their classrooms, teachers work and relax in this face-
to-face situation. This facilitates cooperation and coordination of effort among teachers of
the same grade.
Each grade occupies a separate section or floor of the building, with each class
assigned its own room. Classrooms are uniformly rectangular with windows on one side
and a doorway on the other that opens to a hallway running the length of the building.

17
The rooms are crowded with desks. Decorations are usually limited to a display of recent
pupil artwork or perhaps a tank of goldfish.
Desks are typically arranged facing the blackboard. The rows are two seats wide
and each pair of seats is usually occupied by a boy and a girl. Also, teachers may have
students rearrange their desks into a U-shape to facilitate class discussion or into clusters
of 4-6 desks for collaborative activity in small groups.
Most public elementary schools do not have uniforms, but all require something
to identify the child as attending that particular school, such as a school cap or badge.
Some schools require students to purchase identical athletic apparel, which is often worn
during regular classes as well.
The daily life of the school, however, is usually directed by the head teacher.
Ninety-seven percent of elementary school head teachers are men, and most are between
the ages of 50 and 55. The head teacher is thoroughly knowledgeable about the entire
school and its activities. He manages the implementation of policy in regular school
activities, special projects, and other programs of the school. His main responsibilities are
administrative. He teaches only about 3 hours per week. Head teachers get paid very little
extra; the short term reward is in the honor and respect of one's peers. Longer term, head
teacher experience is an important part of the career path to a possible principal ship.
Approximately 60 percent of elementary school teachers are women. Two-thirds
of all teachers are under the age of 40. More than one-half (58 percent) of the faculty
have 4-year degrees, and approximately one-third have graduated from a junior college.
Less than 1 percent of the teachers have graduate degrees.
Teachers teach a different grade level each year, thus gaining broad experience
with the curriculum and characteristics of all six grades. It is common for a given teacher
to teach the same group of students for 2 years in a row. Talented and experienced
teachers are more frequently assigned to the 1st grade because that stage is considered
critical in establishing children's attitudes and learning habits for the rest of their school
lives.
In all but the smallest schools, each grade level forms a working unit for
administration, instructional planning, and informal in-service education. Teachers meet
once or twice a week in grade level committees to discuss the coming week's teaching
schedule and other activities. Each grade is led by a grade level head teacher who takes
the lead in helping new or weaker teachers with practical suggestions for improving
instruction and classroom management. Each committee prepares and distributes a
weekly or monthly newsletter to the parents of children in that grade. The newsletter
includes a report on the class's recent activities, a detailed schedule of curriculum
material to be covered, and an inspirational message from teachers to parents.
18
School Calendar
The Japanese school year provides numerous opportunities for the entire student
body to participate in special events and ceremonies. These are carefully planned and
highly organized. They are managed primarily by the student council and classroom
representatives, with the guidance of teachers and school tradition. Through these
activities, students work together and develop class and school identity. Classes spend
considerable energy in planning and practicing these activities. For some time prior to
such events, the regular class schedule is relaxed to allow the necessary time for
preparation.
In May, it is common to have an all-school trip to a nearby park or cultural
monument or even an overnight field trip for all students of a given grade level. The goal
is to broaden student knowledge about nature and the world around them in an enjoyable,
memorable fashion, as well as to train students in appropriate public behavior.
The 6-week summer vacation occurs from the middle of July until the end of
August. During this period, teachers take their own holidays, but frequently come to
school to engage in in-service education and supervise students' club activities. Student
sports clubs continue to meet, and the swimming pool may be open for student use.
Although classes are not in session, vacation homework and individual research
assignments ensure that instructional continuity is not broken. The school also provides
an extensive set of rules and recommendations to families concerning student behavior,
daily study, and play schedules during the vacation. This guidance fosters continuity in
self-discipline and other desirable personal habits.
Autumn in Japan is closely associated with school athletic festivals. Children
eagerly anticipate their school's annual Sports Day. The entire student body practices
intricate choreographed cheers and marching maneuvers. On the day of the event, parents
and the neighborhood are invited to watch each class compete in races and other track
and field events. All are encouraged to do their best, both for their own class and to help
the school put its best foot forward. The goals of Sports Day are to build class and school
solidarity and to encourage wholehearted individual effort and perseverance.
The Culture Festival in the late fall or spring is another high point. On that
occasion each classroom plans and rehearses skits or other performances and every club
demonstrates or displays examples of its activities. Every child is involved in one or more
of these activities. Families and the community are invited to attend and the entire school
endeavors to do its best.
The school year ends in March with a formal graduation or end-of-year ceremony
which is somewhat less significant than the matriculation ceremony at the beginning of
19
the year. Japanese culture places more emphasis on congratulations and encouragement at
the outset of a child's educational career than upon its successful completion.

Education philosophy and teaching practices

Two important assumptions underlie much of Japanese elementary and
secondary education practices. One is that virtually all children have the ability to learn
well and to master the regular school curriculum. The second is that certain habits and
characteristics, such as diligence and attention to detail, can be taught. The premise is that
all children have equal potential. Differences in student achievement are thought to result
largely from the level of effort, perseverance, and self-discipline, not from differences in
individual ability. Hence, students in elementary schools are not grouped according to
ability.
Promotion to the next grade is not based on academic achievement, but is
automatic. Neither is classroom instruction individualized according to ability
differences. The classroom teacher capitalizes on the 1st graders' feeling of self-
importance and awe at being in school by carefully instructing them in proper behavior
and classroom routines during the first weeks of school. These include how to rise and
bow at the beginning of class, how to sit, and how to arrange the desktop for study. In the
Japanese view, this lays a proper foundation for desirable attitudes and habits which will
continue throughout the child's school life.
Almost all elementary schools use educational television broadcasts by, the
Japanese National Public Broadcasting Service. Science, social studies, and ethics
programs are the most popular. Programs are broadcast weekly for each different grade
level and are 15 minutes long. Yearly programming schedules are issued before the
beginning of the school year so that teachers can use them in developing lesson plans. A
basic characteristic throughout elementary and secondary education is the continuing
emphasis on science and mathematics. The Japanese consider these subjects the basic
building blocks of technology, and curriculum requirements ensure that all children
receive extensive grounding in them. Mathematics is one of the required subjects on
university entrance examinations and, hence, receives continuing attention through all
grades.
1.2.6 Canada
Canada is a beautiful country occupying the northernmost region of the North
American continent. The country, which consists of 10 distinct provinces and 3
territories, extends all the way from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in
the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean. With nearly 10 million square kilometers
of land space, Canada is the world’s second-largest country by total area, and its southern
20
border, which it shares with the United States, is the longest continuous land in the world.
Canada is a highly developed country, with an excellent system of education. Education
in Canada is a very high priority of the government. The country boasts a state-run
system of public education, one that is provided, funded and administered by federal,
provincial and local governments. Jurisdiction of the public education system, as well its
curriculum, is overseen by each province. As a result, one can expect to see slight
variations in the educational systems of each province (the type of programs offered,
minimum and maximum age requirements, etc.), but the similarities in those systems far
outweigh the differences. Education across Canada is generally divided into four stages:
pre-school or early childhood education; primary or elementary education; secondary
education and post-secondary or tertiary education, which includes college and university
programs and vocational/technical schooling. Education is compulsory up to the age of
16 in every province in Canada, except for Ontario and New Brunswick, where the
compulsory age is 18. In terms of educational attainment, about 90 percent of all
Canadians possess at least a high school diploma, and one in seven individuals hold a
university degree of some type. The ratio of high school graduates versus non-diploma
holders is changing rapidly in the country, partly due to changes in the labor market that
require people to have a high school diploma and, in many cases, a university degree. In
addition to public schools, there are also thousands of private schools in Canada, both
secular and religious-based institutions. When Canada was first formed, all the provinces
originally had education systems divided by religion, but most provinces have now
abolished these “public-religious” systems. The provinces of Ontario and Alberta, the
Northwest Territories, and certain cities in Saskatchewan are exceptions to this, as they
still maintain publicly-funded separate district school boards (usually Catholic but
occasionally Protestant). In Quebec, the Catholic/Protestant divide was replaced with a
French/English one in 1998. Quebec students must now attend a French school up until
the end of high school unless one of their parents previously attended an English-
language school somewhere else in Canada. Likewise, access to French school in most
of the other provinces is limited to children having at least one French-speaking parent,
or a parent who is a Canadian citizen having received French-language primary
instruction in Canada. Most Canadian education systems continue up to grade 12 (age
seventeen to eighteen).
Education in Canada usually starts with kindergarten followed by grades 1 to 12.
By law, children must go to school starting at the age of 5 or 6 and until they are between
16 and 18, depending on the province or territory.

21
Students go from primary to secondary school between grades 6 and 8, depending on the
province or territory. Students who successfully complete secondary school get a high
school diploma.
The school year usually begins at the end of August and finishes toward the end
of June. Children go to school from Monday to Friday during the school year (except
during holidays).
Since Canada is a bilingual country, English-language and French-language
schools are available across the country (even in areas where one language is more
commonly spoken than the other).
The public elects the people who run a school board (called trustees). They hold
regular meetings where members of the public can express their views on how schools in
their area are managed.
As mentioned above, Canada’s system of education has four general levels: pre-
elementary, elementary, secondary and post-secondary education.

Pre-Elementary Education in Canada

Pre-elementary programs in Canada—educational programs offered to young
children (4-5 years) prior to that student beginning elementary school at age six—are
offered by public, private, and federal schools within the country, as well as schools for
the visually and hearing impaired.
Most jurisdictions offer one year of public pre-elementary education (usually
called kindergarten), with Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta
offering additional years of free preschool. Parents living in jurisdictions that have offer
but one free year of pre-primary education have the option of enrolling their children in a
private program until those children reach the eligible age.
In most jurisdictions, kindergarten (the pre-elementary program in the year
before Grade One) is offered to children who turn 5 years of age by a certain date in the
school year, as specified by jurisdictional or provincial legislation. Attendance in these
programs is optional in most jurisdictions, although it is mandatory in Nova Scotia and
New Brunswick. The intensity of these programs varies; some jurisdictions offer full-day
programs, some have half-day programs, and some offer both.
In the province of Quebec, one additional year of publicly-funded pre-elementary
schooling is available to some 4-year old children who have disabilities or who are from
low-income families. In Ontario, the provision of an additional year of pre-elementary
for 4-year-olds is dependent on the choice of the local school board, and funding is
provided by the Ministry of Education. In Ontario, all school boards offer this program
for their students. In Manitoba, one additional year of pre-elementary programming is
22
offered at the discretion of each school division, and two school divisions currently
provide this program, which is not funded by the Department of Education. In
Saskatchewan, two additional years of pre-elementary programming are funded in
schools in communities where a significant portion of pre-school children are not ready
to participate fully in the learning opportunities offered to kindergarten and Grade 1
students. These programs are not mandatory and are not universal. Alberta also offers
two additional fully funded years of pre-elementary programming, targeted to students
with disabilities or to those who are considered talented or gifted.
The curriculum offered in kindergarten and other pre-elementary programs is far
from rigid. Students are introduced to the alphabet, pre-reading and mathematics skills,
music, art, and play. All kindergarten and early child hood education programs in the
country are designed to prepare students for success at the next level of education
(primary school) by teaching them how to participate and act appropriately within the
group setting and cooperate with both the instructor and the other children in the class.

Primary (Elementary) Education in Canada

Primary education in Canada is compulsory for all children, usually beginning at
age 6 or 7 with Grade One. Students receive six years of primary education—Grade 1
through Grade 6—typically broken down in the following manner:
Grade 1 (ages 6–7) Grade 2 (ages 7–8)
Grade 3 (ages 8–9) Grade 4 (ages 9–10)
Grade 5 (ages 10–11) Grade 6 (ages 11–12)
Students in the primary grades of education typically study under only one
instructor for the entire school year and receive that instruction in a single
classroom. Special education programs may also have one to four instructional aides
present, depending on the type and severity of the students’ disabilities, to assist the
teacher throughout the day.
The curriculum at the primary stage of education encompasses a number of
subject areas, including mathematics, reading, language arts (usually English language,
but French in Quebec), social studies, history, geography, science, music, art and physical
education. Naturally, the difficulty of said curriculum increases somewhat with every
passing grade, as students learn to master new skills.

23
1.3 ROLE OF PRIVATE AND PUBLIC SECTOR EDUCATION IN
PAKISTAN
Over the past decade, private sector has emerged as a key provider of education
services in Pakistan both in absolute terms and relative to the public sector. One piece of
evidence relates to the number of private schools, which increased by 69%, as compared
to mere 8% increase of government schools between 1999-2000 and 2007-08. In 2000,
the private sector was catering to the educational needs of about 6 million children. This
number increased to 12 million in 2007-08 – equivalent to 34 percent of total enrolment.
The number of teachers also doubled in private educational institutions during this
period. This massive growth has thrown up many important questions. What has caused
the private education institutions to grow so rapidly? How is public schooling affected by
this growth? Should the government strictly regulate the private providers of education?
To what extent are public-private partnerships effective for meeting the growing demand
for education? Are the private schools providing better quality of learning than the
government schools? To answer such questions and the like is crucial for identifying the
emerging challenges and formulating effective responses and strategies at the
policymaking and implementation levels.
The growth of private schools, especially of the low-fee schools, has forced
education policymakers and analysts to take cognizance of the promises as well as
challenges emanating from this development. While many see the role of the state as the
traditional provider of educational services as natural and irreplaceable, a growing
number of commentators, both within Pakistan and internationally, favor a laissez faire
policy for the private sector to emerge as a key provider of education and argue that the
state should not compete with private schools. While the role of the state as the financer
and provider of education remains a matter of debate and controversy, the growth of
private provision of education is widely interpreted by many as evidence of the parents'
lack of faith in the capacity of public sector to deliver quality education to all children.
Some also argue that it is unwise to rely on market-based solutions for massive education
while others believe that regulation and public-private partnerships can be effective
strategies to spot and rectify the market failures.
The milieu outlined above indicates that private education has become a
significant phenomenon in Pakistan and yet little is known about key dynamics of this
phenomenon. A study done to examine the state and growth of private education in the
country between 1999-2000 and 2007-08 and some data up to 2010, highlighted the
issues and challenges that emanate from its size and growth, diversity in the private
provision of education, financing, quality of teaching and learning, public-private
partnerships and regulation. It further identified some areas which require in-depth
24
research to highlight important existing and emerging issues in the private education
which call for an informed debate and policy response.
The evidence was based on desk- based research which was undertaken by
Institute for Social and Policy Sciences (I- SAPS) for Pakistan Education Task Force
(PETF) with the support of Department for International Development (DFID) UK.
Preliminary findings and inferences from the research were shared with PETF in March
2010. It presented a fuller analysis with a view to facilitate an informed policy debate,
suggest recommendations and implement strategies for living up to the challenges
associated with the growth of private education.
At this stage, it is pertinent to point out that the analysis presented in the study
draws on the existing statistical data and research studies. Description of the expansion in
number of institutions, enrollment and teachers is made by combining data from the
Census of Private Educational Institutions 1999-2000, National Education Census 2005
and published data from National Education Management Information System (NEMIS)
for 2006-07 and 2007-08. These two sets of databases (censuses and NEMIS reports) are
not strictly comparable due to some differences in scope and methodology. For example,
the census conducted in 2000 does not cover madrassahs because they were excluded
from the definition of private schools but subsequently they were covered in 2005 census.
Moreover, the data of private education in NEMIS reports is based on estimates derived
from the past trends, contrary to the public sector data which is based on annual census.
While these differences do not allow an apple-to-apple comparison, there is no other
database on which one could rely for drawing a national-level holistic scenario over a
longer period. Despite the differences in their scope and methodology, they provide fairly
reliable estimates of growth in institutions, teachers and enrolment.

The Rise of Private Education

Historically, private provision of education is not new in Pakistan. At the time of
its inception in 1947, the state promised universal primary education as well as sought
'other actors' to participate in realizing it. It justified the need for participation of the
extra-state actors in view of lack of resources. Since then, the private schools have
existed in the form of madrassahs, Christian missionary schools as well as schools run by
business entrepreneurs and non-governmental organizations. The growth of private
schools received a serious setback due to government's drive for nationalization in 1972.
Their role was revived after denationalization in late 1980s but little is known about the
dynamics of revival and pre- and post-denationalization differences due to absence of
data. Minimal research was carried out on the role of the private sector in education after

25
denationalization. This deficiency was partly due to lack of a population census in
Pakistan between 1981 and 1998.
Until the late 1990s, it was believed that the private schools were largely serving
the elite segments of Pakistani population. After denationalization, growth of private
schools was no more an urban elite phenomenon. The schools started spreading in rural
areas rapidly and were affordable to middle and even low income groups. Parents could
infer quality variation between schools from the fees which responded in predictable
ways to measured school inputs. Some view the rise of private schooling as
complementary to the governmental efforts for achieving “Education for All”, others
consider it as an inevitable change associated with the processes leading to the emergence
of market places and shrinking role of the state in the provision of public good.
Over the past few years, data has shown that private provision of education has
become a significant phenomenon in Pakistan both in urban as well as rural areas. This is
evident from the growing share of private sector in number of educational institutions,
national workforce of teachers and enrolment especially since 2000. This year is
important in the sense that international community began to exert great pressure on
developing countries for achieving Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). This
pressure was one of the most important forces which moved the Pakistani government to
accelerate its efforts for achieving universal primary education and as a result it
supported the emergence of private sector education in a liberal policy framework.
As far as the number of institutions is concerned, 30% of all educational
institutions in Pakistan were private in 2007-08. This size has grown considerably since
1999-2000 when the share of private institutions was mere 19%. Comparative to the
public sector, the percentage share of private sector in all educational institutions is very
high at middle level (61%) and high level (59%). At the primary level, public sector is
still dominant provider of education as 89% of all educational institutions are owned by
the government. An important trend evident from the data is that private institutions are
expanding at a much faster rate than those in the public sector. Between 1999-2000 and
2007-08, the number of private educational institutions increased by 69%, as compared to
mere 8% increase in government institutions i.e. more than 8 times faster than the public
sector .
By level of education, the number of private education institutions is the highest
at the middle level followed by primary, high and Deeni Madaris. Out of total private
educational institutions in 2007-08, the percentage of institutions at these four levels was
33%, 23%, 19% and 16% respectively. Although private provision of higher education
and technical and vocational education is expanding fast, the number of such institutions
is small in proportional terms.
26
 In terms of the distribution by gender, 95% of private educational institutions
were mixed in 1999-2000. Analysis of statistical data indicates a significant trend in the
growth of single-sex private educational institutions, as the percentage of mixed
institutions has decreased rapidly since 1999-2000. This becomes evident when growth of
boys, girls and mixed schools is considered. Between 1999-2000 and 2005, private
educational institutions for boys increased by 200% and for girls by 237%, as compared
to mixed educational institutions which grew by mere 59% during this period. Even if the
change is measured over a relatively longer period between 1999-2000 and 2007-08, the
same trend continues. Moreover, single-sex schools for girls have grown faster than both
boys and mixed private educational institutions.
It is commonly believed that parents in rural areas prefer to educate their
children, especially girls, in single-sex schools. This partly explains the faster growth of
single-sex private schools, given that the number of private educational institutions has
increased manifold in rural areas between 1999-2000 and 2007-08. Even in absolute
terms, the number of primary schools in rural areas has exceeded those in the urban areas
(rural 8,920; urban 8,330) in 2007-08. This pattern underlines the response of private
sector to increasing interest of parents in rural areas to educate their children in private
schools.
In terms of geographical spread, the largest percentage of all private educational
institutions is found in the Punjab (65%) followed by Sindh (16%), Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
(KPK) (11%), Azad Jammu and Kashmir (3%), Gilgit-Baltistan (2%) and Balochistan,
Islamabad Capital Territory (ICT) and Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA) (1%
each) (Figure 1.4). If combined growth of primary, middle and high schools is considered
between 1999-2000 and 2007-08, Balochistan province is at the top where the private
primary, middle and high schools increased by 90% followed by ICT (76%), Punjab
(71%), Sindh (66%), KPK (64%) and FATA (33%). The data for comparison of growth
rates in Gilgit-Baltistan and AJK is not available for 1999-2000.
Overall, three in every ten educational institutions in Pakistan are private.
However, the public-private mix varies in each region. ICT is an outlier as more than half
of its total educational institutions are private. In Gilgit-Baltistan, the percentage of
private institutions is also very high and stands at 41%. In Balochistan and FATA, private
sector has not been able to emerge as a key provider of education as mere 7% educational
institutions were private in 2007-08.
The state of teachers in private educational institutions is considerably large due
to sheer size of the sector. In 1999-2000, the total number of teachers in private
educational institutions was 0.3 million. By 2007-08, the workforce of teachers was
doubled. Out of total 1.4 million teachers in Pakistan, 44% were working in private
27
educational institutions in 2007-08. In private educational institutions, the number of
female teachers is twice the number of male teachers. The growth in their number
between 1999-2000 and 2007-08 is commensurate with this pattern in primary, middle
and high schools. However, the growth in number of male teachers was considerably
higher than females for private higher secondary and technical and vocational
institutions.
Out of total enrolment in educational institutions in Pakistan, private sector
accounted for 32% in 2007-08. This percentage is the highest in Gilgit-Baltistan (43%)
followed by Punjab and AJK (35% each), Sindh and ICT (31% each), KPK (23%) and
Balochistan (16%). The share of private sector in total enrolment is the lowest in FATA
(14%).
Overall, the number of boys in total enrolment of private educational institutions
is higher up to higher secondary level. The difference is not as high as in the public
sector. In 2007-08, boys accounted for 55% out of total private sector primary, 54%
middle, 53% high and 51% at higher secondary level. The enrolment of girls is higher
than boys only at degree level (Class XIII-XIV) and stands at 64% compared with boys
(36%). However, the growth trend shows that enrolment of girls in private sector
institutions is growing at a faster rate than that of boy at primary, middle and high levels.
The largest proportion of enrolment in private educational institutions was in urban areas
and stood at 68% in 1999-2000. In rural areas, enrolment increased from 32% in 1999-
2000 to 36% in 2005 but it has not further increased as a percentage of total private sector
enrolment. While the number of private educational institutions has increased at a much
faster rate in rural areas than in urban areas, corresponding change in enrolment has not
been witnessed. This implies that most of the recently established rural private schools
are smaller in size.
Diversity of private education in Pakistan is a characteristic feature and has
tremendous implications for policy research but this aspect remains largely under
explored in the literature. As a result, private sector as the provider of education has
generally been treated as a homogenous category, though to a lesser degree than the
public education sector. Ordinarily, differentiation is made between low- and high-fee
schools, Urdu- and English-medium schools with different syllabi and between boys,
girls and mixed schools. However, in reality the private educational institutions can be
classified along a much broader range of categories and characteristics which
differentiate one from the other type. There are, for example, faith-based schools which
are established along ideological lines to promote certain kind of religious or secular
education. Then, within the religious institutions, there are some which are believed to be
conservative while others are considered to be in sync with requirements of the modern
28
age. In addition, there are not-for-profit private educational institutions set up by non-
governmental organizations or charities for welfare of the poor which co-exist with
purely profit-oriented commercial institutions.
It is important to understand that unlike the government schools, different types
of private schools entail different implications in terms of their impact on policy and
socio-economic milieu. As such each type needs different policy response which cannot
be formulated unless sufficient data exists about each type for informed policy debate and
discussion. At present, the Education Management Information System (EMIS) and
independent research initiatives provide little information for proper categorization of
private schools. Therefore, the challenge is to generate sufficient data and research to
assess the actual implications associated with different types of private schools and then
to formulate and provide an appropriate policy response accordingly.

Public Private Partnership

The idea of public-private partnerships (PPPs) in education sector is not new in
this region. The history goes back at least to the Wood's dispatch of 1854 on education
which laid the foundation of modern education system in India before the partition. The
dispatch recommended a system of grants-in-aid to encourage and foster the private
enterprise in the field of education. The grants in aid were conditional on the institution
employing qualified teachers and maintaining proper standards of teaching. After
independence, the government of Pakistan consistently called for and supported the
development of private sector education through a laissez faire policy toward private
schools including generous tax exemptions. State's disposition toward the private sector
was only interrupted during the 1970s in a bid to nationalize private schools. The major
breakthrough in the support to private sector was made during the early 1990s with the
formation of national and provincial level education foundations. The foundations
support the private education sector through the PPPs.
The most common modality used by the education foundations for partnerships is
public financing - private provision. Other modalities of the PPPs in which the private
and community stakeholders have taken over or adopted government facilities have also
been tried out. An example of unsuccessful PPP is a contract between Pakistan Railways
and the Beaconhouse School System (a for- profit private education provider) to manage
19 schools of Pakistan Railways for 33 years. This partnership, however, was
unsuccessful and was terminated only after three years of contract. However, similar PPP
modality has been in vogue with considerable degree of success at other places. For
instance, a non-governmental organization called CARE has adopted and currently
operates over 170 government schools in Lahore. Likewise, the National Rural Support
29
Programme (NRSP) has been operating 48 rural schools since 2002 in a union council of
district Rahim Yar Khan through contractual arrangements with the district government.
The concept of partnership adopted by the education foundations is shaped by the
argument that the state is responsible for provision of basic education and where it fails to
do so, it should bear the cost regardless of who provides the education. The proponents of
this viewpoint ground their position in the rights- based framework which treats access to
quality education as a human right whose corresponding duty bearer is the state.
Consequently, public financing - private provision has emerged as a dominant instrument
for partnering with the private education sector and has taken the forms of voucher
schemes, provision of cost per pupil, grants-in-aid, etc. This is evident from the fact that
the allocations of federal and provincial governments for promotion of the PPPs through
education foundations have increased significantly over the past few years. In 2009-10,
the Punjab government allocated Rs. 4 billion for this purpose. In total, Rs. 4.9 billion
were allocated for the education foundations in 2009-10, up by 28% over 2007-08.
Many issues related to private sector education arise when low-income and less
educated parents are not able to fund schooling of their children, and may not make
optimal choices for their children. This requires government intervention to ensure equity
of opportunities (Adnette, 2004). So, when the state intervenes to provide, for example,
educational vouchers to parents who need them, this intervention can be interpreted as its
response to the possible market failures such as absence of credit for the parents to invest
in the primary education of their children. In other words, vouchers are a response to
equity issue. Similarly, the state intervention to provide and regulate professional status
of teachers serving in private schools is another example of its intervention to curb
market failures such as quality issues. On the other side, some scholars have argued that
the fears of 2market failures are unfounded. However, the ability to access this
information may be dependent on cultural, economic and social capital of parents
(Andrabi, Adnette, 2004).
Diversity is a characteristic feature of private education in Pakistan but this
aspect remains largely under-explored in the literature. In reality, the private educational
institutions are configured along a broad range of categories such as faith, gender,
language, religion, etc. Unlike the government schools, different types of private schools
entail different implications in terms of their impact on policy and socio-economic
milieu. As such each type needs different policy response which cannot be formulated
unless sufficient data exists about each type for informed policy debate and discussion.
At present, the Education Management Information System (EMIS) and independent
research initiatives provide little information for proper categorization of private schools.
Therefore, the challenge is to generate sufficient data and research to assess the actual
30
implications associated with different types of private schools and then to formulate and
provide an appropriate policy response accordingly.
While the popular perception about quality of education favors the private
schools vis-à-vis public schools, the degree to which the households can actually
differentiate between a good and a bad school cannot always be determined, though
measured inputs can serve as the guide to some extent. Learning assessments provide
more sophisticated evidence of quality. However, different assessments lead to different
directions. A research study commissioned by the World Bank shows that pupils in
private schools are outperforming public schools whereas the data of Punjab Examination
Commission suggests that the difference is not too high. The existing documentation
insufficient to develop a national level picture about the quality of education in private
schools. Another issue is that the threshold for performance of private schools remains
very low with the performance of already failing public schools as the reference point for
comparison.
The idea of public-private partnerships has been accepted and practiced in
Pakistan for quite long. The major breakthrough in the support to private sector was made
during the early 1990s with the formation of national and provincial level education
foundations. The foundations support the private education sector through the PPPs. The
most common modality used by the education foundations for partnerships is public
financing - private provision. As a result, the allocations of federal and provincial
governments for promotion of the PPPs through education foundations have increased
significantly over the past few years. In 2009-10, the Punjab government allocated Rs. 4
billion for this purpose. In total, Rs. 4.9 billion were allocated for the education
foundations in 2009-10, up by 28% over 2007-08.
A key issue in the PPPs in education sector is the lack of a harmonious policy
framework. The federal and provincial governments are experimenting with different
implementation arrangements. Similarly, no uniform framework exists for assurance of
quality in private schools which enter into partnership with the government. Even if
sufficient measures are taken to assure quality, the potential of scaling the successful PPP
models remains limited due to resource constraints, given that more or less all
partnerships are grounded in public financing - private provision framework.
The question of regulation of private education sector is a tricky one. The
proponents of regulation make a convincing case, largely based on the likelihood of
market failure in terms of unavailability of sufficient information and lack of equity in
educational opportunity. On the other hand, the basic argument adduced by the
detractors, therefore, is that when state cannot guarantee establishment and maintenance
of minimum standards in the public schools, how it could conceivably regulate a complex
31
private sector. Why, then, not leave it to the parents who have the best interests of their
children at their heart to make the best possible choices for their education.
There are a number of regulatory laws for private education sector in place in
Pakistan. However, little information is available about the status of their
implementation. If a textual review of the laws is carried out, one can easily infer that
those laws cannot be implemented without resistance from the private sector due to
serious weaknesses and inbuilt deterrence. For example, regulatory ordinance for private
education sector operating in Islamabad imposes a regulatory regime on private schools
by a 'self-financed' regulatory authority, imposed with no period of gestation, and with
little leeway for the private schools to contest the decisions of the regulatory authority in
a court of law. Within the particular governance context of Pakistan, a regulatory regime
such as this will pass the costs of regulation to the consumers of educational services, will
open up possibilities of corrupt practices by the inspectors from regulatory authority, and
will undermine the original intentions of regulating private schools.

32
 1.4 COMPULSORY ELEMENTARY EDUCATION
The word elementary education refers to primary education or universal
education and this is the most basic and foundational level in educational process which
is extremely crucial and highly sensitive. Elementary education builds foundation for the
towering building of a man’s personality. It paves course for the smooth progress of a
child who has to prepare himself for the future responsibilities which he or she is
expected to discharge during his or her life being an active and a useful member of the
society. The futuristic growth in terms of religion, emotions, sociability, and thinking
takes place, study habits get molded and become part of learning styles, basic skills like
listening, speaking, reading and writing are developed and above all, the future trend and
ting of learning is fostered at this stage. A child who has been carefully handled, properly
motivated and firmly educated as a base or an aero dorm can fly anywhere to chase his or
her destination in life. Therefore, it is of paramount importance to give special and
serious heed to elementary education. For the p a

33
55
Introduction 58
Objectives 58
2.1 Early Childhood 59
2.1.1 Physical motor development 59
2.1.2 Cognitive and intellectual development 59
I Piaget’s stages of cognitive development 61
(i) Sensori motors 61
(ii) Pre-Operational 61
(iii) Concrete operation 61
(iv) Formal operation 62
II Information Processing 62
(i) Memory 62
(ii) Attention 62
(iii) Language 63
III Factors that affect children cognitive development 63
(i) Biological factors 63
(ii) Environment factors 63
2.1.3 Personality and Social Development 64
I Theories of personality development 64
(i) Piaget theory of cognitive development 64
(ii) Kohlberg theory of moral development 65
(iii) Freud’s theory of psychosexual development 65
(iv) Erikson theory of psycho-social development 67
II Socialisation 69
III Moral development 69
IV Emotional and Social development 70
V Behaviour disorder of childhood 71
VI Influence of Parents on their children 72
VII Influence of the parents on their children 72
2.2 Middle Childhood 74
2.2.1 Physical & Motor development 74
(i) Motor skills 74
(ii) Physical activity helps children develop 74
(iii) Learning disabilities 75
2.2.2 The cognitive and intellectual development 76
I Cognitive tasks, skills and process and their types 67
(i) Attention process 76
(ii) Memory 77
(a) Strategies of remembering 77
56
 (iii) Concrete operation thought 78
(iv) Conservation 78
(v) Moral reasoning 79
III Individual differences in cognition 79
(i) Intelligence 79
(ii) Gender difference 79
(iii) Language Development 79
2.2.3 Personality and Social development in middle childhood 80
I The developing Social Self 80
II Society of children 80
(i) Peer groups 80
(ii) Friendship 81
(iii) Popularity 81
(iv) Playing games and sports 81
(v) Helping and sharing co-operating and competing 81
(vi) Stealing, Lying and cheating 82
(vii) Acting aggressively 82
(viii) Social understanding 82
(ix) Learning social rules 82
(x) Solving social problems 83
2.2.4 Adjustment and learning problems of middle childhood 83
I Sources of adjustment difficulties 84
(i) Parents 84
(ii) Social relationship 84
(iii) School 84
2.2.5 Types of adjustment problem 85
(i) Anxiety 86
(ii) Depression 86
(iii) Aggression 86
(iv) Fears 87
(v) Activity 88
(vi) Self-Assessment 88

57
 The period of a child’s development is divided in to three stages, early childhood,
middle childhood, and adolescence. Early childhood is a time of tremendous physical
changes across all areas of development. Middle childhood is an important time when
children develop foundational skills for building healthy social relationships and learn
roles that will prepare them for adolescence and adulthood. Child’s healthy development
and lifelong learning depends on his experiences of childhood. According to Education
Encyclopedia, early and middle childhood sets the stage for: school success, self-
discipline, health literacy, eating habits, healthy relationships with family and friends and
the ability to make good decisions about risky situations and conflict negotiation. There
are four broad domains of development in childhood: physical, cognitive, affective, and
social development.
Physical Development means biological and physiological development, the
improvement of motor skills, and physical health. Children undergo rapid spurts in
weight and height as well as improvement in athletic abilities, followed by observable
changes in physical appearance and behavior. Cognitive development includes
intellectual and language development, memory capacities and reasoning abilities.
Affective development includes personality, motivation, self-esteem and emotional
development. Children attain personal competencies through participation in different
activities; emotional attachments to parents and other family members; and a deepening
sense of oneself. Social development includes interpersonal understanding and social
skills, ethical and moral development, and maintaining close relationships. They develop
mutual understandings of others through interactions with family and peers.

After studying the unit the prospective teachers will be able to:
1. discuss the concept of physical development in childhood.
2. identify different theories of personality.
3. explain cognitive and intellectual development in childhood.
4. distinguish behaviour disorders of childhood.
5. specify personality and social development problems in children.
6. evaluate personality and children adjustment and learning problems.

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 Early childhood usually expands from birth to 6 years of age. Early child
development (ECD) encompasses physical, motor, cognitive and socio emotional
development.

Childhood is a time of rapid physical development. Physical growth is quite

dramatic and rapid during infancy. In the toddler years, this growth occurs at a slower
and steadier pace. Children’s body change proportions and get sleeker and straighter in
shape with the development of strong muscles necessary for work and play. Normally
between birth and three years of age a child becomes doubles in height and quadruples in
weight along with mastery in many skills, including sitting, walking, using a spoon,
toilet training, scribbling, and sufficient hand-eye coordination to catch and throw a ball.
Motor development includes gross motor development and fine motor development.
Gross motor refers to physical skills that use large body movements involving the entire
body while fine motor refers smaller and more precise movements. Between ages 2 and 3
years, young children stop "toddling," and develop a smoother gait, and ability to run,
jump, and hop. Children who are 3 to 4 years old can climb up the stairs with some
"back-up" assistance. 3 to 4 year olds can jump and hop higher, catch and throw. Many
can even hop on one foot for short periods of time. By ages 4 to 5, children can go up and
down the stairs like adults. Their running continues to smooth out and increase in speed.
Children of this age can also skip and add spin to their throws. During ages 5 to 6, young
children continue to refine earlier skills and enjoy learning to play organized sports.
Skills that require hand-eye coordination. By ages 2 to 3 years,
children can mold clay into rough shapes, build towers out of blocks and scribble with a
crayon. Around ages 3 to 4 years, children start to manipulate clothing fasteners, like
zippers and snaps, continue to gain independence in dressing and undressing themselves,
begin using scissors to cut paper, 3 to 4 years refine their eating skills like using forks and
spoons. During ages 4 to 5 years, children continue to refine motor skills. Their artistic
skills improve, and they can draw simple stick figures and copy shapes such as circles,
squares, and large letters. By age 5 most children demonstrate fairly good control of
pencils, crayons, and scissors.

Children not only grow physically but also mentally during early childhood
Children’s abilities to observe, understand, produce language and interact with the world
flourish in an amazing way. From birth to 4 weeks, children glance at mother’s face.
From 1 to 3 months, they smile and their attention span increases. Between 3 and 6
months, vocalize some sounds, and start saying "mama" or "dada" between 6 and 9
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months. From 9 to 12 months, understand basic commands and imitates sounds. During
second year children begin sorting things by shape and color. They use several words by
18 months and several phrases by 2 years and recognize the name for many people and
objects.
Over the first three years of life, children develop a spoken vocabulary of
between 300 and 1,000 words and start using sentences of up to four words. Between 3
and 4 years children understand what counting is and know some numbers. They can
name few colors and remember some parts of stories that are read to them. Their
vocabulary reaches about 1,500 words. By the age 5 years children speak about 2,000
words, and use hundreds of words in five-to seven-word sentences, learn to use the past
tense, and tell familiar stories using pictures as cues. They start to learn and understand
grammar rules. All English-speaking children follow a regular sequence when using these
rules. They start developing a feeling for time, have more questions than ever; enjoy
rhymes and silly sounds. According to Piaget, children in the early childhood build on
skills learned and mastered before infancy stage. Their play becomes increasingly
imaginary filled with fantasies, involving more characters and scenarios, games with
sophisticated rule. In early childhood, children master the Symbolic thought ability to
picture, remember, understand, and replicate objects in their minds. They can talk about
or draw places they visited, create new scenes and creatures from their imagination.
is a person's ability to understand that certain physical characteristics of
objects remain the same, even if their appearance has changed. Children’s ability of
conservation in early childhood is not accurate in case of volume or number. For example
a child will not understand that rearranging six keys to make a different formation (e.g.,
spreading them out or moving them closer together) change the number of items present.
is a person's ability to understand how certain physical characteristics
change while others remain the same in a logical, cause and effect sequence. In early
childhood children do not readily understand how things can change from one form to
another. For example first children are shown two 1-inch round balls of clay. Then, they
are presented with one 1-inch round ball of clay and one 1-inch ball of clay squished flat.
They do not understand that the flat ball had been round before and was squished to make
its new shape.
is the inability to see the world by someone else's point of view. In early
childhood children have egocentrism, they explain situations from their own perspective
and understanding. They have a hard time understanding why banging on pots and pans
or playing with a musical toy could increase their mother's headache when they're having
so much fun.

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 Children in early childhood are unable to group items in larger sub-groups and
smaller sub-groups based on similarities and differences. They don't have the ability to
into hierarchical categories.

There are four important stages of cognitive development:

This is the first stage in Piaget's theory, where infants have the following basic
senses: vision, hearing, and motor skills. In this stage, knowledge of the world is limited
but is constantly developing due to the child's experiences and interactions. According to
Piaget, when an infant reaches about 7–9 months of age they begin to develop object
permanence, this means the child now has the ability to understand that objects keep
existing even when they cannot be seen. An example of this would be hiding the child’s
favorite toy under a blanket, although the child cannot physically see it they still know to
look under the blanket.

During this stage of development, young children begin analyzing their

environment using mental symbols. These symbols often include words and images and
the child will begin to apply these various symbols in their everyday lives as they come
across different objects, events, and situations. However, Piaget named it
“preoperational” stage because children at this point are not able to apply specific
cognitive operations, such as mental math. In addition to symbolism, children start to
engage in pretend play in which they pretend to be people they are not (teachers,
superheroes). Some deficiencies in this stage of development are that children who are
about 3–4 years old often display what is called egocentrism. However, at about 7 years,
thought processes of children are no longer egocentric and are more intuitive, meaning
they now think about the way something looks instead of rational thinking.

During this stage, children between the age of 7 and 11 use appropriate logic to
develop cognitive operations and begin applying this new thinking to different events
they may encounter. Children in this stage incorporate inductive reasoning, which
involves drawing conclusions from other observations in order to make a generalization.
Unlike the preoperational stage, children can now change and rearrange mental images
and symbols to form a logical thought; an example of this is reversibility in which the
child now has the ability to reverse an action just by doing the opposite.
)
The final stage of Piaget’s cognitive development defines a child as now having
the ability to “think more rationally and systematically about abstract concepts and
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hypothetical events”. Some positive aspects during this time is that child or adolescent
begins forming their identity and begin understanding why people behave the way they
behave. However, there are also some negative aspects which include the child or
adolescent developing some egocentric thoughts which include the imaginary audience
and the personal fable. An imaginary audience is when an adolescent feels that the world
is just as concerned and judgmental of anything the adolescent does as they are, an
adolescent may feel as is they are “on stage” and everyone is a critique and they are the
ones being critiqued. A personal fable is when the adolescent feels that he or she is a
unique person and everything they do is unique. They feel as if they are the only ones that
have ever experienced what they are experiencing and that they are invincible and
nothing bad will happen to them it will only happen to others.

The Information Processing model is a way of examining and understanding the

cognitive development of children. This model, conceptualizes children's mental
processes through the metaphor of a computer processing, encoding, storing, and
decoding data. By 2 to 5 years of age, nearly all children have developed the skills to
focus attention for extended periods, recall old information, recognize previously
encountered information and recreate it in the present.
: most children cannot remember anything in their childhood prior to age 2 or
3. A 4-year-old child can remember what he wore at Birthday party and tell his friend
about it when he returns to school. Between the ages of 2 and 5, long-term memory
begins to form. Part of long-term memory involves storing information about the
sequence of events during familiar situations as "scripts". Scripts help children
understand, interpret, and predict what will happen in future scenarios. For example,
children understand that a visit to the grocery store involves a series of steps: mom enters
the store, gets a grocery cart, selects items from the shelves, waits in the check-out line,
pays for the groceries, and then loads them into the car.
Between the ages of 5 and 7, children learn how to focus and use their
cognitive abilities for paying attention and memorizing lists of words or facts. This skill
is obviously crucial for children starting school who need to learn new information, retain
it and produce it for tests and other academic activities. They also develop the capacity to
process information. This capacity allows them to make connections between old and
new information. For example, children can use their knowledge of the alphabet and
letter sounds (phonics) to start sounding out and reading words. During this age,
children's knowledge base also continues to grow and become better organized.
children's use of language also becomes more mature and complicated with
age. Between ages 4 -5-children's ability to understand language at a more complicated
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level also develops. Children develop the ability to understand that a sentence may have
meaning beyond the exact words being spoken. They start to understand the use of basic
metaphors based on very concrete ideas, tailor their speech to the social situation; for
example, children will talk more maturely to adults than to same-age peers.

Sense organs are important as they receive stimuli from

the environment. Their proper development helps in receiving correct
stimuli. Defective sense organs collect defective stimuli and as a result
wrong concepts can be formed and the cognitive development will not be
perfect.
Children with low Intelligence Quotient are unable to
receive stimuli properly thus their cognitive development lags behind.
Cognitive development is also influenced by the hereditary
traits; one gets from his parents.
with the maturation child gets more interaction with his
environment that is necessary for a good cognitive development.
External influences that affect cognitive development and
are mostly controllable. They include:
The opportunity a child gets to learn affects the
cognitive development. The more opportunities he gets the better is the
cognition.
Economic state of the family also helps in the
development of cognition. Children from better economic status get more
opportunities and better training and it helps in cognitive development.
These children also have better nutritional diets as compared to those
who come from poor backgrounds.
Play is very important in developing cognition. Through play
activities, the child interacts with the environment, receives stimuli and
responds to them. child playing with toys learns many new experiences,
becomes imaginative and does drama.
As child grows, he gets
various stimuli from environment through his senses. Stimuli such as
books, television, mobile, computer and learning toys are important in
developing cognitive abilities.These stimuli form concepts and symbols.
Experts recommend that children be exposed to books at an early age and
little amounts of television and computer as this tends to reduce
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 cognitive development.
: Children who interact frequently with other people
tend to become brighter and gain confidence as compared to those who
relate with less people. It is important for children to interact with others
as this helps them to build their language and speaking skills. They are
also likely to be read to which makes them learn faster.

also known as a
developmental stage theory was created by the Swiss developmental
psychologist Jean Piaget (1896–1980). It is a comprehensive theory
about the nature and development of human intelligence and deals with
the nature of knowledge and how humans acquire, construct, and use this
knowledge. Piaget believed that, cognitive development was an
organization of mental processes that result from biological maturation
and environmental experience. Children develop an understanding of the
world around them, experience discrepancies between what they already
know and what they discover in their environment and then adjust their
ideas accordingly. He claimed that cognitive development is at the center
of the human organism, and language is contingent on knowledge and
understanding acquired through cognitive development. Piaget develop
four important stages of cognitive development: sensorimotor stage
(birth to age 2), preoperational stage (age 2 to 7), concrete-operational
stage (ages 7 to 12), and formal-operational stage (ages 11 to 12, and
thereafter). Child-centered classrooms and "open education" are direct
applications of Piaget's theory.

Lawrence Kohlberg started as a developmental psychologist and then

moved to the field of moral education. Kohlberg believed that people
progressed in their moral reasoning through a series of six stages which
could be more generally classified into three levels.
is that generally found at the elementary
school level. In the of this level, people behave according to socially
acceptable norms because they are told to do so by some authority figure (e.g., parent or
teacher). This obedience is compelled by the threat or application of punishment. The
second stage of this level is characterized by a view that right behavior means acting in
one's own best interests.
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 is that generally found in society, hence the
name "conventional." The first stage of this level (stage 3) is characterized by an attitude
which seeks to do what will gain the approval of others. The second stage is one oriented
to abiding by the law and responding to the obligations of duty.
is one that Kohlberg felt is not reached by the
majority of adults. Its first stage is an understanding of social mutuality and a genuine
interest in the welfare of others. The last stage is based on respect for universal principle
and the demands of individual conscience. While Kohlberg always believed in the
existence of Stage 6 and had some nominees for it, he could never get enough subjects to
define it, much less observe their longitudinal movement to it.
Kohlberg believed that individuals could only progress through these six stages one by
one. They could not "jump" stages. According to Kohlberg, it was important to present
individuals with moral dilemmas for discussion which encourage their development in
that direction. In this way moral development can be promoted through formal education.
Kohlberg believed that most moral development occurs through social interaction.
Kohlberg's classification can be outlined in the following manner:

Pre-conventional 1 Obedience and Punishment

2 Individualism, Instrumentalism, and Exchange
Conventional 3 "Good boy/girl"
4 Law and Order
Post-conventional 5 Social Contract
6 Principled Conscience

Sigmund Freud (1856), was an Austrian neurologist who developed the

field of psychoanalysis and many theories including those that focus on
the unconscious, the interpretation of dreams, Id, ego, and super ego, and
what is referred to as the psychosexual development theory.
Psychosexual development is often referred to as the Oedipus Complex.
The Oedipus Complex teaches that the unconscious holds repressed
thoughts. Freud taught that these unconscious thinking patterns form
during several stages of development until they are eradicated by normal,
healthy sexual development. Freud’s theory of psychosexual
development is divided into five stages. These are oral, anal, phallic,
latency, and genital.
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 The oral stage occurs in an infant’s life from birth to
18 months. During this time, an infant is focused with receiving
oral pleasure. This occurs through breast or bottle feeding, or
sucking on a pacifier. It is believed that if an infant receives too
much or too little oral stimulation, they may develop a
personality trait that is fixated on oral gratification, may focus on
activities that involve the mouth such as over eating, biting the
fingernails, smoking, or drinking. The theory states that these
people may develop personality traits such as becoming
extremely gullible or naive, always following others and never
taking the lead, and becoming extremely dependent upon others.
The anal stage is directly related to a child’s
awareness of bowel control and gaining pleasure through the act
of eliminating or retaining feces. Freud’s theory puts the anal
stage between 18 months and three years. It is believed that
when a child becomes fixated on receiving pleasure through
controlling and eliminating feces, he/she can become anal
retentive or anal expulsive. Anal retentive children are obsessed
with control, perfection, and cleanliness while anal expulsive
children are extremely disorganized, live in chaos, and are
known for making messes.
Freud believes the phallic stage or the Oedipus or
Electra complexes occur during three to six years of age. The
belief is that male children harbor unconscious, sexual attraction
to their mothers and rivalry feelings with their father while
female children develop a sexual attraction to their father. These
feelings naturally resolve once the child begins to identify with
their same sex parent. If a child becomes fixated during this
phase, the result could be sexual deviance or a confused sexual
identity.
The latency stage is named so because Freud
believed there weren't many overt forms of sexual gratification
displayed. This stage is said to last from the age of six until a
child enters puberty. Most children throughout this age form
same sex friendships and play in a manner that is non-sexual.
Unconscious sexual desires and thoughts remain repressed.
The last stage of the psychosexual development
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 theory begins at puberty and develops with the physiology
changes Freud believed the unconscious sexual desires that were
repressed and made dormant during the latency stage, awaken
due to puberty. The prior stages of development result in a focus
on the genitals as a source for pleasure and teens develop and
explore attractions to the opposite sex.

Every person has his own unique identity composed of the different
personality traits. These personality traits can be positive or negative,
innate or acquired, and vary from person to person based on the degree
of environmental influence. Erik Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial
Development emphasizes the sociocultural determinants of development
and presents them as eight stages of psychosocial conflicts that all
individuals must overcome or resolve successfully in order to adjust well
to the environment. According to Erikson’s theory, an individual
encounters a certain crisis that contributes to his/her psychosocial growth
at each of the eight stages of psychosocial development. Whenever an
individual experiences such crisis, he/she is left with no choice but to
face it and think of ways to resolve it. Failure to overcome such crisis
may lead to significant impact on his/her psychosocial development.

Infants must learn how to trust others, particularly

those who care for their basic needs. A newborn is like a helpless being and therefore,
might view the outside world as threatening. Depending on how he is treated by people
around him, the sense of threat can be replaced by trust. When this happens, the infant
gains a sense of security and will learn to trust people around him. The first and most
important person to teach an infant about trust is usually the parents. Parents take good
care of their children, attend to their needs, provide them with food, shelter, and make
them feel comfortable and secure.
At this stage, children should be
taught the basic ways of taking care of themselves, including changing their clothes and
feeding themselves.
At this stage, children like to explore and do
things on their own. They can learn new concepts introduced in school and are expected
to practice these lessons in real life. They know that they can accomplish these tasks on
their own, but if they fail to do so and end up asking for assistance from others, they may
feel a sense of guilt.
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 As children grow, they mature and their level
of self-awareness increases. At this stage, children become more competitive. They want
to do things that other children of the same age can do. When they make the effort to
perform a task and succeed, they develop self-confidence. However, if they fail, they tend
to feel that they are inferior to others.
During adolescence, an individual is
expected to develop his or her sexual identity. Some adolescents may feel confused and
are unsure whether an activity is age-appropriate for them. The individual may also
experience identity crisis as a result of the transition from childhood to adulthood or by
expectations from themselves and from people around them, e.g. their parents.
People in their 30s become worried about
finding the right partner and fear that if they fail to do so, they may have to spend the rest
of their lives alone. Young adults are most vulnerable to feel intimacy and loneliness
because they interact with a lot of people in this phase of their lives. It’s not always a
success story for every young adult to find someone with whom they can share a lifelong
commitment. Some may choose to spend the rest of their lives as singles.
Adults who are in their 40s and 50s
tend to find meaning in their work. They feel like at this point in their lives, they should
be able to contribute something meaningful to the society and leave a legacy. If they fail
to achieve this, they feel like they have been an unproductive member of the society.
People who are in their 60s or older are
typically retirees. It is important for them to feel a sense of fulfillment knowing that they
have done something significant during their younger years. When they look back in their
life, they feel content, as they believe that they have lived their life to the fullest. If they
feel that they haven’t done much during their life, it’s likely that they will experience a
sense of despair.

The term socialisation refers to the process of interaction through which the
growing individual learns the habits, attitudes, values and beliefs of the social group into
which he has been born. Socialisation is a life-long process that makes children
responsive to the society. It prepares them to fit in the group and to perform the social
roles. Socialisation takes place at different stages such as primary, secondary and adult.
stage involves the socialisation of the young child in the family. Family is
the primary and the most influential source of education. Children learn their language,
customs, norms and values in the family. stage involves the school where
child learns very important lessons in social conduct from his peers. Schools not only
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help children in learning language and other subjects but also inculcate the concept of
time, discipline, team work, cooperation and competition. Formal socialisation takes
through direct instruction and education in schools and colleges. stage is adult
socialisation. Adult socialisation teaches them to take on new duties, bring change in
their views and behaviour. Socialisation takes place rapidly if the agencies of
socialisation are more unanimous in their ideas and skills. When there is conflict between
the ideas, examples and skills transmitted in home and those transmitted by school or
peer, socialisation of the individual tends to be slower and ineffective.
and other mass media, play an important role in the process of socialisation by
transmitting information and messages that influence the personality of children to a great
extent. They are the instrument of social power as they encourage individuals to support
the existing norms and values or oppose or change them. Authors, editors and advertisers,
with their messages, join the teachers, the peers and the parents in the socialisation
process.

Morality is the ability to differentiate between right and wrong and to understand
how to make the right choices. Moral development of children depend on their
experiences at home, the environment around them, and their physical, cognitive,
emotional, and social skills. Between the ages of 2 and 5, many children start to show
morally-based behaviors and beliefs. Many young children also start to show empathy-
based guilt when they break the rules. Children between the ages of 5 and 10 think that
authority figures such as parents and teachers have rules that young people must follow
absolutely. Rules are thought of as real, unchangeable guidelines rather than evolving,
negotiable, or situational. But when children grow older, develop more abstract thinking,
and become less self-focused, they turn out to be capable of forming more flexible rules
and applying them selectively for the sake of co-operation.
According to Kohlberg, young children at this age base their morality on a punishment
and obedience orientation. He believed that young children behave morally because they
fear authority and try to avoid punishment. In other words, little kids follow the rules
because they don't want to get in trouble. Most young children can understand the
difference between "good" and "bad" behavior, and this understanding provides the basis
for more complicated moral thinking in the future.
Children between the ages 5 and 6 typically think in terms of distributive justice,
or the idea that material goods or "stuff" should be fairly shared. In other words, everyone
should get his or her exact "fair share. They cannot consider other factors, such as need or
effort. But by age 6 or 7, children begin to consider what people have earned or worked
for when thinking about distributive justice. Children can also reason that some people
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should get more because they worked harder.

Every Child develops at his/her own pace. Different internal and external factors
impact a child's level of emotional development. temperament (the innate or
genetic component of an individual's personality) can affect how children respond to the
world emotionally. Children who have more easy-going temperaments tend to have a
easier time learning to regulate their own emotions as well as to respond to other people's
emotions more positively. Children who have difficult or slow-to-warm-up temperaments
tend to struggle to regulate their own emotions and will typically react to other people's
strong emotions by becoming distressed themselves.
, role models and the environment will also influence how children react to the
world emotionally. During early childhood, the immediate level of a child's environment
consists of family and direct caregivers such as teachers and babysitters. Children with
caregivers who show warmth, compassion, understanding, as well as genuine concern
and help toward others will also learn to show empathy and pro-social behavior during
later childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. Children who witness caregivers modeling
mostly angry, punitive, and cold emotional responses will struggle more to develop
empathy and prosocial behavior.
On a larger level the culture of the local community will also have an effect on
children's emotional development. It includes the characteristics of a child's
neighborhood or school system, such as safety, traditions, and culture. For example, if
children grow up feeling unsafe or focused primarily on meeting basic survival needs, the
fear of violence or sense of insecurity will flavor children's emotional reactions and
beliefs. But if children live in a safe, supportive community, they will have a more
positive view and emotional response to that environment.
The child's nation or residence also affects emotional development. A child
growing up in a peacetime country may develop more positive emotional responses and
skills than a child growing up in a war-torn country governed by martial law or
threatened by terrorist attacks

To be naughty, defiant and impulsive from time to time is perfectly normal for
children. But some children have disruptive behaviour disorders or extremely difficult
and challenging behaviours that are outside the norm for their age. The most common
disruptive behaviour disorders are:

Around one in ten children under the age of 12 years are thought to have
oppositional defiant disorder, with boys outnumbering girls by two to one. Some of the
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typical behaviours of a child with ODD include:
 Easily angered, annoyed or irritated,  Frequent temper tantrums
 Argues frequently with adults, particularly  Refuses to obey rules
parents,
 Seems to deliberately try to annoy or  Low self-esteem
aggravate others,
 Seeks to blame others for any misfortunes or  Low frustration threshold
misdeeds,

Children with conduct disorder are often judged as ‘bad kids’ because of their delinquent
behaviour and refusal to accept rules. Around five per cent of 10 year olds are thought to
have CD, with boys outnumbering girls by four to one. Around one-third of children with
CD also have attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Some of the typical
behaviours of a child with CD may include:
 Frequent refusal to obey parents or other authority figures
 Repeated truancy
 Tendency to use drugs, including cigarettes and alcohol, at a very early age
 Lack of empathy for others
 Being aggressive to animals and other people or showing sadistic behaviours
including bullying and physical or sexual abuse
 Keenness to start physical fights and use of weapons in physical fights
 Frequent lying
 Criminal behaviour such as stealing, deliberately lighting fires, breaking into
houses and vandalism
 A tendency to run away from home
 Suicidal tendencies – although these are more rare.

Around two to five per cent of children are thought to have attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder with boys outnumbering girls by three to one. The characteristics
of ADHD can include:
 Inattention – difficulty concentrating, forgetting instructions, moving from
one task to another without completing anything.
 Impulsivity – talking over the top of others, having a ‘short fuse’, being
accident-prone.
 Over activity – constant restlessness and fidgeting.

The causes of ODD, CD and ADHD are unknown but some of the risk factors include:
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  – boys are much more likely than girls to suffer from behavioural
disorders. It is unclear if the cause is genetic or linked to socialisation
experiences.
 – difficult pregnancies, premature birth and low birth
weight may contribute in some cases to the child’s problem behaviour later
in life.
 – children who are difficult to manage, temperamental or
aggressive from an early age are more likely to develop behavioural
disorders later in life.
 – behavioural disorders are more likely in dysfunctional families.
For example, a child is at increased risk in families where domestic violence,
poverty, poor parenting skills or substance abuse are a problem.
 –problems with reading and writing are often
associated with behaviour problems.
 – children with intellectual disabilities are twice as
likely to have behavioural disorders.
 – studies have shown that areas of the brain that control
attention appear to be less active in children with ADHD.

The parenting styles influence the development of children across childhood.

Over the course of childhood, parents' styles and its effects on the child tend to remain
same. Children who are socially responsible, competent, successful in school, and high in
self-esteem belong to authoritative parents. But the authoritarian style of parents, with its
perfectionism, harsh discipline and rigidity affects children adversely. Children of such
parents are generally rated lower than their peers in cognitive ability, competence and
self-esteem, but higher in aggression. Children of permissive parents also tend to be less
self-reliant, and less responsible but more aggressive and impulsive than their peers.
Children raised in disengaged homes show more behavior problems.
Children tend to do better in traditional two-parent families than single -parent family.
Children's adjustment to parents’ divorce depends on factors concerning the child;
 The parents' handling of the situation
 Financial circumstances
 Custody and visitation arrangements
 Contact with the noncustodial parent (usually the father) and
 A parent's remarriage.
Children living with only one parent are at heightened risk of behavioral and academic
problems, in part related to socioeconomic status.
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 Middle childhood usually expands from 6-12 years. The rate of physical growth
is slow and steady but the rate of cognitive, emotional, and social development is
tremendous. Middle childhood affects the future Physical, cognitive, emotional, language
and social development of child and in turn influences the later success in life.

Physical development in middle childhood is characterized by considerable

variations in growth patterns. Boys and girls follow the same basic developmental
patterns in middle childhood, but they do not necessarily mature at the same rate.
Children’s bones broaden and lengthen dramatically during middle childhood; generally
children grow about 2 - 3 inches taller and gain about 7 pounds per year until puberty.
Majority of the girls experience a preadolescent growth spurt in 9 – 10 year of age, while
most boys experience the same growth spurt two years later around age 11 or 12.
Motor skills are behavioral abilities or capacities. As children grow, their motor skills
increase, giving them an opportunity to participate in a variety of physical activities.

Children continue to develop and improve gross

motor skills such as walking and running. Usually, boys develop these skills a
little earlier than girls, except for skills that involve balance and precise
movements such as jumping, hopping, throwing, catching, striking, kicking and
skipping.
Children in middle childhood continue to develop and
sharpen their fine motor skills. Girls tend to develop fine motor skills slightly
faster than do boys. Middle-childhood-aged children show dramatic
improvements with regard to their printed handwriting and ability to write in
cursive letters and manual activities such as beading, sewing, scrap booking and
building models. They become quite skillful at playing video and computer
games.

Participation in physical activities like cycling, hiking, playing basketball

or cricket is necessary for a healthy life. It can also be a fun for children. Parents’
support and encouragement to be physically active significantly increases a
child’s activity level. Children of middle childhood are also influenced to
participate in physical activity by friends, peers, other family members, and
people depicted in the media. Teachers also influence a child’s level of physical
activity. Physical training period should be provided at school daily, where
enjoyable activities should be offered.
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 The term learning disabilities covers a large range of challenges that
children may experience in school. Different processes of nervous system are
involved in perceiving and understanding information, using concepts through
verbal (spoken or written language) or nonverbal means. A problem in one or
more such processes causes a specific learning disability. Learning disability
manifests itself with a deficit in one or more of the following areas: attention,
reading, writing, processing, memory, reasoning, spelling, coordination,
calculation, reasoning, emotional maturity and social competence. Learning
disabilities do not affect child's intelligence but make it more difficult for
children to read, write, reason, spell or organize information.

( Attention Deficit
Hyperactive Disorder is a biological based condition causing a persistent
pattern of difficulties such as:
 - the child finds it extremely difficult to pay attention to certain
topics in class as they become easily distracted by almost anything around
him.
 - the child is usually in constant motion and may constantly
be fiddling, leg swinging and squirming in their chair.
 - the child has a very difficult time controlling their impulses.
They will not stop and think before they act. They say and do whatever
comes into their mind without thinking about the consequences.

Difficulty in performing math calculations is called dyscalculia. It affects

arithmetic operations.

Difficulty in expressing thoughts in writing is called dysgraphia. It is used to

refer to extremely poor handwriting.

Difficulty in understanding written words is. Some common signs of

Dyslexia are:
 poor reading comprehension
 difficulty reading — trouble identifying individual words
 poor spelling
 letter reversals (e.g. writing b for d or vice versa), trouble sequencing letters,
(e.g. "left" for "felt").
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 It is a complex neurobiological condition that affects the normal function of
the immune, endocrine and nervous systems. It impacts normal brain
development leaving most individuals with communication problems,
difficulty with typical social interactions and a tendency to repeat specific
patterns of behaviour.

If a child learns and develops more slowly than other children of his age
group, he is called mentally retarded or intellectually disabled.
It is possible for children, displaying characteristics of a learning disability,
to overcome learning disabilities and be successful, if their disability is
noticed earlier and helped by professional right away. Such children are
more likely to be successful if parents and teachers organize interventions at
right time.

The term refers to the process of growth and change in

mental or intellectual abilities such as thinking, understanding and reasoning. Children of
middle childhood develop the ability to think in concrete ways such as addition,
subtraction, division, ordering (alphabetize and sort), and transforming objects and
actions.

The actions which help define cognitive thought process are cognitive tasks or
skills. All the processes that require only a small number of mental processes and result
in learning are called cognitive processes. The most important cognitive processes are
following:

During middle childhood, children’s ability to process inputs become more

effective as the duration of their attention span increases. Their ability to ignore
the automatic tendency of attention to become captured by distractions (such as
sounds outside the window) also improves. Therefore they endure and benefit
from classroom instruction and become more efficient learners. Children’s ability
to pay attention is a typical progressive improvement in middle-childhood. Some
children have to struggle hard to concentrate in the increasingly challenging
environments of school, family and society.

According to Information Processing Theory, children's memory capacity and the

ability to use their memory also increases and improves during middle childhood.
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Children store increasing amounts of information and reliably retrieve this
information later on when required to complete homework, tests, and other
educational activities due to their improved memory skills. They also become
more experienced to organize the information they memorize in addition to
increases in actual memory capacity.

Generally memory is considered a prerequisite skill to successful learning. In

addition to increases in actual memory capacity, children in middle childhood
also become more sophisticated to organize the information they remember.
There are some strategies that can systematically improve memory and have been
helping students at STRONG Learning Centers for years, not only on homework
and tests, but continuing to be valuable in their daily lives.
To break up information into small chunks and memorize it is called
chunking. For example when we memorize a telephone number, a locker
combination, or a social security number we use chunking. It's easier to
remember long numbers when we "chunk" them into groups of threes, fours and
fives. That's because most people can only remember about three, four or five
bits of information at a time.
Understanding before memorizing something is important, so
try to understand it first. A good way to do this is by making a connection
between your experiences and what you are learning. The better the relation
between the new information and what one already knows, the easier is learning.
Graphic Organizers help children see
things they are trying to learn. They help organize information. There are many
different types of graphic organizers.
 Web for the main topic and details
 Venn diagram for comparing and contrasting
 Cause and Effect Design with the event in the middle box, the causes listed
in the left boxes and the effects listed in the right boxes by lines).
 Cycle Organizer consists of shapes drawn in a cyclic pattern with words in
each shape to represent things or events that go in cycles.
To visualize means to see an image in your head without actually
looking at it. Visualization can help children learn almost anything.
Another learning strategy is to associate, or "connect," each word or
event with a person, place, thing, feeling, or situation. For example, you may
connect what you are trying to learn with someone you know, or with a movie
character or scene.
76
 We all used rhyming in the ABC song to learn the alphabet. And the
rhyme "I before E, except after C, or when it sounds like A as in neighbor or
weigh." This is also a great strategy even when learning the times tables. For
example, 7 and 7 went down the line to capture number 49; 8 and 4 made some
stew and gave it to 32. (Rhymes don't have to make sense!)
An acronym is a word made up from the first letters of a list of
words. Here's how it works. You take the list of words or facts that you want to
remember and put them in an order so that the first letters of each word, or the
first syllables, spell a real word or a made-up word.
When you want to remember information, you have to practice it,
or else it fades. So, just as actors need to rehearse in order to remember their
lines, children need to rehearse to remember what they are learning.

The concrete operational thought or logical thinking is the characteristic of

middle childhood. Children of this age group become more logical about
concrete and specific things, gain a better understanding of mental operations but
they still struggle with abstract ideas and have difficulty understanding abstract
or hypothetical concepts.
Piaget determined that children in the middle childhood were fairly good at the
use of inductive logic that involves going from a specific experience to a general
principle. But they also have difficulty using deductive logic, which involves using a
general principle to determine the outcome of a specific event. For example, a child
might learn that X=Y, and Y=Z, but might still struggle to understand that X=Z.
One of the most important developments of middle childhood is an
understanding of reversibility, or awareness that actions can be reversed. An example of
this is being able to reverse the order of relationships between mental categories. For
example, a child might be able to recognize that his or her dog is a Labrador, that a
Labrador is a dog, and that a dog is an animal.
Conservation is the ability to understand that re
distributing material does not affect its mass, volume or length. On changing the
shape or appearance the thing remains the same, is conservation. Children
understand; that breaking a candy bar up into smaller pieces does not changes its
amount, the amount of liquid in a short, wide cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny
glass.
The ability to understand, that other people have their own thoughts.
Children at earlier stages of development are egocentric (self-centered), but in the
concrete stage, egocentrism disappear and they become more sociocentric.
77
 According to Kohlberg, children early in their middle
childhood stage of development will typically display "Preconventional" moral
reasoning. They have internalized basic culturally prescribed rules governing
right and wrong behavior. For instance, they will appreciate that it is considered
immoral to steal from others; that you must earn or be given things and not
simply take them. They realize that morally good behaviors attract praise and
positive regard from peers and adults, while morally bad choices bring about
unpleasant consequences and negative regard.

Most researchers agree that a combination of both genetic

and environmental factors contribute to the development of intelligence. Based
on studies of identical twins' IQ scores, researchers have determined that the
heritability of intelligence is approximately .50 means that about half of
intelligence is caused by a child's genetics and other half is determined by
environmental factors which include children's socioeconomic status, parents’
attitude towards education, cultural and educational opportunities, and other
similar social factors.
Research has identified differences in several
specific cognitive skills as well as in a range of social and personal
characteristics. The major gender differences are found in verbal, language, and
certain spatial skills. For example, girls tend to produce words at an earlier age,
have a larger vocabulary, and show a higher level of language complexity
beginning in early childhood. They are also better in verbal skills, spelling,
overall language measures, and writing during school-age years. Boys are better
in spatial skills such as mental rotation (the ability to visualize how an object
would look if you viewed it from a different angle). Boys perform better on
several mathematics skills specifically in problem solving.
During middle childhood, language develops
marvelously. Some children learn as many as 20 new words per day and apply
complex grammar rules. The practical application of linguistic knowledge
(pragmatics) also improves noticeably at this time, as does the understanding of
metaphors, jokes, and puns. Children are increasingly able to switch from proper
speech (formal code) to a more colloquial informal code with their peers.
Differences in how well children learn to speak, read, and write the language of
the school may be partly genetic, but many emphasize the social context.
The connection between school achievement and socioeconomic status is
revealed by the fact that children from low-income families are least likely to succeed in
78
school. Their difficulty is generally in the area of language and includes having smaller
vocabularies and using simpler grammar.

Children undergo dramatic social and emotional changes from early to middle
childhood. As children start school, their social world becomes much larger. Introduction
of school provides them a much richer pool of social experiences with both familiar and
unfamiliar people. During middle childhood, children become more competent and
confident and gain the trust of their parents. Children go to school calmly and without
much drama where they interact successfully with peers as well as listen to the teacher
and follow directions.

As children enter school, they start to pay greater attention to those around them.
When they notice other people more and more, they also begin to compare themselves to
their peers and develop a sense of how to fit themselves into their social environment.
Self-concept develops. In the middle childhood children tend to have a naturally
optimistic impression of them. They often overestimate their own abilities to perform
certain actions such as counting to a hundred, jumping rope perfectly, or winning a race
against a classmate. Children do begin to observe how their peers perform these same
tasks and often start comparing themselves to others. Children develop a sense of self-
esteem by gaining mastery of many basic skills.

During middle childhood children tend to develop the social skills such as
sharing, listening, patience, and cooperation. They become much more selective about
whom they choose as friends. With the growing social world friendships and peer
relations become very important throughout the middle school years, as children begin to
spend a significant amount of time with their peers.
Social and moral growth takes place in a positive climate
that fosters peer interaction. Children’s behavior in the peer group is an indicator
of their social competence. Children develop understandings of others and
interact competently with their peers and sustain friendships over time. Their
concerns about acceptance in the peer group often increases.
Friends are vital for a healthy development of middle
childhood children. Friendships provide them with more than just fun playmates.
They try to select friends who are kind and accommodating, and somewhat
outgoing and avoid children who are either too shy or too aggressive. Boys tend
to have more friends, whereas girls have closer friends. Children without
friendship in this age can suffer from emotional and mental difficulties later in
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 life. Children learn many social skills, such as how to communicate, cooperate,
and solve problems in interacting with friends. They control their emotions and
respond to others emotions. Children develop positive attitudes about school and
learning when they have friends there. Their school performance changes due to
friends. School is a great place to make friends, but participating in activities
outside of school also provide further opportunities for developing positive social
relationships.
During middle childhood central concern of many children
is popularity. Some children have many friends and others have a few. Popular
children show higher levels of positive social behavior and cognitive ability and
lower levels of aggression. Usually social status of boys depends on social
dominance, coolness, toughness and athletic ability, whereas girls’ status depends
more on family background, socioeconomic status, and physical appearance.
Children playing sports benefit physically,
develop personal discipline, learn how to get along with others and do better in
school. Children growing up without sports are really disadvantaged as sports are
a set of life lessons and more than a game. Children participating in sports attend
school more and get in less trouble. Such children learn to work together, get a
sense of discipline acquire leadership skills, and learn communication skills.
They are more community and civic minded, and are more successful in the
workplace. Middle child hood children attain a lot of physical and psychological
benefits from sports participation.
By the time most
children enter middle childhood they begin to understand the feelings of other
people. They start understanding the idea of sharing and taking turns, although
sharing of favourite toy or game is still hard for them. Sharing teaches children
about compromise, how to negotiate, and how to cope with disappointment.
Praise and encouragement for good sharing will help them to lean cooperation.
Stealing, lying, and cheating are all
common but inappropriate behaviors of middle childhood. While most of the
time it is simply a common behavior that will be outgrown, but some severe
forms of these behaviors can indicate a more serious psychological problem.
Stealing and lying are more common in boys than girls, and happen most often in
children of 5 years to 8 years.
Children from 6 years understand what lying is and its moral wrongness.
However, children may continue to lie in order to test adult rules and limits. The child
may admit to telling a lie, but usually he or she has many reasons for having done so.
80
Rules are very important at this age, so cheating becomes less important.
often causes more concern to parents because it may happen outside the home
and may affect other people. Children in this age group may steal because of:
 They may feel peer pressure and the need to fit in.
 They may have low self-esteem.
 They may not have any friends and may be trying to "buy" their friends.
Children aren’t born aggressive, they learn it.
However, children, parents, and teachers also can learn how to cope with
aggression. Most recent researches consider aggressive acts not as the sole fault
of the individual, but also as related to a set of social and cultural circumstances.
Children showing high physical aggression in middle childhood tend to come
from low income families, have less well-educated mothers, less sensitive and
responsive parents or divorced parents who are triangulated in marital conflicts.
During the middle childhood, the child's social
world expands and includes more people and settings beyond the home
environment due to natural broadening of psychosocial and cognitive abilities.
The parent-child relationship continues to remain the most important influence
on the child's development. Generally children of responsive and demanding
parents continue to thrive psychologically and socially during the middle
childhood years.
Learning of some social rules is very important
in middle childhood. Rules are learnt by modeling and practicing not by teaching.
. Role playing games can be a good way to model appropriate behavior and help
children practice responding to different social problems. A list of such rules can
be pasted in class rooms.

Rule #1: Meet and greet politely.

 Say greetings, introductions and goodbyes.
 Politely offer and receive compliments.
 Be able to start and finish conversations.
Rule #2: Take turns talking.
 Listen when others are speaking and look them in the eye.
 Don’t interrupt.
 Respond appropriately and at the right time.
Rule #3: Think about others before acting.
 Don’t touch without asking.
 Don’t cut in line.
81
  Wait your turn.
 Stand a comfortable distance away when talking.
Rule #4: Cooperate with others.
 Follow directions when you’re asked to.
 Ask for help when you need it.
 Apologize when necessary.
 Be flexible and open to new idea.
When children don’t follow social rules, they are considered as self-centered or
uncaring by others. Their peers may find this behavior annoying and back away. Such
children may find themselves being left out. Children with poor social skills are bullied
by other children and are considered as disrespectful or rude by adults.
Learning and attention issues affect children
social life in different ways. For example, language disorder can make
conversation difficult. Non Verbal Learning Disabilities may affect the ability to
read people’s moods and reactions. ADHD may cause children to speak and act
impulsively.
Parents and teachers can help children with these issues by talking about social
skills and practicing them together.

Middle childhood is a time when children move from home into wider social
contexts that strongly influence their development. Children develop "sense of industry"
and learn to cooperate with their peers and adults. The involvement in formal schooling
and organized activities that begin during these years, introduce children to new social
roles in which they earn social status by their competence and performance. Children
who do not master the skills required in these new settings develop a "sense of
inferiority," which can lead to long-lasting emotional, intellectual, and interpersonal
consequences.
Feelings of competence and personal esteem are of central importance for a
child's well-being. Children who do not see themselves as competent in academic, social,
or other domains (such as athletics, music, drama, or scouting) during these years report
anger, depression and social isolation more often than their peers. They are at increased
risk for short-term and long-term academic, behavioral and psychiatric difficulties.

As the child's social world expands and includes more people and settings
beyond the home environment due to natural broadening of psychosocial and
cognitive abilities. Children spend less time with parents as compared to early
82
 childhood and are less close to them but the parent-child relationship continues to
remain the most important influence on the child's development. The atmosphere
in the home and family environment is very important for children's
development. Homes with employed mothers tend to be more structured and
more egalitarian than homes with at-home mothers. Maternal employment has a
positive influence on school achievement in low-income families. Low income or
poor parents may have problem in monitoring and providing effective discipline
and emotional support.

The peer group becomes more important in middle childhood. Peer groups
generally consist of children who are similar in age, sex, ethnicity, and
socioeconomic status, and who live near one another or go to school together.
The peer group helps children develop social skills, allows them to test and adopt
values independent of parents, gives them a sense of belonging, and helps
develop the self-concept. It also may encourage conformity and prejudice.
Popularity influences self-esteem and future adjustment. Popular children tend to
have good cognitive abilities and social skills. Behaviors that affect popularity
may derive from family relationships and cultural values. Intimacy and stability
of friendships increase during middle childhood.

Children's entry into elementary school is the main social event that
differentiates middle childhood from early childhood. For many children entry to
school coincides with participation in other formal organizations and programs
outside the family. When children join different programs in school, they
experience increased individual freedom. They are permitted to move about more
freely, for example, to go to school alone, ride bicycles and play outside. On the
other hand, parents, teachers, and other adults put increasing pressure on children
to be "good," to cooperate with their peers and to show respect for adults. This
pressure increases in school where they are expected to control themselves,
cultivating good "work habits," sitting quietly for long periods of time,
complying with expectations and obeying the rules that are set by others.
As school classes and programs tend to be age-segregated; that is, children of a
certain age are grouped together in one class. Due to this homogeneity of the school class
or peer group children focus attention on their individual strengths and differences in
social skills. The performance of children in an elementary school is systematically
evaluated against preset standards of progress, excellence, and acceptable style. They
may experience failure and frustration, if they do not perform especially if they are less
83
skilled than their peers. When children enter the middle-childhood years they are very
optimistic about their ability to master a large range of tasks and activities, including their
school-work. Their ability rating about themselves is very high and actually there is no
relation between their own ability ratings and actual performance levels. By the end of
middle childhood, however, their ability self-concepts and their expectations for success
tend to decline. Because over the elementary school years children are typically far less
optimistic, and there is a much stronger relation between their self-ratings and their actual
performance.

In psychological terms adjustment is defined as the ability of a person to be at

peace through changes in their behavior or thinking. Some children have problems
adjusting to the changes that occur in middle childhood. As a result, they begin to have
emotional issues. Children who used to be happy and well-adjusted might suddenly begin
to feel anxious or depressed. There are some major emotional issues that can affect
children in middle childhood.

If a child who used to be happy and outgoing start to feel nervous all the
time. When going to school or to the park he gets really scared about what might
happen to him and worries that he will get hurt. This is called anxiety. Anxiety is
a part of natural development and it is common in middle childhood.
Approximately 20% of children develop an intense anxiety of some sort. Even
those who do not develop intense anxiety can feel anxious and scared sometimes.
Normal level of anxiety is not only normal but it can help protect children from
danger. For example if a child is scared of snakes he will avoid them and,
therefore, has a lower chance of being bitten. But some children end up with
anxiety that is much higher than normal. Parents can help their children deal with
fear by talking with them and, if necessary, seeking out the help of a counselor or
psychologist who specializes in childhood anxiety.
Besides anxiety about the world at large, children develop a very specific
fear of attending school, which is known as a school phobia. They often develop
stomachaches in the morning that keep them home from school. School phobia is
most common in 11- to 13-year-olds as the social and academic stakes at school
increase dramatically. Bullying becomes more common in the start of middle
school. Middle school academics become more difficult as children move into
more abstract concepts in their classes. All these factors can combine to create
school phobia. As with other anxieties, parents should help support their children
and seek professional help if necessary.
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 Some children experience depression as they move into middle school.
Signs of depression are noticed in them. For example their grades decline, they
withdraw socially and don't hang out with their friends very much anymore, they
lose their appetite, and they don't sleep well and start suffering from headaches.

Sometimes children do not have self-control or social skills to manage

their behavior. When children are not encouraged to express themselves or can’t
find the words to deal with aggressive feelings or they cannot cope with growing
levels of anger in themselves or in others, aggression is displayed. In the early
middle childhood most children lose the impulse and need to attack others
aggressively. An aggressive child may strike a sibling, but rarely hit a friend at
school or on the playground. Foot stomping and door slamming may occur at
home, but not at school. Some children continue to act aggressively throughout
the middle childhood. Boys display aggression in the form of physical attacks
and direct confrontations but girls seldom display physical aggression. Girls act
aggressively by ostracizing, shunning, and defaming others. Physical aggression
decreases in most children during middle childhood. However, some children
continue to fight and follow high aggression. Boys engage in physical aggression
more than girls do. Different factors responsible for aggression are:
A child’s temperament and his/her learned coping skills are critical to
manage aggression. Temperament is that part of the personality that seems to be
controlled by genetics.
The positive and negative interactions of the family and the level of
family stress influence children learning aggression. Children observe and imitate adults
around them handling their anger and frustration and model their behavior after them.
Communities that understand and support children’s rights support
children and all their developmental stages. Places where there are supportive adults and
healthy alternatives for recreation can protect children while they are learning to deal
with situations that give rise to aggression.
Housing, schools, and neighborhoods can contribute to aggression.
For example, extreme heat or overcrowding has been shown to increase aggression.
What sorts of models are children exposed to on television and in the
community? When people try to solve problems with physical violence, children
mistakenly learn that this is an appropriate behavior.
Children need to learn positive problem-solving techniques and positive,
consistent, nurturing discipline to outgrow their aggressive ways. Parents and teachers
85
need to place children in environments that support learning of positive social behavior
rather than hostile, aggressive and antisocial acts.

Majority of children have many fears during middle childhood for example fear
of darkness, fear of animals such as barking dogs, fear of fires, fear of high
places or thunderstorms, fear of kidnappers or fear of death of those around them.
Majority of fears are mild, but even when they intensify, they generally subside
on their own after a while. If fears become extreme, persistent and focused they
develop into phobias. Phobias are strong and irrational fears influencing and
interfering with a child's usual daily activities.
Generally phobias are not a sign of serious mental illness.
Most phobias are quite treatable. However, if a child's anxieties persist and interfere with
his enjoyment of day-to-day life, he might benefit from some professional help.
Breathing and relaxation exercises can assist youngsters in stressful circumstances too.
Simple, sensitive and straightforward parenting can resolve or at least manage most
childhood fears.

1. Write down a brief definition of cognitive and social development.

___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. Make a chart of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development.
3. Briefly write the influence of different kinds of parents on their children.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
4. Which five strategies do you recommend good for remembering?

1. Discuss the concept of physical and motor development. How is early childhood
development different from middle childhood development?
2. Describe in your own word the process of cognitive and intellectual development
in early years of life.
3. What do you understand by the term information processing?
86
4. Critically examine the theories of moral development and psychosexual
development.
5. Discuss the idea of socialisation.
6. Discuss in detail different aspects of social development in middle childhood?
7. How does individual differ in cognition in middle childhood?
8. What type of adjustment problems children face in middle childhood?
9. Explain Erikson’s views on psycho social development.
10. Discuss the factors that affect child cognitive development.

87
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childhood to middle adolescence: Development from Ages 8 to 18, Pearson Allyn Bacon
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Cherry, K. (2016). Concrete Operational Stage of Cognitive Development. Very
well.com
Cook, J. L. & Cook, G. (2014). Similarities and differences between boys and girls. Child
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Growth.html#ixzz0j0jMHgRB
Oswalt, A., (2010). Attention, Memory and Meta-Cognition. Child Development Theory:
Middle Childhood. mental help.net

Oswalt, A. (2010). Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development. Child development theory:

middle childhood. Mental help.net
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edition.Vol. 1. New York: Wiley
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Thomson Wadsworth.
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rules/5-unwritten-social-rules

88
UNIT – 3

CURRICULUM IN ELEMENTARY
EDUCATION

Written by: Dr. Adnan Saleem

Reviewed by: Dr. Sidra Rizwan

91
 CONTENTS
Introduction 94
Objectives 94
3.1 Process of Curriculum Development 95
3.1.1 Situational Analysis 96
3.1.2 Selection of Objectives 96
3.1.3 Selection of Content 96
3.1.4 Organization of Contents 97
3.1.5 Methods 97
3.1.6 Evaluation 97
3.2 Language and Language Skill 99
3.2.1 Factor Affecting Language Development 102
3.3 The Language Art Components 106
3.3.1 Approaches to Listening 108
3.3.2 Oral language Development 109
3.3.3 Approaches to Written Language Development 110
3.3.4 Reading 110
3.4 Science 111
3.4.1 Content of Elementary Science 111
3.4.2 Content of Elementary Science Programme 111
3.4.3 How to Teach Science 112
3.5 Mathematics 114
3.5.1 Content of Mathematics Programme 114
3.5.2 Objectives for Mathematics Programme 114
3.5.3 How to Teach Mathematics 115
I Discovery learning 116
II Repetition, reinforcement, application 116
III Active Learning 118
IV Mathematics Methods 119
3.5.4 Instructional Material for Teaching Concretely 120
3.5.5 Mathematics Learning and Gender 121
3.6 Social Studies 122
3.6.1 The Meaning of Social Studies 122
3.6.2 How to Teach Social Studies 122
3.6.3 Selecting and Organizing Content 124
3.6.4 Diversity of Topics and Programmes 125
I Law Education 126
II Consumer Education 126
III Global Education 127
IV Moral education 127
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 3.6.5 Aids for Teaching Social Studies 128
3.6.6 Skilled Learned Through Social Studies 128
I Study skills 129
II Critical thinking skills 129
III Social participants 130
3.7 Health and Physical Education 132
3.7.1 Health and Physical Education Programme 132
3.7.2 Content and Activities 133
3.7.3 Objectives of Health and Physical Education 133
I Health education 133
II Physical education 133
3.7.4 Activities of Physical Education 134
I Motor skill development 134
II Stabilising activities 136
III Locomotive activities 136
IV Manipulative activities 137
3.7.5 Physical Education and Physical Fitness 137
3.7.6 Goal of Health Education 137
3.7.7 Main Streaming the Physical Education 138
Summary 139
Activity 139
Self-Assessment 139

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9494
and teaching specialist Judith Dodge these are evaluations of learning for accountability and
are not necessarily used to boost the educational process.
Within both formative and summative evaluations, there are models that inform how
you conduct the individual assessments. Based on educational research and theory, evaluation
models not only guide the process of the assessment but also provide a framework for it. For
example, the objectives-centered model -- created by theorist Ralph Tyler -- is a systematic
type of evaluation that starts with setting behavioral objectives that include both the
curricular content as well as learning behaviors. In this model, the evaluator chooses and uses
several assessment tools and compares the results. In contrast, a goal-free model places the
evaluator as an unbiased observer who creates a need profile. The assessment then compares
the effects of the curriculum to the students' needs. Choosing a specific type of evaluation
means reviewing of different models. Teachers and evaluators may have personal preferences
or policy requirements, or they may choose a type based on the most current research. Other
considerations may include the process, cost-effectiveness or the actual purpose of
evaluation. For example, if you want to evaluate how a new science curriculum is helping
students learn through a child-centered process, you may want a formative assessment. By
contrast, if you want to evaluate the overall outcome of your mathematics curriculum based
on state standardized tests, you would use a summative assessment.

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 3.2 LANGUAGE AND LANGUAGE SKILLS
The teaching of language is now one of the most important subjects in most of
primary schools. The implementation of English and Urdu has brought along the need to
establish clear objectives that are different to the ones traditionally assigned to secondary
schools. While in secondary schools we still find, in many cases, a teaching based in the
formal aspects of the language, i.e. grammar; primary school teachers have had to adopt a
different approach as the age of the children make the teaching of formal aspects not
advisable. As a result of this point of view, the different Educational Departments have
decided to establish, as the main purpose of the language teaching, the development of
the four skills: listening, speaking, reading and writing. However, the implementation of
this approach has not been trouble-free as many teachers insist on asking their children to
understand every single word they listen to or read, or expect their pupils to write or
speak without making the mistakes normally found in the process of acquiring any
language.
Listening
Listening is the language skill which learners usually find the most difficult. This
often is because they feel under unnecessary pressure to understand every word. To
achieve the aims related to this skill, the teacher plays an important role that is defined in
the following steps.
1. It is important to help pupils prepare for the listening task well before they hear
the text itself. First of all the teacher must ensure that the pupils understand the
language they need to complete the task and are fully aware of exactly what is
expected of them. Reassure the pupils that they do not need to understand every
word they hear.
2. The next important step is to encourage pupils to anticipate what they are going
to hear. In everyday life, the situation, the speaker, and visual clues all help us to
decode oral messages. A way to make things a bit easier to the pupils is to
present the listening activity within the context of the topic of a teaching unit.
This in itself will help pupils to predict what the answers might be. The teacher
can help them further by asking questions and using the illustrations to encourage
pupils to guess the answers even before they hear the text.
3. During listening, the pupils should be able to concentrate on understanding the
message so make sure they are not trying to read, draw, and write at the same
time. Always give a second chance to listen to the text to provide a new
opportunity to those who were not able to do the task.
4. Finally, when pupils have completed the activity, invite answers from the whole
class. Try not to put individual pupils under undue pressure. Rather than
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 confirming whether an answer is correct or not, play the cassette again and allow
pupils to listen again for confirmation. You may be given a variety of answers, in
which case list them all on the board and play the text again, so that the class can
listen and choose the correct one. Even if the pupils all appear to have completed
the task successfully, always encourage them to listen to the text once more and
check their answers for themselves.
Speaking
First of all, we must take into account that the level of language input (listening)
must be higher than the level of language production expected of the pupils. So we have
many speaking activities used in the first levels that enable pupils to participate with a
minimal verbal response. However in the last levels, pupils are encouraged to begin to
manipulate language and express themselves in a much more personal way.
In primary schools two main types of speaking activities are used. The first type, songs,
chants, and poems, encourages pupils to mimic the model they hear on the cassette. This
helps pupils to master the sounds, rhythms, and intonation of the English language
through simple reproduction. The games and pair work activities on the other hand,
although always based on a given model, encourage the pupils to begin to manipulate the
language by presenting them with a certain amount of choice, albeit within a fairly
controlled situation.
In order for any speaking activity to be successful children need to acknowledge
that there is a real reason for asking a question or giving a piece of information.
Therefore, make sure the activities you present to the pupils, provide a reason for
speaking, whether this is to play a game or to find out real information about friends in
the class.
Once the activity begins, make sure that the children are speaking as much
English as possible without interfering to correct the mistakes that they will probably
make. Try to treat errors casually by praising the utterance and simply repeating it
correctly without necessarily highlighting the errors. And finally, always offer praise for
effort regardless of the accuracy of the English produced.
Reading
In order to make reading an interesting challenge as opposed to a tedious chore, it
is important that pupils do not labor over every word, whether they are skimming the text
for general meaning or scanning it to pick out specific information. Other things to keep
in mind are:
1. When choosing texts consider not only their difficulty level, but also
their interest or their humor so that children will want to read for the

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 same reasons they read in their own language: to be entertained or to
find out something they do not already know.
2. As with listening activities, it is important to spend time preparing for
the task by using the illustrations (a usual feature in reading activities
for children), pupils' own knowledge about the subject matter, and key
vocabulary to help the pupils to predict the general content of the text.
Discuss the subject and ask questions to elicit language and to stimulate
the pupils' interest in the text before they begin reading. Also make sure
that the pupils understand the essential vocabulary they need to
complete the task before they begin to read.
3. While the children are reading the text, move around the class providing
support if pupils need it. Where possible, encourage pupils to work out
the meaning of vocabulary as they come across it, using the context and
the supporting illustrations.
4. Do not encourage pupils to read texts aloud unless this is to learn a play
or recite a poem. Reading aloud inhibits most pupils and forces them to
concentrate on what they are saying as opposed to what they are reading
and the meaning is very often lost.
Writing
In primary schools, English as a Foreign Language (EFL) pupils progress from
writing isolated words and phrases, to short paragraphs about themselves or about very
familiar topics (family, home, hobbies, friends, food, etc.)
Since many pupils at this level are not yet capable either linguistically or
intellectually of creating a piece of written text from scratch, it is important that time is
spent building up the language they will need and providing a model on which they can
then base their own efforts. The writing activities should therefore be based on a parallel
text and guide the pupils, using simple cues. These writing activities generally appear
towards the end of a unit so that pupils have had plenty of exposure to the language and
practice of the main structures and vocabulary they need.
At this stage, the pupils' work will invariably contain mistakes. Again, the
teacher should try to be sensitive in his/her correction and not necessarily insist on every
error being highlighted. A piece of written work covered in red pen is demoralizing and
generally counter-productive. Where possible, encourage pupils to correct their own
mistakes as they work. If there is time, encourage pupils to decorate their written work
and where feasible display their efforts in the classroom.

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3.2.1 Factors Affecting Language Learning Development
There are many factors that affect the language learning process, and here we
will classify factors into two factors. That is internal factors and external factors.
Internal Factors
In this case we will talk about physical, psychology, and exhaustion.
a Physical
b Health
c Exhaustion
Learning process can go well with good health. Health means that someone is in
good condition. If someone wants to learn well, he/she must try to keep his body in good
condition such as, can share his time to get rest, eat, relaxation, pray, and sport.
(a) Physical Defect
Someone in physical defect must try harder than others. For them, they can
choose a special school with special rolls.
1) Gender
2) Psychology
3) Intelligence
 The ability to meet and adapt to novel situations quickly and effectively.
 The ability to utilize abstract concepts effectively.
 The ability to grasp relationship and to learn quickly.
The great intelligence gives more progress to the learning process.
(b) Attention
Attention is concentration (mental focus, serious consideration). To get the good
mark in the subject, the student must pay attention at the lesson; if he/she bored he
probably will fail in that lesson.
(c) Interest
Interest is persisting tendency to pay attention to and enjoy some activity or
content. If the lesson is not interesting to the student, the student can’t learn well.
(d) Aptitude
Aptitude is the capacity to learn. Everyone has different aptitude. So, it is time
for us to use that aptitude the maximum for our best. The good way is to use the aptitude
by study and practice as much as we can do.
(e) Motive
Motive is an effective-co native factor which operates in determining the
direction of an individual’s behavior towards an end or goal, consciously apprehended or
unconsciously. The teacher must have good motive to get attention from the students.
More motivated students tend to use more strategies than less motivated students, and the
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particular reason for studying the language (motivational orientation, especially as related
to career field) is important in the choice of strategies.
(3) Exhaustion
Exhaustion can happen in physic and psychology. Psychology exhaustions can be
seen like bored, or loose motivation, etc. In Physics like restless, or loss of energy, etc.
All of that can give bad impact to the student. Psychological and physical exhaustion can
lead to sleep deprivation, to manage it get some rest, give variation in study, relaxation,
pray, play some sport or consult a psychiatrist.
External Factors
External factors can be categorized into three groups, i.e. family factor, school
factor and social factor.
(1) Family factors
(a) The way parents educate
The way parents have been educated has a big influence on their children.
Because, family is the first and prominent educator.
(b) Relations within family
Relations within family mean relations between parent and their children,
children with their brother and sister, etc. If the family has harmonious relations
it will create successful students.
(c) The Home Atmosphere
The best atmosphere is quiet and peaceful. In that situation children will stay at
home and study well.
(d) Family’s Economy
Children must get the basic requirements such as food, clothes, books and many
other things. All of these requirements can be fulfilled if his/her family has
enough money.
(e) Parents Understanding
Sometimes the children have a lot of interest in some subjects, at that time the
parent must support them.
(f) Cultural Background
Rote memorization and other forms of memorization were more prevalent among
some Asian students than among students from other cultural backgrounds.
Certain other cultures also appeared to encourage this strategy among learners.
(2) School Factors
(a) Teaching Method
Teachers must have training relevant to their own instructional situations in three
areas: identifying students’ current learning strategies through surveys,
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 interviews, or other means; helping individual students discern which strategies
are most relevant to their learning styles, tasks, and goals; and aiding students in
developing orchestrated strategy use rather than a scattered approach.
(b) Curriculum
Students of different ages and stages of language learning used different
strategies, with certain strategies often being employed by older or more
advanced students.
(c) Learning Style
Learning style (general approach to language learning) often determined the
choice of English learning strategies. For example, analytic-style students
preferred strategies such as contrastive analysis, rule-learning, and dissecting
words and phrases, while global students used strategies to find meaning
(guessing, scanning, predicting) and to converse without knowing all the words
(paraphrasing, gesturing).
(d) The Relations between Students and Teacher
Teaching learning process happened between teacher and students. The teacher
must cooperative in his/her class.
Building upon a foundation of integrity, teaching as an ethical profession requires
the interaction of six essential behaviors:
 Caring
 Setting high standards
 Providing intellectually challenging learning experiences
 Organizing and managing classes to facilitate learning
 Student centered
 Reflecting
( e) The Relations among Students
Create good relations with each other is necessary because it can give positive
influence to their study.
( f) Discipline
Discipline at school is not only for the teacher and the students, but also for
everyone in that area. All the people at school must obey the rule. If nobody ever
breaks the rules the situation will always be under control.
(g) Schedule
Good management of time will have positive impact on teaching-learning
process.

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 (h) The School Building
The size of school should be according to the strength of the students studying
there.
( i) Type of Task
The nature of the task help determine the strategies naturally employed to carry
out the task.
(j) Attitudes and Beliefs
These are reported to have a profound effect on the strategies learners choose,
with negative attitudes and beliefs often causing poor strategy use or lack of
orchestration of strategies.
(k) Tolerance of Ambiguity
Students who are more tolerant of ambiguity use significantly different learning
strategies in some instances than did students who are less tolerant of ambiguity.
(3) Social Factor
(a) Students Activity in their Society
We need to limit their society, so it does not disturb their study. We can choose
activities that help promote their learning, like course, group discussion, etc.

(b) Mass Media

The examples of mass media are movies, theater, radio, television, newspaper,
magazine, etc. We need to give wise guidance and control as parents and
educators, in family, school and society.
(c) Companionship
Friends have greater influence at this age. The students make relation with good
friends. It will have more positive impact than negative.
(d) Social Interaction
Social interaction also impact their study. Many kinds of people are around them
and they need to choose the right ones.

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 3.3 THE LANGUAGE ART COMPONENTS
Reading, writing, speaking, and listening are very important skills for young
school-age children to learn. In many ways they are the foundations for students’ future
success in all school subjects. Whether you are a public school teacher looking for
additional teaching tips or a homeschooling parent, there are some techniques to consider
while teaching language arts to an elementary school age group.
Read aloud to students as much as possible. Reading aloud to students regularly
increases their skills in reading fluency and comprehension. It exposes them to
vocabulary, and helps them to internalize language structures that they will apply to their
own reading. Reading aloud is also a great way to get students calmed down before a
transition in lessons.
 Choose interesting, age-appropriate books to read to students. Younger students
(kindergarten-2nd grade) will enjoy stories with colorful pictures. As students
move through the elementary grades, choose longer chapter books that are based
on their interests.
Teach phonics and decoding. Letter-to-sound recognition is a crucial skill to learn for
beginning and struggling readers. Accurate and fluent word recognition depends on
phonics knowledge. The younger grades in particular (2nd grade and below) can benefit
from regular reviews on phonics and practicing the sounds that each letter can make.
 Learning the rules of certain letter combinations in English (for instance “ea”
usually sounds like long “ee”) is also highly beneficial for beginning readers,
after the basic alphabet sounds are learned.
By the end of 2nd grade, students should be able to decode almost any unfamiliar word in
their texts so they can attend to uncovering the meaning of the word.
Teach target sight words. Sight words are the most commonly occurring words in
children’s books by reading level. Words like “to,” “and,” and “it” occur in preschool
level books, and move up towards like “never,” “better,” and “laugh” in 3rd grade level
books. What is known as Dolch word list outlines the 220 most commonly occurring
words in children’s literature.
Have books of interest available for independent reading. The best way to promote
independent reading is to have a classroom library (or use the school library regularly)
that has many books on varied topics. There are countless lists of popular, current, age-
appropriate children’s literature available through schools, bookstores, and on the web.
Plan units that incorporate all aspects of the language arts together. Reading,
writing, speaking, and listening do not exist in a vacuum within a thriving language arts
classroom. Books are read together and talked about, and writing assignments are created

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based on the reading, and then writing assignments are read aloud and talked about. Plan
units that incorporate all the skills and assignments that build up on each other.
Share your own writing. Modeling writing is a great way to increase student confidence
in their own writing? Draft shorter pieces of writing and read out loud in front of them, or
write a longer piece similar to something they are working on and then share it with
them. Students will enjoy hearing you share your writing and discussing it afterwards.
Provide opportunity to give and receive feedback. Students want to know about what
others think of their writing. They need to know whether their writing is accurately and
appropriately conveying its message. Teachers should provide oral and written feedback
through comments and rubrics because this is an important part of the writing process for
students. Students should also have the chance to peer review their classmates’ work.
Creating a peer review sheet for students to fill out as they read a classmate’s work is a
good way to keep them focused on what to look for during peer review sessions.
Be a guiding facilitator. Speaking and listening is an important part of not only language
arts classes, but also other content area classes. However, opening up discussions to be
more than the typical call-and-response method (teacher asks a question, one student
responds) is important to practice particularly in language arts class.
Ask the right questions. As a guiding facilitator, your job is to present students not only
with basic comprehension questions, but also with complex, higher-order thinking
questions that get them involved in the text. This can be done even in the early grades
after reading a book. Questions beginning with, “Why does the author believe that?” and
“What have you encountered that makes you think about ___?” are some starter
recommendations.
Post rules for classroom discussion. Younger students will need some guidance on
respectful discussion. Have the class make the rules together, using examples like “Stay
respectful,” “Listen to others’ opinions,” “Look at who is speaking,” and “Piggyback off
others’ ideas.” Post the rules in a visible place in the room and remind students of the
rules before starting a discussion.
Make lessons for different learning styles. Children (as well as adults) learn in many
different ways: there are visual learners (people who learn best seeing things written
down or with pictures and diagrams), auditory learners (people who learn best by hearing
people talk), and kinesthetic learners (people who learn best through movement and by
doing a task). There are also people who have strengths in spatial concepts, music, and
interpersonal skills.
Create a safe space. Students need to feel safe physically and emotionally in order to
learn. They need to know that you will not tolerate fighting, bullying, or any other
disrespect of students. All students deserve equal chances to learn, and learning cannot be
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disrupted by negative energy. Model respect for your students, and teach them to show
respect to one another.
Plan group activities and assignments. Give students opportunities to work with one
another on projects. Sometimes students will not want to work with other particular
students. Encourage them to treat everyone with respect and let them know that it is good
practice to work with students they may not get along with, because in the real world they
will have to work with different people. Try to bridge gaps and work out issues that
students have with one another by helping them find common ground with each other.
3.3.1 Approaches to Listening
Effective, modern methods of teaching listening skills encompass everything
from interactive exercises to multimedia resources. Listening skills are best learned
through simple, engaging activities that focus more on the learning process than on the
final product. Whether you are working with a large group of students or a small one, you
can use any of the following examples to develop your own methods for teaching
students how to listen well.
Interpersonal Activities
One effective and nonthreatening way for students to develop stronger listening
skills is through interpersonal activities, such as mock interviews and storytelling. Assign
the students to small groups of two or three, and then give them a particular listening
activity to accomplish. For example, you may have one student interview another for a
job with a company or for an article in a newspaper. Even a storytelling activity, such as
one that answers the question "What was your favorite movie from last year?" can give
students the opportunity to ask one another questions and then to practice active listening
skills.
Group Activities
Larger group activities also serve as a helpful method for teaching listening skills
to students. You can begin with a simple group activity. For the first part, divide students
into groups of five or larger and instruct them to learn one hobby or interest of at least
two other group members. Encourage them to ask clarifying questions during the activity,
and you may allow them to take notes if helpful. However, as time passes and their skills
grow, you should limit students to only writing notes after the completion of the first part
of the group activity. For the second part, have the students sit in a large circle, and then
have each individual student share the name and the hobby or interest of the group
members that she or he met. This second part of the group activity can also lend itself to
additional listening exercises. For example, you may ask students to name a number of
hobbies and interests identified during the sharing session.

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Audio Segments
You can also teach listening skills through audio segments of radio programs,
online podcasts, instructional lectures and other audio messages. You should model this
interactive listening process in class with your students, and then instruct them to repeat
the exercise on their own. First, instruct students to prepare for listening by considering
anything that they will want to learn from the content of the audio segment. Once they
have written down or shared these ideas, then play the audio segment, allowing the
students to take notes if helpful. Once they have gained confidence and experience,
repeat this activity but instruct students to not take notes until the completion of the audio
segment. You can use shorter or longer audio segments, and you can choose more
accessible or more challenging material for this type of exercise.
Video Segments
Another helpful resource for teaching listening skills are video segments,
including short sketches, news programs, documentary films, interview segments, and
dramatic and comedic material. As with audio segments, select the portion and length of
the video segment based on the skill level of your students. With your students, first
watch the segment without any sound and discuss it together. Encourage the students to
identify what they think will be the content of the segment. Then, watch the segment
again, this time with sound, allowing students to take notes if helpful for their skill level.
After the completion of the video segment, you can have students write a brief summary
of the segment, or you can take time to discuss as a group how the segment compares
with the students' expectations.
Instructional Tips
Whatever method you use for teaching listening, keep a few key instructional tips
in mind that will help both you and your students navigate the learning process. One,
keep your expectations simple, as even the most experienced listener would be unable to
completely and accurately recall the entirety of a message. Two, keep your directions
accessible and build in opportunities for students not only to ask clarifying questions, but
also to make mistakes. Three, help students navigate their communication anxiety by
developing activities appropriate to their skill and confidence level, and then strengthen
their confidence by celebrating the ways in which they do improve, no matter how small.
3.3.2 Oral Language Development
When students first start school, they need to know key phrases and expressions
that they can use to communicate with teachers and classmates during the school day.
Being able to communicate effectively with others is key for learning to take place.
Through meaningful and fun interactions, students can develop the type of everyday

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communication skills that facilitate learning. Teachers can use a strategy called Total
Physical Response to help students in these early stages of language development.
Total Physical Response (TPR) activities greatly multiply the language input and
output that can be handled by beginning English language learners (ELLs). TPR activities
elicit whole-body responses when new words or phrases are introduced. Teachers can
develop quick scripts that provide ELLs and other students with the vocabulary and/or
classroom behaviors related to everyday situations. For example, "Take out your math book.
Put it on your desk. Put it on your head. Put it under the chair. Hold it in your left hand."
Students become ready to talk sooner when they are learning by doing. TPR
activities help students adjust to school and understand the behaviors required and the
instructions they will hear. This will help them in mainstream classrooms, in the halls,
during lunchtime, during fire drills, on field trips, and in everyday life activities.
3.3.3 Approaches to Written Language Development
Although the teachers sometimes tend to underestimate the value of writing in
their classes, it can be a good way of developing and especially reinforcing the language
already gained.
According to Hedge, writing helps the learners to consolidate their knowledge,
revise and remember the new items of language. At the same time, it allows them to see
their progress in a materialized form and opens a direct access to the teacher’s feedback.
The teacher is able to monitor and diagnose difficulties easily.
Writing places great demands on students as it requires simultaneous
employment of many skills, such as using spelling, grammar, punctuation and even
conventional layout correctly, linking ideas logically, organizing the text clearly, using a
wide range of vocabulary and sentence structures etc. On the other hand, students have
chance to think their ideas through properly as they have enough time, they can consult
dictionaries and grammar books if any obstacle appears, which provokes further language
development.
3.3.4 Reading
The ability to read is vital. It paves the way to success in school, which can build
self-confidence and motivate your child to set high expectations for life.
People read for many reasons:
for pleasure and interest
for work
to obtain information that will help them make choices and decisions
to understand directions (such as those on street signs and in recipe books)
to learn about the world
to keep in touch with family and friends
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 3.4 SCIENCE
Science is both a body of knowledge that represents current understanding of
natural systems and the process whereby that body of knowledge has been established
and is being continually extended, refined, and revised. Both elements are essential: one
cannot make progress in science without an understanding of both. Likewise, in learning
science one must come to understand both the body of knowledge and the process by
which this knowledge is established, extended, refined, and revised. The various
perspectives on science differ mainly with respect to the process of science, rather than
its product. The body of knowledge includes specific facts integrated and articulated into
Objectives of Science
a- Instructional Objectives
The students acquire knowledge of scientific terms, facts, concepts,
phenomena, definitions, and certain basic things about plants, animals, birds,
measurement tools and formulas or laws.
b- Personality Objectives
To develop a scientific attitude, to foster a sense of scientific and
technological world, to develop an understanding of the issues in a logical and
systematic way and above all to be skillful while handling scientific instruments.
3.4.1 Content of Elementary Science
Science is an important subject at the elementary level. It inculcates scientific
attitude, investigative approach and curiosity among students. Content of science is the
one which provides a very healthy and sound foundation to the learners as it paves line of
action for the future assignments. The content of science includes: names and shapes of
objects, living and non-living things, plants, animals, scientific devices, food items, water
purification, know how about some major diseases and important measuring concepts.
Science content also includes knowledge of birds, weather, crops, soil and concepts
related to chemistry, biology and physics.
3.4.2 Content of Elementary Science Program
Crosscutting concepts have applications across all science disciplines and
include, but are not limited to, cause and effect, scale, proportion and quantity, energy
and matter in systems, structure and function. Practices involve, for example, asking
questions and defining problems, developing and using models, and analyzing and
interpreting data. Finally, the disciplinary core ideas are like:
 Physical Sciences (PS)
 Matter and its Interactions
 Motion and Stability: Forces and Interactions
 Energy

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  Waves and their Applications in Technologies for Information Transfer
 Life Sciences (LS)
 From Molecules to Organisms: Structure and Processes
 Ecosystems: Interactions, Energy, and Dynamics
 Heredity: Inheritance and Variation of Traits
 Biological Evolution: Unity and Diversity
 Earth and Space Sciences (ESS)
 Earth's Place in the Universe
 Earth's Systems
 Earth and Human Activity
 Engineering, Technology, and Applications of Sciences (ETS)
 Engineering Design
3.4.3 How to Teach Science
With the existence of this science students can know about what is science.
Learning science is important for elementary schools because many elementary school
students do not understand science. The students can learn from the objects around them
and can observe how things work in their surroundings. The teacher must give
instructions to students in conducting experiment. The experiment teaches the students to
be cautious and careful when approaching science activities. Science can also provide
motivation and encourage curiosity to investigate as part of the experience.
Safety First
Students in the primary grades are getting their first introduction to science. For
this reason, it is imperative to stress the importance of safety. Make sure that students
understand the need to listen to and follow instructions during science experiments. Even
though the experiments that you will be doing with the younger grades will not be as
perilous as what students will encounter later in their schooling, teaching them the
importance of rules and safety procedures will encourage them to be careful and
meticulous when approaching science activities. Make sure that you give clear safety
instructions before each science assignment, monitor students during the activity, and
evaluate how well students adhere to the outlined safety regulations.
Motivate Students
Create enthusiasm for science by allowing students to participate in hands-on
science experiments, engaging discussions, field trips and interesting debates. Encourage
curiosity and inquiry as part of the science experience. Have a variety of relevant and up-
to-date resources available to students to use during science activities. Show the students
how to use the resources while still giving them freedom to explore and experiment.
Also, include parents in the learning process. Send information home on what science
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activities are happening in the classroom. Ask parents to help provide input and
resources. This will make students feel more supported in their science endeavors.
Teach as a Process
Familiarize students with the scientific process. It begins with a question that will
be researched. Next you must develop a hypothesis; this is your best guess as to how the
experiment will turn out. Collect required materials needed and complete the experiment
in a controlled, step-by-step manner. Record the results and then write the conclusion by
comparing the hypothesis to the actual outcome. Teaching the proper inquiry procedures
is more important than the actual content of each science lesson. When students have the
foundations of how to conduct a scientific experiment, then they will be able to apply this
process again and again. It is pertinent to their education and their exploration of the
world in general. Science learning can also be practiced outside of school so students do
not forget how to practice science in school. A science teacher can also teach the
connection in weather patterns from a scientific standpoint. A cross-curricular approach
allows students to make connections between disciplines, thus giving students the
opportunity to understand the scientific concepts in a more holistic way.

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 3.5 MATHEMATICS
Elementary mathematics consists of mathematics topics frequently taught at the
primary or secondary school levels.
The most basic topics in elementary mathematics are arithmetic and geometry. Beginning
in the last decades of the 20th century, there has been an increased emphasis on problem
solving. Elementary mathematics is used in everyday life in such activities as making
change, cooking, buying and selling stock. It is also an essential first step on the path to
understanding science.
In secondary school, the main topics in elementary mathematics are algebra and
trigonometry.
I , 3.5.1 T 4 5

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 Database of Canada, manipulation tools help slow down the process of
problem solving so that students are able to fully understand the
information.
 Manipulation tools make it easier for students to learn and understand basic
skills. These are ideal when students learn best through hands-on
experience and building rather than traditional lessons and repetition.
(vi) Math games
 Reinforcing the information learned in class is not always the easiest task
for teachers, but math games provide the opportunity to make the lesson
interesting and encourage students to remember the concepts.
 Depending on the class size, computer availability, and the lesson being
taught, games can vary. Teachers can use computer games for the
particular skills or can opt to use class games to make the lesson more
fun. Teachers should be sure to incorporate a strategy into games to help
students learn the material.
 Math skills are an important part of life. To offer students the most help,
teachers need to incorporate several strategies to give students the
opportunity for future growth.
III Active Learning
The following three fundamental issues must be considered when implementing
or supporting active learning strategies. These issues complicate our ability to have a
coherent national dialogue regarding postsecondary mathematics teaching, and are a
frequent source of confusion among different stakeholders in higher education at the
national, regional, and local level.
Classroom Environment: Often as a result of factors beyond the control of individual
faculty (or even departments), classroom environments vary wildly from institution to
institution. “Typical” class sizes can run from fifteen to six hundred, with varying levels
of grading support. In environments where courses are often taught in a hybrid fashion,
meaning a mix of in-person contact time and online modules, contact time is structured
differently than in a traditional three-to-five hour per week class meeting structure. All
of these considerations impact the choices of active learning strategies available for a
course or institution, through both restrictions on the type of direct interactions available
and enrichments of the type of technology-driven interactions available.
Teaching Environment: Mathematics faculty experience an incredibly diverse range of
employment conditions. In contrast to public stereotypes of tenure-stream faculty at
research-intensive institutions, postsecondary mathematics teachers include both long-
term faculty and part-time or adjunct faculty, tenure-stream and non-tenure stream, with
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many different administrative job requirements and varying levels of support for
pedagogical innovation. This range of faculty profiles creates an equally broad range of
needs regarding how pedagogical training and mentoring is delivered, and raises
questions such as: how much preparation time does faculty have available? Are the
courses under consideration being taught by experienced faculty or those teaching for the
first or second time? Does faculty performance evaluations and/or job renewals depend
on consistently satisfactory student evaluations? Has the institution in question had any
historical focus regarding the teacher-training of new faculty hires?
Course/Student Goals: Learning outcomes for courses, and the student expectations
accompanying them, vary dramatically among faculty, courses, and institutions. For
example, courses that primarily serve as part of a general education or quantitative
literacy component will typically have fundamentally different goals and expectations for
students than courses that primarily serve as a pathway to science, technology,
engineering and math (STEM) majors. Individual faculty often have distinct models of
student learning, ranging from a view of teaching/learning as the transfer of knowledge
and facts to the view of developing students’ ability to solve new problems and/or
grapple with and develop understanding of new ideas. Many faculty have different
expectations for students regarding the level of cognitive tasks that they are expected to
carry out, and often these expectations are implicit in the way they structure their course
rather than explicitly communicated to students and peers.
IV Mathematics Methods
Problem Solving
Instructional programs from pre-kindergarten through grades 12 should enable all
students to: build new mathematical knowledge through problem solving; -solve
problems that arise in mathematics and in other contexts; apply and adapt a variety of
appropriate strategies to solve problems; -monitor and reflect on the process of
mathematical problem solving.
Reasoning and Proof
Instructional programs from pre-kindergarten through grades 12 should enable
all students to: -recognize reasoning and proof as fundamental aspects of mathematics; -
make and investigate mathematical conjectures; -develop and evaluate mathematical
arguments and proofs; -select and use various types of reasoning and methods of proof.
Communication
Instructional programs from pre-kindergarten through grades 12 should enable
all students to: organize and consolidate their mathematical thinking through
communication;

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 Communicate their mathematical thinking coherently and clearly to peers,
teachers, and others; analyze and evaluate the mathematical thinking and strategies of
others; use the language of mathematics to express mathematical ideas precisely.
Connections
Instructional programs from pre-kindergarten through grades 12 should enable all
students to: recognize and use connections among mathematical ideas; understand how
mathematical ideas interconnect and build on one another to produce a coherent whole;
recognize and apply mathematics in contexts outside of mathematics.
Representation
Instructional programs from prekindergarten through grades 12 should enable all
students to:
Create and use representations to organize, record, and communicate
mathematical ideas; select, apply, and translate among mathematical representations to
solve problems; use representations to model and interpret physical, social, and
mathematical phenomena.
3.5.4 Instructional Materials for Teaching Concretely
It is not easy to use concrete materials well, and it is easy to misuse them. Several
studies suggest that concrete materials are likely to be misused when a teacher has in
mind that students will learn to perform some prescribed activity with them (Resnick and
Omanson 1987; Boyd 1992; Thompson and Thompson 1994). This happens most often
when teachers use concrete materials to “model” a symbolic procedure. For example,
many teachers and student teachers use base ten blocks to teach addition and subtraction
of whole numbers. Students often want to begin working with the largest blocks, such as
adding or subtracting the thousands in two numbers. Teachers often say, “No, start with
the smallest blocks, the ones. You have to go from right to left.” Would it be incorrect to
start with the largest blocks? No, it would be unconventional, but not incorrect. Since our
primary question should be “What do I want my students to understand?” instead of
“What do I want my students to do?” it is problematic when teachers have a prescribed
activity in mind a standard algorithm and unthinkingly reject creative problem solving
when it doesn’t conform to convention or prescription. In cases where students' actions
are unconventional, but legitimate, and are rejected by a teacher, students learn once
more that “to understand” means to memorize a prescribed activity. Concrete materials
are used appropriately for two purposes. First, they enable you and your students to have
grounded conversations. Their use provides something “concrete” about which you and
they can talk. The nature of the talk should be how to think about the materials and on the
meanings of various actions with them. Such conversations are part of what Hiebert and
Wearne (1988) call the connecting phase of mathematical learning constructing strong
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connections among ways of thinking about concrete situations and conventional
mathematical language and notation. Asking the questions “How do we think about this?
How can we think about this? How shall we think about this?” is also at the heart of what
is called “conceptually-oriented” instruction. Second, concrete materials provide
something on which students can act. Our pedagogical goal is that they reflect on their
actions in relation to the ideas you have worked to establish and in relation to the
constraints of the task as they have conceived it.
Concrete materials can be an effective aid to students' thinking and to your
teaching. But effectiveness is contingent upon what you are trying to achieve. To draw
maximum benefit from students' use of concrete materials, you must continually situate
your actions with the question, “What do I want my students to understand?”
3.5.5 Mathematics Learning and Gender
The relationship of attitudes toward mathematics to mathematics performance,
gender, mathematics course-taking plans, and career interests were investigated. Students
enrolled in public middle and high school mathematics courses (722 male, 794 female)
served as subjects. The Fennema-Sherman Math Attitude scales were used to measure
attitudes toward mathematics, a background/future plans questionnaire was administered
to assess course-taking plans and career interest, and final mathematics course grade was
used as a measure of mathematics performance. Results showed that attitudes toward
mathematics were predictive of final mathematics course grade and the intention to
continue to participate in mathematics courses once enrollment becomes optional.
Attitudes also discriminated among students with different career interests. Students in
more accelerated mathematics "tracks" had more positive attitudes, greater intention of
taking optional mathematics classes, and were interested in more mathematically-related
careers. Males and females were equally likely to express plans to take mathematics
courses once participation became optional. Overall, females' attitudes were more
positive than expected. However, their lack of confidence in their abilities to learn
mathematics and their higher levels of mathematics anxiety, coupled with a lack of
interest in more mathematically-related careers, suggest that important gender differences
still exist.

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 3.6 SOCIAL STUDIES
Social studies is the integrated study of the social sciences, humanities and
history. Within the school program, social studies provide coordinated, systematic study
drawing upon such disciplines as anthropology, archaeology, economics, geography,
history, jurisprudence, philosophy, political science, psychology, religion, and sociology,
as well as appropriate content from the humanities, mathematics, and natural sciences.
3.6.1 The Meaning of Social Studies
A part of a school curriculum concerned with the study of social relationships
and the functioning of society and usually made up of courses in history, government,
economics, civics, sociology, geography, and anthropology.
Objectives of Social Studies
a -Instructional Objectives
Basic concepts about Earth, Human being, Cultures, Religion, Landscapes,
Democracy, Governmental institutions, Human rights, Social Values, Freedom of
expression, basic human needs, duties being citizen of the state and society,
environment protection and hospitality.
3.6.2 How to Teach Social Studies
Basic skills of reading, writing, and computing are necessary but not sufficient to
participate or even survive in a world demanding independent and cooperative problem
solving to address complex social, economic, ethical, and personal concerns. Knowledge,
skills, and attitudes necessary for informed and thoughtful participation in society require
a systematically developed program focusing on concepts from history and the social
sciences.
Knowledge. Social studies provide a sense of history, a sense of existence in the
past as well as the present, a feeling of being in history. Even though young children find
the concept of time difficult, they need to understand how the present has come about and
to develop an appreciation for the heritage of this country. Huck and Kuhn (1968) state
that even though children have difficulty with time concepts, they can develop an
appreciation for their historical heritage through factual presentation of history,
biographies of famous people, and historical fiction.
Geographic concepts are equally difficult, but the social studies provide
continuing opportunities for children to understand the spatial relationships of their
immediate environment as well as those of areas of the world. Scholars found that
children need systematic instruction to develop map and globe skills (Rice and Cobb
1978; Crabtree 1968, 1974; Savage and Bacon 1969; Cox 1977). Children need to
develop an understanding of and an appreciation for their physical and cultural
environments and to consider how resources will be allocated in the future.
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 Concepts from anthropology and sociology provide knowledge and
understanding of how the multiplicity of cultures within society and the world has
developed. Children need to recognize the contributions of each culture and to explore its
value system. Acquisition of concepts about racial and ethnic groups is complex, but
early, planned, and structured activities can result in positive attitudes in children (Katz
1976, 234).
Knowledge from sociology, economics, and political science allows children to
understand the institutions within the society and to learn about their roles within groups.
Although children easily learn concepts from economics such as work, exchange,
production, and consumption, they need useful and powerful economic knowledge and
the formal development of critical-thinking skills. Economic content in the early years
should relate to events in children's lives as they examine buying, selling, and trading
transactions, the process of making goods and services, and the origin of materials and
products in their everyday lives (Armento 1986).
Skills. The skills that are primary to social studies are those related to maps and
globes, such as understanding and using locational and directional terms. However, other
skills that enhance students' abilities to learn, to make decisions, and to develop as
competent, self-directed citizens are more meaningful and useful when developed within
the context of social studies. Skills that are shared with other parts of the curriculum but
may be most powerfully taught through social studies include communication skills such
as writing and speaking; research skills such as collecting, organizing, and interpreting
data; thinking skills such as hypothesizing, comparing, drawing inferences; decision-
making skills such as considering alternatives and consequences; interpersonal skills such
as seeing others' points of view, accepting responsibility, and dealing with conflict; and
reading skills such as reading pictures, books, maps, charts, and graphs.
For children to develop citizenship skills appropriate to democracy, they must be
capable of thinking critically about complex societal problems and global problems.
Teachers must arrange the classroom environment to promote data gathering, discussion,
and critical reasoning by students. Another important aspect of citizenship is that of
decision maker. Children must acquire the skills of decision making, but also study the
process that occurs as groups make decisions. Continually accelerating technology has
created and will continue to create rapid changes in society. Children need to be equipped
with the skills to cope with change.
Attitudes. The early years are ideal for children to begin to understand
democratic norms and values (justice, equality, etc.)--especially in terms of the smaller
social entities of the family, classroom, and community. Applying these concepts to the

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nation and the world is easier if one understands and appreciates them on smaller but
manageable scales.
Although not uniquely in social studies, children can achieve a positive self-
concept within the context of understanding the similarities and differences of people.
Children need to understand that they are unique in themselves but share many similar
feelings and concerns with other children. They need to understand how as individuals
they can contribute to society.
Children can also develop, within the context of social studies, positive attitudes
toward knowledge and learning and develop a spirit of inquiry that will enhance their
understanding of their world so that they will become rational, humane, participating,
effective members of a democratic society.
3.6.3 Selecting and Organizing Content
There are three major concepts involved here.
First, you must understand the content of the social studies at a level appropriate to
that which you intend to teach. To understand content means more than mere
memorization of facts. To understand content for a teacher means that you can explain it
in more than one way to others, whether the content concerns facts, generalizations,
principles, themes, and so on. To put it bluntly, you do not understand subject matter
content unless you understand it in more than one way. The first concept involved in
becoming a good social studies teacher is that you understand in more than one way the
content of what you are to teach. You arrive at this level by reading, thinking, reflecting,
and yes, teaching. Also, after many years of reflection, it is obvious that the very best
social studies teachers have an insatiable appetite for their subject area; they read a lot,
they are wonderfully curious about how our social fabric came to be and how our values
and institutions shape our world. There is no other way to put it.
Second, you must be able to translate the content to make it understandable, learnable,
interesting, and challenging for students at the age and grade level you are teaching. It
requires rearranging what you know. This applies to social studies more than any other
content area simply because social studies as a discipline lacks any widely agreed-upon
structure. For example, you may thoroughly understand the events, chronology, and
causes of Wars. You may have taken one or more courses at the college level that dealt
with Wars, and you may also have independently read several books about the war. This
does not mean that what you "know" is in a form that a typical 4th, or 8th, grader can
readily understand. You will need to look at the specific curriculum you are supposed to
implement and integrate what you know with the objectives or what is intended for
students to learn. The tyranny of "following the book" has historically produced several
generations of students who have at best a poor understanding of social studies.
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Third, you must consider pedagogy. This means that you not only understand the
content in more than one way, can translate it into a form understandable, learnable,
challenging, and interesting to your students, but that you also have the skills to actually
teach the content. Pedagogy without subject matter content isn't worth very much. Simply
"knowing about" teaching methods won't do. There is probably no more important skill
required in teaching social studies than the ability to explain events, ideas, principles, and
social interrelationships. In some ways, good social studies teaching rests on the ability to
tell stories well. For social studies, this story telling ability is grounded in the depth and
awareness of the connective possibilities of the content. Helping students make new
connections, to find challenge and meaning in social studies content is what excellent
social studies teachers do every day. They are able to do it because they understand in
more than one way what they are teaching and are able to draw upon this knowledge to
make any lesson an adventure for their students. They adjust the content in a myriad of
ways as the situation requires. They are never stuck, never at a loss to show or tell
students something new, different, or interesting about what they are learning. For these
fortunate teachers, teaching social studies is a true joy.
3.6.4 Diversity of Topics and programs
Values and attitudes
 Social studies provides learning opportunities for students to:
 value the diversity, respect the dignity and support the equality of all
human beings.
 demonstrates social compassion, fairness and justice
 appreciate and respect multiple perspectives.
Knowledge and Understanding
Social studies provides learning opportunities for students to:
• understand their rights and responsibilities in order to make informed
decisions and participate fully in society
• understand the unique nature of Pakistan and its land, history, complexities
and current issues
• understand how knowledge of the history contributes to a better
comprehension of contemporary realities
• understand historic and contemporary issues, including controversial
issues, from multiple perspectives
• understand the diversity of cultural traditions, values and attitudes
• understand contemporary challenges and contributions of common people
in urban, rural, cultural and linguistic settings

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 • understand how opportunities and responsibilities change in an
increasingly interdependent world
• understand that humans exist in a dynamic relationship with the natural
environment.
Skills and Processes
Social studies provide learning opportunities for students to:
• engage in active inquiry and critical and creative thinking
• engage in problem solving and conflict resolution with an awareness of the
ethical consequences of decision making
• apply historical and geographic skills to bring meaning to issues and events
• use and manage information and communication technologies critically
• conduct research ethically using varied methods and sources; organize,
interpret and present their findings; and defend their opinions
• apply skills of metacognition, reflecting upon what they have learned and
what they need to learn
• recognize and responsibly address injustices as they occur in their schools,
or communities
• communicate ideas and information in an informed, organized and
persuasive manner.
I Law Education
Law is the binding force within a society. Without law there could be lawlessness
which speaks of sure turmoil in a society. It is of great importance to introduce the law of
the land to the students at the very outset of their educational journey. Such an approach
will create a lasting affect and impact on the life and thinking moods of the upcoming
generations. So, basic knowledge of the law must be introduced at elementary level. It
may include general ethics, traffic rules, classroom instructions or school disciplinary
rules.
II Consumer Education
Consumer education is the preparation of an individual through skills, concepts
and understanding that are required for everyday living to achieve maximum satisfaction
and utilization of his resources. It is defined as education given to the consumer about
various consumer goods and services, covering price, what the consumer can expect,
standard trade practice, etc. Such information may be relayed through magazines,
websites or word of mouth.
It is part of the formal school curriculum in many places and incorporates knowledge
from many disciplines, including:
 Economics

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  Game theory
 Information theory
 Law
 Mathematics
 Psychology
In order to safeguard consumer interest, six consumer rights were initially envisioned by
consumer rights activists of the West, namely:
1. Right to Safety
2. Right to Information
3. Right to Choice
4. Right to be Heard
5. Right to Redress
6. Right to consumer education
III Global Education
Global education is a complex idea that is taught to enhance ones meaning of the
world. Global Education is typically taught within the curriculum. Teachers of Global
Education will integrate multiple dimensions, perspectives, and citizenships into the
everyday lessons.
Students learning to be global citizens through global education will enable them
to learn more about international communities, social justice issues, global events, and
international ideas in their typical classroom setting. Global Education will shape the way
people view the world to help better shape the world. It will foster service learning
initiatives and activism within the community and around the world.
Education that opens people’s eyes and minds to the realities of the globalized
world and awakens them to bring about a world of greater justice, equity and human
rights for all. Global education is understood to encompass development education,
human rights education, education for sustainable development, education for peace and
conflict prevention and intercultural education; being the global dimension of education
for citizenship.
IV Moral Education
Character education is an umbrella term loosely used to describe the teaching of
children in a manner that will help them develop variously as moral, civic, good,
mannered, behaved, non-bullying, healthy, critical, successful, traditional, compliant or
socially acceptable beings. Concepts that now and in the past have fallen under this term
include social and emotional learning, moral reasoning and cognitive development, life
skills education, health education, violence prevention, critical thinking, ethical

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reasoning, and conflict resolution and mediation. Many of these are now considered
failed programs, i.e. "religious education", "moral education", "values clarification".
Today, there are dozens of character education programs in, and competing for adoption
by, schools and businesses. Some are commercial, some non-profit and many are
uniquely devised by states, districts and schools, themselves. A common approach of
these programs is to provide a list of principles, pillars, values or virtues, which are
memorized or around which themed activities are planned. It is commonly claimed that
the values included in any particular list are universally recognized. However, there is no
agreement among the competing programs on core values (e.g., honesty, stewardship,
kindness, generosity, courage, freedom, justice, equality, and respect) or even how many
to list. There is also no common or standard means for assessing, implementing or
evaluating programs.
3.6.5 Aids for Teaching Social Studies
Use the primary sources, literary and historical texts, simulations, and reader's
theater scripts found in products from Teacher Created Materials to deepen students'
content knowledge and build critical-thinking skills. Concepts are embedded in all the
social studies achievement objectives across the four conceptual strands of The New
Zealand Curriculum. They are an essential part of teaching and learning in social studies.
 Social inquiry
Through social inquiry, students ask questions, gather information, and examine
the background to important societal ideas and events. They are able to explore
and analyse values and perspectives relating to these ideas and events; and
develop understandings about issues and the ways that people make decisions
and participate in social action.
 Using evidence
Using evidence, such as the Ministry of Education's Best Evidence Synthesis
(BES) programme, can be a catalyst for systemic improvement and sustainable
development in education. The social sciences best evidence synthesis has a
focus on quality teaching and learning for diverse learners in the social sciences.
 Teaching strategies
There are many useful teaching strategies to support effective teaching in social
sciences. Which includes a variety of graphic organizers; cooperative learning
ideas; tools and resources for writing and presenting information; and ideas for
oral and visual activities.
3.6.6 Skills Learned through Social Studies
Social Studies Knowledge & Skills refers to understanding people and how they
relate to others and the world around them. Social studies helps children to understand
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themselves, their families, and communities. Through learning experiences related to
history, culture, and the environment, children enhance their self-identity and expand
their experiences beyond the walls of their home and early childhood setting. In the
domain of Social Studies Knowledge & Skills, programs need to ensure that children who
are dual language learners can demonstrate their abilities, skills, and knowledge in any
language, including their home language.
I Study Skills
Study skills, academic skills, or study strategies are approaches applied to
learning. They are generally critical to success in school, considered essential for
acquiring good grades, and useful for learning throughout one's life.
Study skills are an array of skills which tackle the process of organizing and taking in
new information, retaining information, or dealing with assessments. They include
mnemonics, which aid the retention of lists of information; effective reading;
concentration techniques; and efficient note taking.
More broadly, any skill which boosts a person's ability to study, retain and recall
information which assists in and passing exams can be termed a study skill, and this
could include time management and motivational techniques.
Study skills are discrete techniques that can be learned, usually in a short time, and
applied to all or most fields of study. They must therefore be distinguished from
strategies that are specific to a particular field of study (e.g. music or technology), and
from abilities inherent in the student, such as aspects of intelligence or learning styles.
II Critical Thinking Skills
Critical thinking has been variously defined as:
 "the process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing,
synthesizing, and evaluating information to reach an answer or
conclusion"
 "disciplined thinking that is clear, rational, open-minded, and informed by
evidence"
 "reasonable, reflective thinking focused on deciding what to believe or do"
 "purposeful, self-regulatory judgment which results in interpretation,
analysis, evaluation, and inference, as well as explanation of the evidential,
conceptual, methodological, criteriological, or contextual considerations
upon which that judgment is based"
 "Includes a commitment to using reason in the formulation of our beliefs.
 the skill and propensity to engage in an activity with reflective skepticism
(McPeck, 1981)

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  disciplined, self-directed thinking which exemplifies the perfection of
thinking appropriate to a particular mode or domain of thinking (Paul,
1989, p. 214)
 Thinking about one's thinking in a manner designed to organize and
clarify, raise the efficiency of, and recognize errors and biases in one's
own thinking. Critical thinking is not 'hard' thinking nor is it directed at
solving problems (other than 'improving' one's own thinking). Critical
thinking is inward-directed with the intent of maximizing the rationality of
the thinker. One does not use critical thinking to solve problems—one uses
critical thinking to improve one's process of thinking.
 "an appraisal based on careful analytical evaluation
Contemporary critical thinking scholars have expanded these traditional
definitions to include qualities, concepts, and processes such as creativity, imagination,
discovery, reflection, empathy, connecting knowing, feminist theory, subjectivity,
ambiguity, and inconclusiveness. Some definitions of critical thinking exclude these
subjective practices.
III Social participation
A crucial direction for policy to promote health equity concerns the participation
of civil society and the empowerment of affected communities to become active
protagonists in shaping their own health. Broad social participation in shaping policies to
advance health equity is justified on ethical and human rights grounds, but also
pragmatically.
The way the health system contributes to social participation and the
empowerment of the people, is defined as one of the main axes for the development of
the Primary Health Care strategy (World Health Report 2008) and in reaching health
system goals, such as in the area of responsiveness (WHO health systems strategy)
Social participation can take on a number of different forms including:
 informing people with balanced, objective information;
 consulting, whereby the affected community provides feedback;
 involving, or working directly with communities;
 collaborating by partnering with affected communities in each aspect of the
decision including the development of alternatives identification of
solutions; and
 Empowering, by ensuring that communities retain ultimate control over the
key decisions that affect their wellbeing.
Civil society participation can strengthen political will around educational issues
and government agendas and strengthen people’s control over the factors that affect their
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health - an important social goal. Ministries of Health cannot create participation, but
they can create spaces that enable and encourage participation. Social participation
involving vulnerable and excluded groups should seek the empowerment of those groups,
increasing their effective control over decisions that influence their health and life quality
and their access and use of health services.

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Crawls 7 months 5-11 months
Pulls to stand 8 months 5-12 months
Plays Pat-a-cake 9 months, 3 weeks 7-15 months
Stands alone 11 months 9-16 months
Walks alone 11 months, 3 weeks 9-17 months
Builds tower of 2 cubes 13 months, 3 weeks 10-19 months
Scribbles vigorously 14 months 10-21 months
Walks up stairs with help 16 months 12-23 months
Jumps in place 23 months, 2 weeks 17-30 months
Although the sequence of motor development is fairly uniform across children,
differences may exist individually in the rate at which motor skills develop. A baby who
is a late reacher may not necessarily be a late crawler/walker. Concern would arise if the
child's development were delayed in many motor skills.
II Stabilizing Activities
Stabilizing activities means the financial aspects of the educational settings wit in
the range of elementary level. It includes the infrastructure, training facilities, and
provisions of items and machinery related to instruction, teachers and learners. Some of
the measures are linked with the process of monitoring, assessment and evaluation.
Herein few other factors are also addressed like financial support to schools and learners
who are in need of such helping measures.
III Locomotive Activities
A locomotor skill is a physical action that propels an individual from one place to
another. This may mean moving forward, backward, or even upwards using certain skills.
Examples of locomotor skills include:
 Walking or running
 Jumping or hopping
 Galloping or marching
 Skipping
The list starts with skills that are easier to master, and then progresses to the more
difficult movements, like skipping.
More skills like side-sliding, rolling, or leaping help to refine a child's gross motor
abilities. The more often locomotor skills are practiced, the greater the child's ability to
fine tune the movement of each skill. For example, with sufficient practice a child who is

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able to hop in place becomes able to play hopscotch. Likewise, after simply running, a
teenager is later able to compete in a relay race.
IV Manipulative Activities
 Demonstrate the various stages of development associated with throwing,
catching, kicking, and striking.
 Identify instructional procedures related to different types of manipulative
skills.
 Identify objects that can be used to help children succeed in manipulative
skills.
 Outline skill progressions, activities, and instructional hints associated with
using balloons, beanbags, balls, paddles, Frisbees, hoops, jump ropes,
parachutes, and other objects to teach manipulative skills.
 Identify beginning, intermediate, and advanced rope-jumping skills and
routines using individual and long ropes.
 List progressions to use when teaching rope jumping.
3.7.5 Physical Education and Physical Fitness
Physical fitness is a general state of health and well-being and, more specifically,
the ability to perform aspects of sports, occupations and daily activities. Physical fitness
is generally achieved through proper nutrition, moderate-vigorous physical exercise, and
sufficient rest.
Before the industrial revolution, fitness was defined as the capacity to carry out
the day’s activities without undue fatigue. However, with automation and changes in
lifestyles physical fitness is now considered a measure of the body's ability to function
efficiently and effectively in work and leisure activities, to be healthy, to resist
hypokinetic diseases, and to meet emergency situations.
3.7.6 Goal of Health Education
Health education is a profession of educating people about health. Areas within
this profession encompass environmental health, physical health, social health, emotional
health, intellectual health, and spiritual health.
Health education can be defined as the principle by which individuals and groups
of people, learn to behave in a manner conducive to the promotion, maintenance, or
restoration of health. However, as there are multiple definitions of health, there are also
multiple definitions of health education. The Joint Committee on Health Education and
Promotion Terminology of 2001 defined Health Education as "any combination of
planned learning experiences based on sound theories that provide individuals, groups,
and communities the opportunity to acquire information and the skills needed to make
quality health decisions."
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 The World Health Organization defined Health Education as "comprising of
consciously constructed opportunities for learning involving some form of
communication designed to improve health literacy, including improving knowledge, and
developing life skills which are conducive to individual and community health."
3.7.7 Main Streaming the Physical education
Students get to receive their education with their non-disabled peers who are the
same age as them. By doing so, students get to interact with their peers in ways that the
special education classroom wouldn’t do. Many students with special needs often have an
identified need to improve their social skills. Placing them into classes with a diverse
group of students can certainly help increase those skills.
It also helps self-esteem as well, because the students know that they are in
"regular" education classes with their peers. No matter how hard we work to break down
walls and build acceptance, the social stigma of being different still exists. By blending
students of differing abilities into one classroom, not only does it help the students with
special needs, but it also helps the regular education students as well, by teaching them
how to work with others who are different from them. It teaches all students compassion,
acceptance, collaboration and patience, life-long skills that will better prepare them for
the future.
Academic Advantages:
Another advantage of mainstreaming is that the students are receiving the same
curricula material as their non-disabled peers. Although they may receive
accommodations and modifications to the curriculum, they are still learning what
everyone else is learning. It gives these students a chance to learn something that they
may not have had a chance to learn in a special education classroom.
Tolerance
If classrooms aren't mainstreamed, then a great majority of the student population
will not be exposed to students with special needs. This means that they will never get to
learn or promote the kind of tolerance that will carry with them through adulthood.
Mainstreaming special needs students with the rest of the population exposes all students
to all types of people, whether they have disorders or not. As the other students learn
tolerance, the students with special needs will learn what behaviors are acceptable and
which ones aren't.
Social Disadvantages:
Some students with special needs have behavioral issues that will need to be
addressed in the classroom. These issues are not only disruptive to the rest of the class,
but can also be embarrassing to the student, causing more damage to their self-esteem
and social world than would happen if the student was not mainstreamed.
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Academic Disadvantages
While the students with special needs are able to use the same curricula as
students without special needs, they may not be able to keep up with the work. This can
result in them feeling like the odd man out. The extra effort that teachers have to put into
ensuring everyone understands the work may also take away from the rest of the
classroom. This can impact the pace of the classroom as a whole. While some
mainstreamed students with special needs will have pull-outs into a resource room or
some other means of individualized tutoring, any slowdown in the classroom pace that
can impact reaching specific goals is a concern.

SUMMARY
In this chapter, we have discussed about curriculum which provides a base for the
overall personality development of individuals. Specially, at the elementary stage
curriculum plays a very crucial role as it paves a foundational platform for the onward
progress and development of learners to their set objectives. In this lesson, steps in
curriculum, criterion of selection of content, types of curriculum, and core values of
education, instructional and personality objectives of teaching mathematics, science,
health and social studies have been covered. In a nutshell, it is of prime importance to
design the curriculum for the elementary education with great care, vision and futuristic
approach.

ACTIVITIES
1. Enlist some activities of physical fitness being used in your school.
2. As an elementary school teacher how will you impart health education to your
students?

SELF-ASSESSMENT
1. What is curriculum?
2. What are the main components of curriculum?
3. What are the steps in the process of curriculum development?
4. What are the main types of curriculum and what is the criterion for the selection
of content?
5. What are the key social values to be inculcated at elementary education level?

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 REFERENCES
Siddiqui, S. (2016) Education policies in Pakistan, Karachi, Oxford University Press
www.i-SAP.org
Waqar, S. (2000), Allied material Elementary Education, Islamabad, Allama Iqbal Open
University Press
http://yayoi.senri.ed.jp/ois/curriculum/pe_aims_objs.htm

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UNIT - 4

TEACHING STRATEGIES FOR

ELEMENTARY EDUCATION

Written by: Dr. Sidra Rizwan

Reviewed by: Ms. Tooba Saleem

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 CONTENTS
Introduction 144
Objectives 144
4.1 Lecture Method 145
4.1.1 Planning the Lecturer 146
4.1.2 Delivering the Lecture 146
4.1.3 Questioning 147
4.1.4 Follow up the Lecture 148
4.1.5 When to Use the Lecture 149
4.2 Demonstration Method 151
4.2.1 Major Purposes 151
4.2.2 Techniques used in the Demonstration Method 151
4.2.3 Role of Teacher and Learner 151
4.2.4 The demonstration method presenting 152
4.2.5 Process outline for giving a demonstration 154
4.3 Drill Method 156
4.3.1 Concept of Drill and Practice 156
4.3.2 Scope and Limitation 156
4.3.3 Computer Assisted Drill and Practice 157
4.3.4 Techniques of Drill and Practice 157
4.3.5 Improving the techniques 158
4.3.6 Features of good Drill and Practice software 159
4.4 Project Method 160
1.4.1 Concept of Project Method 160
1.4.2 Scope and Limitations 160
1.4.3 Phases of Project Matter 161
4.5 Problem Solving Approach/Inquiry Method 162
4.5.1 Major Purposes 162
4.5.2 Role of the Teacher 163
4.5.3 Use of the Learning Resources 164
4.5.4 Method of Evaluation 165
4.5.5 Promoting inquiry and problem solving in other subject areas 165
4.6 Role-Playing---Games and Simulations 167
4.6.1 Purpose of Role-Playing 167
4.6.2 Principles of effective Role-Playing 168
4.6.3 Basic Role-Playing procedures 169
4.6.4 Games and Simulations 171
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 4.6.5 Difference between Games and Simulations 172
4.7 Programmed Instructions 179
4.7.1 What is Programmed Instruction? 179
4.7.2 Main features of Programmed Learning 180
4.7.3 Basic Principles of Programmed Learning 181
4.7.4 Types of Programmed Learning 182
4.8 Methods/Techniques of Teaching for Different Subjects Especially for Junior
Sections 183
4.9 Classroom Games, Puzzles and Activities of Primary Years 185
4.10 Question Techniques 190
4.11 Communication 196
4.11.1 Forms of Communication 196
4.11.2 Objectives of Communication 197
4.11.3 Characteristics of Effective Communication 199
4.11.4 Functions of Communication 200
4.11.5 Factor Affecting on Communications effectiveness 201
4.12 Developing Interpersonal Skill and Teaching Style 203
4.12.1 Fostering Personal Relationship with Students 203
4.12.2 Developing Interpersonal Skills 204
Self- Assessment 207
References 207

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 INTRODUCTION
Whether teachers are entering their first year in the classroom, or they are
classroom experts, educators are always searching for new ways to improve the learning
experience for students. From dealing with behavior issues to enhancing existing lesson
plans, here are some effective strategies for teaching elementary school students. It takes
more than love for learning and teaching children to be an effective educator. Along with
passion and dedication, specific skills and familiarity with proven classroom practices are
also needed to motivate students and increase their learning potential. By learning new
strategies and teaching methods, educators can promote learning and actively stimulate
children’s natural thirst for knowledge. The impact of an effective elementary school
teacher can remain with a child for the rest of his or her life. Quality grade-school
teachers often set the expectations for their students’ outlook on the education system as a
whole. This is what makes effective teaching strategies so important at this early age.
Sparking the student’s interest at a young age is an absolutely critical part of their
learning development. A teacher who can make learning not only fun, but engaging and
memorable, will help establish the value of education in the mind of the student.

OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit the prospective teachers will be able to:
1. Adopt different methods of teaching according to the need of the lesson.
2. Develop higher order mental skills through questioning.
3. Enhance the communication and interpersonal skills which may reflect in their
students.
4. Teach the primary classes with the help of classroom games, puzzles and activities.

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 4.1 LECTURE METHOD
The lecture is defined as the method of instruction in which the instructor has full
responsibility for presenting facts and principles orally. Lectures may be formal or
informal.
 Formal Lectures: The formal lecture method is primarily used when presenting
information to large groups. Communication is virtually a one way
communication from instructor to students. Student participation is severely
limited.
 Informal Lectures: The informal lecture includes active student participation.
Learning is best achieved if students participate actively in a relaxed atmosphere,
therefore, the informal lecture is encouraged over the formal. Active student
participation can be achieved through the use of questions and is an effective
two-way communication process.
The basic purpose of lecturing is the dissemination of information. As an expert
in your field, you identify important information for the learner and transmit this
knowledge in the lecture. The lecture method is recommended for high consensus
disciplines–those in which there is agreement on the fundamental principles and
procedures, such as math and the natural sciences.
Advantages/Disadvantages
The following are the basic advantages of the lecture method:
 It provides an economical and efficient method for delivering substantial
amounts of information to large numbers of student.
 It affords a necessary framework or overview for subsequent learning, e.g.,
reading assignments, small group activities, discussion.
 It offers current information (more up to date than most texts) from many
sources.
 It provides a summary or synthesis of information from different sources.
 It creates interest in a subject as lecturers transmit enthusiasm about their
discipline.
There are disadvantages to using the lecture method as a primary teaching
method. An effective lecture requires both extensive research and preparation and
effective delivery skills to maintain students’ attention and motivation. In addition, the
lecture has other drawbacks:
 It does not afford the instructor with ways to provide students with individual
feedback.
 It is difficult to adapt to individual learning differences.

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  It may fail to promote active learning unless other teaching strategies, such as
questioning and problem-solving activities, are incorporated into the lecture.
It does not promote independent learning.
4.1.1 Planning the Lecture
First, you must become familiar with your subject. Your lesson plan is a guide
for you to use during your presentation. Review it prior to your teaching session and
ensure you thoroughly understand it. If corrections or additions have been published
since you last taught the lesson, check to see that they have been posted. Any training
aids that you plan to use should be check to ensure that they are readily available and in
good condition.
Second, consider the teaching area. Do not assume that the classroom or dayroom
in a dormitory is the only place you can teach. If it is pleasant outside you may want to
move your class to the outdoors. Try to provide a comfortable, non-distracting learning
environment. Ensure you have enough time to complete your lessons, and if not, look for
a logical breaking point.
Finally, take into consideration the mental and physical state of your students.
Hunger or fatigue can easily take precedence over anything you want your students to
learn. Consider also that should you reprimand your flight for an unsatisfactory dormitory
inspection and then expect them to concentrate while you teach, their thoughts are likely
still to be on the unsatisfactory dorm. Do not waste time trying to teach if you do not
have the attention of your students.
4.1.2 Delivering the Lecture
Besides the obvious requirements of voice, platform mannerisms, sincerity, eye
contact, and other communicative skills, the lecture, because of its unique instructor
responsibilities, requires skillful choice of support material. The strength or weakness of
your lesson depends on your teaching effectiveness. There are a number of techniques
you can use to increase your effectiveness. The following types of verbal support will
make the lesson more interesting and understandable.
A specific instance is a short example. An extended illustration is a single, rather
lengthy and detailed example. A story type illustration. An extended illustration does not
have to be true or factual; it serves a useful purpose if it creates interest and adds variety.
A comparison is used to bridge the known and the unknown. An effective instructor can
clarify a new subject idea, or situation by showing how it resembles a familiar subject.
Comparison may be factual or imaginary. An example of an imaginary comparison is
called an analogy. An analogy uses a story or incident with a point that parallels the point
that the communicator wants to make. The analogy does not prove a point, but helps to
dramatize it.
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 Statistics can be used to clarify or amplify a point, but must be used sparingly
and wisely. They should be in terms that are easily understood, and unless there is good
reason for giving exact statistical figures, round numbers should be used. Honesty with a
statistic is essential. Testimonies can give the trainee an example of a real life situation.
The testimony can relate trainees' thoughts or ideas with what actually happened with the
instructor.
In addition to verbal support, visual aids can be used to help clarify and illustrate
ideas. Many things are difficult to explain with word alone. Try finding a location in a
strange city with only oral directions. Remember, any visual aids used must be in good
condition and correct. An outdated map is more hindrance than help. Instructors may find
the use of charts, graphs, pictures, slides, and models not only reinforces their
explanation or key points, but also decreases the necessary explanation time, and increase
the trainee's understanding of the subject. There are three types of visual aids: oral,
visual, and yourself. Oral visual aids are examples of something that the trainee can
identify with at that present moment. For example, their dormitory, their area where they
sleep, etc. Visual aids (such as slides, videos, Power point, etc.) are aids shown to
someone during the lecture. The third type is you. One visual aid that many instructors
fail to use effectively is themselves.
4.1.3 Questioning
Good questions are essential to effective communication. Instructors who lack
the skill to effectively question their cadet students create disinterest and boredom on the
part of the students. They also ignore a fine opportunity to open communication lines for
determining the effectiveness of the lesson. Good questions expand on central thoughts,
develops the subject, and not on minor, nice-to-know points. Let us look at some rules for
asking questions.
1. Ask questions of the entire class to promote thinking in all students and get them
involved.
2. Distribute questions at random. Do not always ask the same students or those
sitting in a particular area.
3. Allow enough time for the students to think about and give an answer. Do not
waste time waiting if the student clearly does not know the answer, but do not cut
the student off before ample time is given for the complete though process or
answer period.
4. Begin questions with the words that require thoughtful answers, such as, "Why,
When, How, What," etc. Stay away from questions that can be answered with a
simple yes or no. This will help stimulate and even guide student thinking.
5. Acknowledge all answers to ensure incorrect or vague answers are clarified.
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 6. Avoid frequent group or choral responses. This method provides answers that are
often unintelligible and errors that are hard to pick up.
7. Do not waste time "pumping" a student. If the student does not know the answer,
either offer an explanation or ask the question of another student.
8. Don't use catch or trick questions. Students will not participate and you could
possibly lose them if they feel humiliated.
Closing the lecture
At the end of a lecture ensure that all answers have been given and offer an outlet
to clarify questions that may occur at a later date. Ask for additional questions. Some
trainees may have questions, but are too hesitant to raise their hands to ask while you are
talking. Finally, close on a positive note. It give your trainees encouragement, expresses
confidence in their abilities, and motivates them.
4.1.4 Follow up the Lecture
It is important to ensure that students are learning as you go, especially where
ideas build on each other. One way to test learning is by asking students to identify what
they have learned or what they have found difficult.
Some strategies may be:
During the last 5 minutes of the lecture, ask students to write down one of the following:
 the main idea from the lecture, or
 three important points, or
 the muddiest point
Collect these comments and read them between the lectures. If you are lecturing
to a large group, select a few rather than reading all of them. Then, spend the first five
minutes of the next lecture addressing any inconsistencies or identified difficulties.
Develop a quick questionnaire that tests students' comprehension of the key points you
delivered during your lecture. Either discuss answers to the questionnaire at the end of
the lecture or during the first few minutes of the next one.
Students should be encouraged to ask a lecturer for clarification either in the
lecture or afterwards. They need to take some time outside of class to edit, integrate or
review notes to help prepare ahead of time for exams or projects. Use seminars and
tutorials to clarify or discuss material from the lectures. Review notes as soon as possible
after a lecture. Make the most of the review by:
 Try to review lecture material within 24 to 48 hours as recall will be very high. If
you wait longer to review lecture material you may find that retention drops and
you are relearning rather than reviewing
 Set aside a few minutes each day to go over your notes, rewrite any messy parts,
fill in gaps, and put your notes in a binder
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  If your instructor speaks very quickly, set aside time right after class to write
down what you can from memory
 In some cases, it may be helpful to compare your notes with a friend’s. Your
friend might be able to help fill in some gaps in your notes, and you may be able
to help him/her
 If you take notes from the textbook after lecture, use the back side of your lecture
notes. You’ll spend less time taking textbook notes on topics already covered in
the lecture
 If you had difficulty understanding the content of the lecture, you can:
o See the lecturer during office hours. Take your notes with you to show
where you are having difficulty
o Ask the lecturer if he or she gives the same lecture at another time.
Hearing an explanation a second time can often lead to deeper
understanding
 At the end of each week, write a summary of the week’s lectures and textbook
notes or create a concept map. The summary or map can later be used when
studying for exams
4.1.5 When to Use the Lecture
 Should the decision of whether to lecture be influenced by what we are teaching
in class that day?
 Are some kinds of content better explained by the teacher than discovered by the
students?
 Is it complex content that you know from previous experience often causes
students to struggle?
 Can the teacher’s explanation lay the foundation, set the parameters, or provide
the context so that students can start dealing with content from a place that
expedites understanding?
 Is a lecture the best way to clarify what students find confusing?
 Should we use lecture to present threshold concepts, those building blocks in the
discipline which, if understood correctly from the start, provide stability for the
knowledge structures built upon them?
 If we do, we should test how effectively the lecture established those
foundations. We should collect data from students and use it to ascertain the level
of their understanding as compared with their learning via other methods.
 Can you determine when a lecture might be needed by watching the learning
experiences of students?

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 If they are attempting something that is challenging, if they are working hard, but
still not getting it, if levels of frustration are rising, is that the time for a teacher
to step in?
 Most of us know firsthand that sometimes learning can be so frustrating,
emotions so strong and raw, that insight and understanding escape us.
 This is what some call just-in-time teaching. When students experience a learning
impasse, the teacher steps in to provide the answ

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 B. Step 2 - Teach them the task:
1. Tell, show, illustrate, explain, and question carefully and patiently.
2. Take one step at a time.
3. Stress key points.
4. Present information associated with and related to task.
5. Emphasize safety factors.
C. Step 3 - Try them out:
1. Have them do task guide them if necessary.
2. Have them do task again, explaining steps, key points, and safety
factors.
3. Ask questions and prevent errors.
4. Repeat until you know they know.
D. Step 4 - Follow them up:
1. Put them to work.
2. Check often -- encourage questions.
3 Tell them where to get help.
4. Explain what to do in an emergency.
An effective demonstration should be given in a minimum of time--no longer
than about 15 minutes. During the practice period, the presenter should be aware of the
activities of each member of the workshop/class. As the learners work individually, the
presenter should move quickly from one learner to another. Periodically, the presenter
will want to station himself/herself at a location from which they can observe the entire
group of learners. This will permit effective supervision as well as to allow learners to
come to them for help. If a number of learners are having difficulty in learning a skill, the
demonstration should be repeated. The learners who have mastered the skill may assist
the presenter with those who have not.
4.2.5 Process Outline for Giving a Demonstration
The presenter should try a "DRY RUN" on any demonstration prior to actually
giving it. The "dry run" should follow the steps to be used in the actual demonstration.
1. Orient the learners to the demonstration. - Explain what is to be demonstrated
and how it relates to the instructional program. The purposes of the
demonstration should be discussed.
2. Show the learners, if possible, what the demonstration is to produce or achieve. -
Having the finished product available for inspection will make it easier for the
learners to understand the demonstration.
3. Show and describe the equipment and materials to be used. - The group can be
asked to name and describe equipment and materials needed with the presenter
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 producing the items as they are named. The presenter can finish by showing
items not named by the group.
4. Emphasize safety. If goggles are required, learners and presenter should be
wearing them. The presenter should point out steps where accidents may occur
and emphasize safe work habits at all times.
5. Give the demonstration. Each step and important point should be identified and
listed. Care must be taken to show and explain each step in a way learners can
see and understand. To the extent possible, the learners can be asked to discuss
the demonstration as it is being given. If additional time is available, related
information may be injected into the procedures by the presenter. The amount of
time to be used in this way should be estimated during the "dry run" so that
appropriate preparation can be made.
6. Summarize as needed. Depending on the situation and learner objectives, the
presenter may summarize, a learner may be called on to perform the
demonstration, or the entire group may be directed to perform the activity
demonstrated

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 4.3 DRILL METHOD
The term drill and practice is defined as a method of instruction characterized
by systematic repetition of concepts, examples, and practice problems. Drill and practice
is a disciplined and repetitious exercise, used as a mean of teaching
and perfecting a skill or procedure. As an instructional strategy, it promotes the
acquisition of knowledge or skill through systematic training by multiple
repetitions, rehearse, practice, and engages in a rehearsal in order to learn or become
proficient. Similar to memorization, drill and practice involves repetition of specific
skills, such as spelling or multiplication. To develop or maintain one’s specific skills, the
sub skills built through drill and practice should become the building blocks for more
meaningful learning.
4.3.1 Concept of Drill and Practice
The old adage "practice makes perfect" is applicable to teaching. Traditional
instruction incorporated practice and drills for students to memorize or adopt concepts.
Practice, which can be defined as the use of an idea to gain familiarity and expertise, is
still important in instruction. Drills, which are the repetitious and paced reviews of
concepts, also have a place in the classroom. However, both methodologies should be
applied strategically.
What is its purpose?
Drill and Practice activities help learners’ master materials at their own pace.
Drills are usually repetitive and are used as a reinforcement tool. Effective use of drill
and practice depends on the recognition of the type of skill being developed, and the use
of appropriate strategies to develop these competencies. There is a place for drill and
practice mainly for the beginning learner or for students who are experiencing learning
problems. Its use, however, should be kept to situations where the teacher is certain that it
is the most appropriate form of instruction.
4.3.2 Scope and Limitation
Scope of Drill and Practice
Students benefit from practice because they are able to apply knowledge through
interaction. Students connect with the material when they work with texts and concepts
beyond a one-time exposure. When students practice using the knowledge through
application, they connect with information on a deeper level. For instance, when learning
about writing, students have to write. They have to hone the voice, tone and style of their
writing. This cannot happen unless they revise, see examples and learn to improve their
own work. Students cannot transfer a lecture on good essay writing into an actual good
essay without practical application.

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 While drills are associated with a regimented style of instruction, they do have a
place. Drills are used successfully when teaching students technique. For instance, when
young people are learning their multiplication tables, they can do drills on each number
set to help them memorize; they can then proceed to more difficult concepts that use the
information obtained from drills. In physical education and music, coaches and teachers
use drills as a method to hone skills that need repetition for improvement. Additionally,
students can use this technique with one another for shared learning opportunities.
Teachers, when planning appropriately, include practice time for students. Students in all
grades benefit from practice because it deepens their understanding and increases
familiarity with the material. Similarly, drills are useful to reinforce and practice more
rote knowledge and skills. With both methods, students are activating knowledge through
application.
Limitations of Drill and Practice
There are potential drawbacks to practice and drills. Teachers need to make sure
that when having students practice, there is a clear link between concept and action.
Students must be able to relate what they are doing to what they are learning. Similarly,
drills are not effective when students are not prepared enough; they will not be able to
maintain a pace if they are still unclear about a concept. Furthermore, drills are typically
for more basic knowledge or for a more physical understanding. If teaching about more
abstract concepts, a drill methodology would not be appropriate.
4.3.3 Computer Assisted Drill and Practice
Drill and practice software is one of the earliest types of educational software.
Many educators have criticized the use of drill and practice software claiming they are
boring and do not utilize the full capabilities of the computer for higher level learning
objectives. However, drill and practice does have its place in the overall learning
environment. Drill and practice software is not intended to teach new concepts, but
instead reinforce concepts already taught through review and practice. It provides
immediate, relevant feedback and prevents students from learning something incorrectly.
Drill and practice allows students to work at their own pace while focusing on skills they
need to work on rather than forcing them to work on concepts they already know. Drill
and practice can also help identify mastery of a skill for both the student and the teacher.
4.3.4 Techniques of Drill and Practice
How can I do it?
Drill and practice software packages offer structured reinforcement of previously
learned concepts. They are based on question and answer interactions and should give the
student appropriate feedback. Drill and practice packages may use games to increase
motivation. Teachers who use computers to provide drill and practice in basic skills
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promote learning because drill and practice increases student acquisition of basic skills.
In a typical software package of this type, the student is able to select an appropriate level
of difficulty at which questions about specific content materials are set. In most cases the
student is motivated to answer these questions quickly and accurately by the inclusion of
a gaming scenario, as well as colourful and animated graphics. Good drill and practice
software provides feedback to students, explains how to get the correct answer, and
contains a management system to keep track of student progress.
How can I adjust it?
There has been a definite move away from paper-based drill and practice systems
to computer-based systems. Drill and practice exercises with appropriate software can
enhance the daily classroom experience. Given the personalized, interactive nature of
most software, the computer can lend itself to providing extended, programmed practice.
Used in small doses, electronic learning experiences can supplement any lesson
effectively. Certain software allow students to reinforce specific skills in a certain subject
area. As with all other types of software, the teacher needs to determine if technology is
the best way to work with the subject matter being dealt with.
Games provide child centered activities to apply problem solving strategies as
well as an opportunity to practice basic skills.
Basic Skills Practice Cards can be designed to be used in many different formats.
They can be used with a game board, in a lotto format or as flashcards.
4.3.5 Improving the Techniques
Important factors for teachers to consider when selecting drill & practice software
to use in the classroom:
(Oh,2001)
Does the software program focus on the skills you want your class to master?
 Does the program contain a range of levels to accommodate all of your students?
 Can children easily change skill levels and select an activity so they can work
independently?
 Does the program keep track of a student's progress from one session to the next?
 Is the program engaging?
(Sullivan, 2004)
Is developmentally appropriate for the student
 Reinforces skills already taught
 Is based on individual student needs
 Meets curriculum outcomes
 Provides a positive learning experience for the student

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  Provides appropriate stimuli, response required, and reinforcement for the
student
4.3.6 Features of good drill & practice software
The best types of drill and practice software usually include an engaging mix of
text, graphics, sound, and animation. These all help to keep the learner's attention. Many
use a game format that features competition between students or the computer. According
to Alessi &Trollip (2001), competition against other student's is the most effective in
increasing motivation. Quality drill and practice programs give students some control
over the presentation of the material, allowing them to select the range of topics and the
speed at which they are presented. Feedback is a crucial component of drill and practice
software. If a question is answered correctly, a congratulatory message is appropriate.
When answered incorrectly, it is important that the program indicate that the response is
incorrect, why it is incorrect, and how to get the correct answer. Good drill and practice
software is able to isolate individual concepts and make sure the student has mastered
them. It is after a concept is mastered that it proceeds to higher levels of learning.
Activity
1. What kind of drill & practices do you use in your classes for teaching different
subjects?

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 4.4 PROJECT METHOD
Project method is of American origin and is an outcome of Dewey’s philosophy
of pragmatism. Oxford learners’ dictionary define project method as a ‘plan of action’.
According to Dr. Kilpatrick ‘A project is a unit of wholehearted purposeful activity
carried on preferably in its natural setting’ and J. A. Stevenson ‘A project is a
problematic act carried to completion in its most natural setting’.
4.4.1 Concept of Project Method
The project method, also discussed under headings like project work, project
approach, and project-based learning, is one of the standard teaching methods. It is a sub-
form of action-centered and student-directed learning and an enterprise in which children
engage in practical problem solving for a certain period of time. Projects, for example,
may consist of building a motor boat, designing a playground, or producing a video film.
For the most part, projects are initiated by the teacher but as far as possible they are
planned and executed by the students themselves, individually or in groups. In project
work, the students generate tangible products that frequently transcend disciplinary
boundaries and are typically displayed to the general public on parents’ days or at school
fairs. Contrary to traditional methods, projects focus on applying, not imparting, specific
knowledge or skills, and more rigorously than lecture, demonstration, or recitation, they
aim at the enhancement of intrinsic motivation, independent thinking, self-esteem, and
social responsibility.
In project method, teaching and learning are considered from the child’s point of
view and in this method knowledge and skills are learnt by pupils through practical
handling of problem in their natural setting. This method is an ideal way of promoting
creativity, arousing curiosity and including the spirit of enquiry among the students.
However, in this method teaching is more or less incidental.
4.4.2 Scope and Limitations
The project method is based on sound psychological principles and laws of
teaching which provide scope for independent work and individual development. It
promotes habits of critical thinking and encourages the students to adopt problem solving
methods. It helps in enhancing social interaction, inculcates spirit of co-operation and
exchanges of experiences among the students.
Limitations
 The project is uneconomical in terms of time and is not possible to fit in to the
regular timetable.
 It does not provide any training in mathematical thinking and reasoning.
 The learning is incomplete and uniform learning or balanced learning is not
possible for all students as each student performs a different activity.
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  Textbooks and instructional materials are hardly available
 For the success of this method the teachers should be exceptionally resourceful
and gifted and knowledgeable.
 It is an expensive method as it makes use of a lot of resources which are not
immediately available in the school.
 Syllabus cannot be completed on time using this method.
 Teaching is disorganized.
4.4.3 Phases of Project Method
Project method teaching involves three phases.
 In phase one, the teacher builds an interest in the topic by encouraging students
to share personal relevant stories that act as guidelines to help formulate
questions to investigate.
 In phase two, the teacher enables students to go on field trips; interview experts
such as waiters, farmers or nurses, depending on the topic of study; and share the
new knowledge with their classmates.
 In phase three, the teacher guides the study to its conclusions and helps the
children review their achievements.
There are basic approaches for implementing the project method that require the
students to take two steps. Initially, they are taught in a systematic course to study certain
skills and facts that they apply creatively to suitable projects without supervision. The
second approach stipulates that instruction by the teacher does not precede the project but
is integrated into it. In both approaches, time for reflection is provided during all phases
of project learning to give students the opportunity to evaluate their progress.

Activity
1. Plan a project with your class and write a detail report on your experience.

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4.5 PROBLEM SOLVING APPROACH/INQUIRY METHOD
4.5.1 Major Purposes
The use of, and evidence behind, two related student-centred approaches to
teaching has grown significantly over the past decades - problem solving approach and
inquiry method. Each of these terms define a type of learning environment that is similar
to one another, but has over time been defined slightly differently. The two, however, are
based upon the notion of inquiry and problem analysis, which can be defined as
 a self-directed, question-driven search for understanding undertaken by students
as individuals or in groups (Hudspith and Jenkins, 2001).
What is Problem Solving Approach?
It has become a major feature of education in particular, which typically involves four
steps:
1. a problem, often hypothetical, is posed by the instructor
2. students decide what they need to learn in order to address the problem
3. they go to textbooks and other sources to acquire knowledge of the areas that
have relevance to the problem, and
4. they apply what they have learned to that particular problem.
The defining characteristics are that learning is driven by challenging, open-
ended, teacher-defined problems, where students work in small collaborative groups and
the teachers take on the role of facilitators of learning.
How is Inquiry Method different?
While inquiry method has very similar characteristics (open-ended, challenging, teacher
as facilitator, etc.), it follows four similar but different principal steps:
1. the student explores a subject or theme and chooses a specific focus for research,
2. a central research question for inquiry is formulated,
3. the student develops a plan of research, based on critical questioning and the
attempt to anticipate findings, and
4. these research findings are brought to bear on the central question.
The inquiry is usually directed towards researching knowledge that is already
known in the discipline, but can result in the discovery of knowledge new to the
discipline as well.
Problem solving approach starts with a problem that has been designed by an instructor
for didactic purposes with the aim of motivating the learning of certain bodies of
knowledge.
Inquiry method, on the other hand, begins with the exploration of a theme that
leads the students to formulate a central question on their own, with the aim of

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developing the skills needed to bring research to bear on the understanding of that
question (Hudsptih and Jenkins, 2001).
4.5.2 Role of the Teacher
 Give suggestions not answers
 Offer a problem solving heuristic
 Teach a variety of problem solving strategies
 Allow time for the students to struggle with the problem
 Choose problems that require time to think through a solution
 Provide a variety of problems
 Allow students time to practice a heuristic and strategies
 Give similar or the same problem in different ways
 Ask questions that encourage students to:
o think divergently
o explain how they are thinking.
o to share strategies
o think of other ways that the same problem could be asked
o think of real life problems that are or relate to the problem
o discover different problems that can be solved with the same strategy
o discover multiple ways to solve the problem
o reflect or check their solutions
o reflect and discuss how they imagined a certain strategy might be
possible
o explain why they have confidence in their solutions
1. Provide encouragement and appreciation:
o appreciate different solutions and strategies
o encourage students to find multiple solutions to a problem
o encourage students to take time to solve problems
o compliment students on good problem solving strategies whether they
reach a solution or not
o make sure students know what a compliment or praise specifically relates
to about the problem and problem solving
o encourage students to keep trying and to learn by correcting mistakes
o let students know that problem solving is difficult and rewarding
o share and discuss attitudes and dispositions that are conducive to
problem solving
2. Be a role model:
o solve problems yourself

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 o make problem solving a top priority
o let students know that problem solving is an integral part of your
curriculum
o look for and comment on problem - solving situations anywhere they
occur
o imbed teaching and learning in a problem - solving format
o use sketches, manipulatives, charts, graphs, and any other kind of
representation that can thought of
o Use problem solving strategies and vocabulary
4.5.3 Use of the Learning Resources
Availability of instructional materials, kits, and equipment.
As personal concerns are resolved, many teachers have concerns about making
things work. At this point, teachers have many “how to” questions about finding the time
for problem solving/inquiry activities, covering the content, keeping the students on task,
having enough equipment, and so on. For example, is the schedule conducive for problem
solving/inquiry-based teaching? Are the periods or teaching blocks long enough to
complete most activities in one day? Do instructional units or courses of study
incorporate problem solving/inquiry as the main teaching and learning strategy?
Traditional textbooks and units are often not conducive to problem
solving/inquiry-based teaching. Success is much more likely when the teachers are using
materials that have problem solving/inquiry “built in.” Administrators need to make an
effort to see that teachers have such materials and also know the ways to adapt traditional
materials to support problem solving/inquiry-based learning. Does the school or district
emphasize problem solving/inquiry-oriented materials when approving textbooks and
instructional materials? Are the criteria for selection based on standards (national or state)
that have a strong problem solving/inquiry component? Administrators have an
opportunity, an obligation, and often the authority to influence the procedures and criteria
used.
Nothing interferes with problem solving/inquiry-based teaching more than
lacking an adequate supply of instructional materials. Administrators need to ensure that
teachers have appropriate kits, equipment, and supplies, and that consumable supplies are
replaced regularly. Is the storage space adequate and secure? Experienced teachers can
help find the answers to some of these questions, as can administrators who pay attention
to the problems teachers are having.
Only by working through management questions can a teacher construct an
image and an understanding of how problem solving/inquiry-based teaching will benefit
his or her students. Teachers at this stage will ask hard questions about the effectiveness
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of their teaching. They often will seek answers from the research and from careful
student assessments to assure themselves that they and the approach they are using are
effective.
4.5.4 Method of Evaluation
Student assessment procedures aligned with the outcomes of problem
solving /inquiry
Students and parents quickly judge what is valued by the tests and grading
system the teachers and the schools use, and they adjust their behavior accordingly. If the
problem solving /inquiry activities and investigations are simply interludes between
memorizing material from the text and other sources, the motivation to acquire problem
solving/inquiry-based abilities will be limited. If a teacher’s tests and those required by
the school do not assess the abilities and understanding of problem solving /inquiry or,
for that matter, the deep understanding of science concepts, students and parents may
wonder why time is being spent on problem solving/inquiry.
To avoid these pitfalls, administrators can encourage teachers to communicate
clearly to students and parents what they expect students in their classes to know and be
able to do and how they will assess and grade them. Teachers should be encouraged to
embed their assessments in instruction, to consider how students’ language development
influences assessment results if they teach English language-learners, and to use
assessments to inform both their immediate responses to students and their ongoing
designs for instruction. Administrators can review the quality of the inquiry used in a
class as well as students’ mastery of subject matter. Do teachers include questions on
their quizzes (in the grades and courses where this is appropriate) and use hands-on
assessment tasks to measure inquiry abilities? Assessments of problem/inquiry are a very
useful topic for teacher study groups and for action research projects.
If tests are mandated by the district or state, what is their impact on teachers? If
the tests do not measure problem solving/inquiry, how can the requirement or the nature
of the tests be modified? Changing the policies involved is a tall order but well worth the
effort. Many administrators and teachers are ready and willing to join in this task.
Until such changes can be made, the tests only measure a portion objectives or standards.
And students who achieve a deep understanding of content through problem
solving/inquiry usually do well on conventional tests (Bransford, Brown & Cocking,
1999).
4.5.5 Promoting inquiry and problem solving in other subject areas.
Problem solving/inquiry is not exclusive to any fixed level. Teachers at the
secondary level and elementary level can and often do use problem solving/inquiry-like
strategies. Teachers want and need the moral and collegial support of working with other
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teachers on innovative and, what they consider, risky projects. They also need the sense
that they are not out on an “intellectual limb”; that problem solving/inquiry has its
counterparts in other disciplines.
Mathematics educators have long advocated problem solving as an overarching
process for teaching mathematics. The study of eighth grade mathematics instruction
highlighted the value of individuals or small groups of students working through a
complex problem independent of the teacher, with the help of several students, displays
one or more acceptable solution strategies. Innovative social studies instructional
materials have incorporated problem solving/inquiry strategies by providing original
source materials for students to use in their investigations and an inductive approach to
reaching the big ideas and principles. When the majority of teachers in a school are
working on a common goal, the level and amount of professional talk in the building goes
up (Little, 1993) and teachers begin to support each other in a common effort to change
the way they teach and their students learn.

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 4.6 ROLE-PLAYING---GAMES AND SIMULATIONS
4.6.1 Purpose of Role-Playing
Role play involves imagination, and …
“Imagination is more important than knowledge. For knowledge is limited to all
we now know and understand, while imagination embraces the entire world, and all there
ever will be to know and understand.” Albert Einstein
When children do role plays, they naturally become someone or something else.
Role play stimulates their imagination and “enhances their social development,
encourages friendship through cooperation, listening and turn taking”. Therefore, role
play is a vital activity for our children.
Our children can learn many skills and attitudes during role play, and learn how
to be co-operative (teamwork) and be empathetic with others. They can learn to express
all their feelings. They also can learn about other cultures and improve their language and
movement skills.
During role plays children can experience school activities like literacy and
numeracy. In the playing shop, children can “encompass all the aspects of the
curriculum”. They can learn about money, about politeness and the right way to ask
questions and respond etc. Role play can help children to make sense of their world.
“Imaginative play not only aids intellectual development but also improves children’s
social skills and their creativity. In addition it gives children a chance to play out events
that they have observed or experienced in real life.” And this means also situations they
might have some problems to deal with. In fact, role plays can help to “explore moral
issues and problems safely”.
It is very interesting to see and hear children when having role plays that imitate
a grown up, saying the things we use to tell them. By interiorizing our roles they become
little adults, and by playing, they get to understand us better.
Also, by getting into the future or the past, the role play permits to visit or re-visit places
and moments our children need to handle. They can travel anywhere, in the real world or
in a very fictional one, where people have special powers or things which are not normal.
Role play: with adults and children
When teachers are involved in the play, they have the opportunity to understand
different points of view simply by acting.
If you play the role of a baby or a child and one of your children plays a parent or
a teacher, you relive how it feels to be the “little one”. And sometimes we adults get to
know what our children retain from what we teach them, how they feel about the way we
talk to them. During these role plays, when our children play our part, it’s like we were
looking in a mirror. These role plays are very helpful as you get to know what bothers
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your children, what they are afraid of or what they are particularly proud of. They have
the opportunity to express their fears and needs without being judged. Role play gives us
the unique chance to meet our children in an imaginary world.
Activity
1. Organize a role play with your children and document your experiences.
4.6.2 Principles for Effective Role Playing
As a teaching technique, role playing is based on the philosophy that meanings
are in people, not in words or symbols. If that philosophy is accurate, we must first of
all share the meanings, then clarify our understandings of each other’s meanings, and
finally, if necessary, change our meanings.
In the language of phenomenological psychology, this has to do with changing
the self-concept. The self-concept is best changed through direct involvement in a
realistic and life-related problem situation rather than through hearing about such
situations from others.
Creating a teaching situation which can lead to the change of self-concepts
requires a distinct organizational pattern. One helpful structure for role playing follows:
1. Preparation
a. Define the problem
b. Create a readiness for the role(s)
c. Establish the situation
d. Cast the characters
e. Brief and warm up
f. Consider the training
2. Playing
a. Acting
b. Stopping
c. Involving the audience
d. Analyzing the discussion
e. Evaluating
It is important to note that all of them focus on group experiences rather than on
unilateral behavior of the teacher. The group should share in the defining of the problem,
carrying out the role playing situation, discussing the results, and evaluating the whole
experience.
The teacher must identify the situation clearly so that both the characters and the
audience understand the problem at hand. In casting the characters, the wise teacher will
try to accept volunteers rather than assign roles. Students must realize that acting ability

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is not at stake here but rather the spontaneous discharge of how one thinks the character
of his role would react in the defined situation.
It is important to evaluate role playing in the light of the prescribed goals.
Categorizing behavior is often overdone and gets in the way of the learning process.
Evaluation should proceed on both group and personal levels, raising questions
concerning the validity of the original purpose.
Throughout the entire process it will be necessary to deal with certain problems
which arise in role playing situations. The backward, silent member must be encouraged
to contribute. Create an atmosphere in which he is unafraid to share ideas, confident that
no one will laugh at his contributions or harshly criticize his conclusions.
The overbearing monopolizer must be curtailed in the discussion phase of role
playing lest he dominate the group and thereby quash the dynamic, Solving this problem
may require some personal counseling outside of class. Tension and conflict in the group
may not always be bad. Sometimes these elements act as a stimulant to thinking. There is
such a thing as “creative tension,” and it is frequently found in a role playing situation as
group dynamic emerges.
At the end of the discussion time the group should collectively measure its
effectiveness in reaching solutions to the role problem posed at the beginning. The
techniques of role playing afford another approach to involving students in their own
learning process toward the clarification of self-concepts, evaluation of behavior, and
aligning of that behavior with reality.
4.6.3 Basic Role-Playing Procedures
Procedure of the Role Play
1. Prepare class for role-play
 Present an artificial problem, situation or event that represents some aspect of
reality.
 Define the problem, situation and roles clearly.
2. Give clear instructions
 Determine whether role-plays will be carried out using student volunteers in front
of the class (the teacher may or may not play a role), in partnerships/small groups
with every student playing a role, or in small groups with role-players and
observers.
 Divide students into groups, if appropriate.
 Model the skill with a scripted role-play.
3. Act out role-plays
 Students follow the procedure outlined by the teacher to act out role-plays.

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  Unless the teacher is playing a role, it is helpful to walk around the room and
observe how students are experiencing the role-play and offer coaching to
students who are stuck.
Discussion (small group and whole class)
 Begin by allowing players to communicate feelings experienced during the role-
play.
 Have students identify sexual health skills that were demonstrated during the
role-play.
 Determine actions that strengthen or weaken these skills (i.e. body language).
 Discuss how this role-play is or isn’t similar to real life.
 Identify ways of using identified sexual health skills in real life situations.
Alternatives to Traditional Procedure
 Have students write role-plays as scripts.
 Have students write down responses and then role-play in front of the class.
 Have students generate a list of challenging “lines”, then have a student read the
lines to the class and have each student give a response.
 Have students develop and act out plays.
Tips for Using Role-Play
 Begin with fairly easy situations and work up to more challenging ones.
 Be aware that some students may feel threatened or self-conscious. Using humor
can help dispel embarrassment. Using role-plays that exaggerate weak responses
might break the ice.
 Reduce the level of abstraction or complexity so that the students may become
directly involved with underlying concepts.
 If students find it difficult to determine skills which model sexual health, they
could observe successful role models or ask experts to suggest approaches.
Benefits of Role-play Strategy
1. Student interest in the topic is raised.
2. Active Participation.
3. Long-term retention.
4. It enhances communication and interpersonal skills.
5. It can be used with individuals or in group situations.
6. It teaches empathy and understanding of different perspectives.
7. It help individuals to learn to accept both their own feelings and those of
others.
8. It develops confidence and self-efficacy.

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 9. Provides teacher immediate feedback about the learner’s understanding
and ability to apply concepts.
10. It develops competence.
11. It is useful for a range of topics, including interviewing, counseling
skills, personal relationships, and team working.
12. They require mental and physical activity e.g. gesturing to put forward a
point.
13. Reduces discipline problems which often arise from boredom and lack of
motivation.
Limitations of Role-play Strategy
1. Role play may awaken previously subdued or suppressed emotions.
2. Less effective in large groups (Chaos).
3. Teacher must accept her new role where she/he does not dominate the
class anymore.
4. Embarrassment for some students.
5. Can lack focus unless well planned and monitored.
6. Can be unpredictable in terms of outcomes.
7. Can be time-consuming.
4.6.4 Games and Simulations
Games and simulations are often referred to as experimental exercises because
they provide unique opportunities for students to interact with a knowledge domain.
Game: A competitive activity that involves certain skills and it is played under a set of
rules for the amusement of the players, which compete for points or other
advancements that indicate that they are outperforming other players.
Simulation: A conscious attempt to represent a real life situation in which participants
take on roles that would enable them to see how a particular situation might unfold.
Educational games and simulations, unlike direct forms of instruction, are experiential
exerciser v t U U a q orq al

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 Within the classification of games, there is a subset labeled “learning games” or
“serious games.” Games created with the explicit intent of helping someone learn a
specific set of knowledge or skills belong in this category. On the education front, there
are things such as Treasure Math Storm, Oregon Trail, and Where in the World Is
Carmen San Diego. In the corporate world, an example would be Knowledge
Guru games. There are card games, mobile games, computer games, and board games to
help people learn new knowledge or skills or to reinforce knowledge or skill learned via
other means.
Then we’ve designed simulations—sometimes we design them to be games, and
sometimes not. Simulations can be designed as games, but they don’t have to be.
(Confusing, isn’t it?) A simulation is a re-creation of a situation you could encounter that
requires you to problem-solve and make decisions that mimic what you would have to do
in the real-world. Simulations provide a safe means of practice when practicing in a real-
world situation would be either too costly or harmful. (E.g. No one practices flying in a
real jet. You learn first in a simulator.)
An Example of a Simulation
Here’s an example of a simulation we created that is NOT a game. The learning
goal was for patients to be able to respond to common troubleshooting alarms when
doing home hemodialysis, and then safely resolve the alarm. Here are some screen grabs
of the simulation with notes about what we did:

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Source: http://www.theknowledgeguru.com/games-vs-simulations-choosing-right-
approach/

The image shown above is the actual face of the dialysis equipment. The learner
will practice resolving “Alarm 20,” which is an actual alarm that can go off during
treatment. They get a situation cue: “You were 30 minutes into your treatment when a 20
Alarm sounds.” We set this simulation up with levels so the patient can be guided
through resolving the alarm the first time. In this novice level, the patient practices with a
lot of guidance. The red circle shown here prompts them to turn the alarm sound off and
the options to the right offer possible causes of the alarm.

Source: http://www.theknowledgeguru.com/games-vs-simulations-choosing-right-
approach/

Once they go through the demonstration level, they come to a screen that simply
lets them choose what they want to practice.

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Source: http://www.theknowledgeguru.com/games-vs-simulations-choosing-right-
approach/

The screen above looks very similar to the novice level. They once again get a
situation prompt: “You started treatment about 3 minutes ago and just finishing resolving
a Check for Aterial Air 11 alarm when the Cycler started sounding again. This time you
need to resolve Alarm 10.”
This time, however, there is no red circle pointing out where to start or what to do.
Simulations contain many game elements:
 They often have levels of difficulty just like games do.
 If done as a computer simulation, they can be graphically rich.
 They provide a lot of feedback regarding how you are doing.
 They present as a challenge that you have to resolve.
 They can generate a lot of emotion within the participant.
When simulations are not designed as a game, the thing that typically keeps them
from meeting the full-fledged definition is the fact that there is no explicit win/lose state.
In the dialysis example, there is no scoring and the learner is not trying to “win.” They
are also not competing against anyone else or cooperating in order to beat the computer
opponent.

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An Example of a Game
Is a simulation the “holy grail” of learning games? Are simulations the best way
to do learning? Not always. Here’s a mobile game we designed to help sales reps get
ready to work directly with customers in selling a new software product. It definitely
helps them practice positioning features and benefits of a product… but it is not
simulating their real-world environment. They play it in a workshop around a table. Here
are three side-by-side screenshots of the smartphone app:

Source: http://www.theknowledgeguru.com/games-vs-simulations-choosing-right-
approach/

The game plays sort of like Apples to Apples in that you have a Round Master
who takes the role of a customer. He presents a challenge to the other players, which is an
objection or a question. The Round Master can view the optimal response to the situation
by tapping FLIP CARD. The other players have access (on their phones) to a variety of
responses they could offer. They choose the response card they want and tap LOCK
CARD to select it. They must then present this response to the Round Master as though
he or she was the actual customer. The Round Master gets to score the response based on
how well it matches the optimal response and how well they delivered it. The player who
earns the highest point total wins the game.
This is not a simulation but it does let players practice using their selling skills
and knowledge of product messaging. It was a big hit with the target players and a very
effective way for them to practice their salesmanship.
Now you have the knowledge of differences and overlaps between simulations
and games. This spectrum of engaging learning activities covers a wide range of
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possibilities for training. Use these examples to evaluate whether the training needs call
for a simulation or game, or some blend of the two.
The difference between computer simulations and computer games is subtle but
important. At the core, the distinction is that simulations are about things (or systems)
and how they behave, and games are about a fun user experience.
That distinction may be a bit too rigid, however. Because pure simulations are often quite
dry and unpalatable, and the simulations we know and love are often quite fun, a category
known as the rong simulation game, which combines the best features of both, has
evolved. When game features are combined with a simulation, the results can be
powerful. Those who dismiss today's games as an educational tool do so at their peril. For
one thing, games have changed. Good games are now both teachers and motivators. The
newest "complex" games offer scores of hours of challenging problems of great
complexity and sophistication -- often much harder than schoolwork -- which a player
typically has to learn many skills to solve.
Games, unlike traditional school study, also offer students be-a-hero goals that
encourage players to persist in their efforts. In addition, games offer "leveling up" with
rewards that encourage players to practice extensively. Finally, games offer second-by-
second decision making that takes players over and over through the loop of decision,
action, feedback, and reflection that is the basis for all learning. Complex games also
adapt on the fly to each player's ability, making them feel like they want to continue and
struggle, because they feel like they can win despite the challenges.
Kids derive many benefits from playing such games. They include learning how to:
 cooperate, collaborate, and work in teams
 make effective decisions under stress
 take prudent risks in pursuit of objectives
 make ethical and moral decisions
 employ scientific deduction
 quickly master and apply new skills and information
 think laterally and strategically
 persist and solve difficult problems
 understand and deal with foreign environments and cultures
 manage businesses and people
In addition to being great teachers, games are extremely powerful motivators for
today's kids. As a result of this combination, more and more education, both curricular
and non-curricular (but important), is becoming available in game form. This wealth
includes games for art, music, English, social studies, history, current events, financial

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literacy, math, science, health care, nutrition, exercise, planning, business, military
strategy, and even relaxation and stress reduction.
It is important for teachers to take their students' gaming seriously, rather than
disrespectfully dismiss their playing as a waste of time, and to respect both the time that
goes into game playing and the learning that comes out of it. After all, the short attention
spans that teachers often lament in their students somehow disappear when the kids get in
front of their games that is, in front of learning that is more their style.
How can we, as teachers, show respect for our students' games? We might begin by
asking questions such as "Who plays a game that relates to what we are discussing?"
"Can you think of an example of this in your games?" and "How would we design a game
like this?"
Today's game designers have figured out something today's educators are still
searching for: how to make learning engaging for today's kids. It would be beneficial to
employ this knowledge in our classrooms.

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 4.7 PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTIONS
Programmed learning (or programmed instruction) is a research-based system
which helps learners work successfully. The method is guided by research done by a
variety of applied psychologists and educators.

4.7.1 What is Programmed Instruction?

The learning material is in a kind of textbook or teaching machine or computer.
The medium presents the material in a logical and tested sequence. The text is in small
steps or larger chunks. After each step, learners are given a question to test their
comprehension. Then immediately the correct answer is shown. This means the learner at
all stages makes responses, and is given immediate knowledge of results.
Anticipating programmed learning, Edward L. Thorndike wrote in 1912:
“If, by a miracle of mechanical ingenuity, a book could be so arranged that only to
him who had done what was directed on page one would page two become visible,
and so on, much that now requires personal instruction could be managed by print.”
— Edward L. Thorndike, Education: A First Book”
Thorndike, however, did nothing with his idea. The first such system was devised
by Sidney L. Pressey in 1926. "The first teaching machine was developed by Sidney L.
Pressey... While originally developed as a self-scoring machine... it demonstrated its
ability to actually teach".
If so much research had already been done on learning from films, what exactly
did programmed learning add? The short answer is "stimulus control", by which is
broadly meant the teaching material itself. Also, in programmed learning, a complete
system was proposed which included these stages:
1. The aims of the course are stated in terms which are objective, and can be
measured.
2. A pre-test is given, or the initial behaviour is stated.
3. A post-test is provided.
4. The materials have been tried out and revised according to results
(developmental testing).
5. The materials are constructed according to a predetermined scheme
(stimulus control).
6. The material is arranged in appropriate steps.
7. The learner has to respond actively (not necessarily overtly).
8. Arrangements are made for responses to be confirmed (knowledge of
results).

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 9. The teaching medium is appropriate for the subject-matter and the
students.
10. The materials are self-paced or presented in a manner which suits the
learner.
4.7.2 Main Feature of Programmed Learning
While no standardized approach exists for the production of Programmed
Instruction (Lange, 1967), some commonalities across approaches can be identified.
Early descriptions of PI procedures began with the selection of materials to be
programmed (Green 1967; Lysaught & Williams 1963; Taber 1965). In 1978, long after
the establishment of instructional design as a profession, Bullock, (1978) published what
Tillman and Glynn (1987) suggest is “perhaps the most readable account of a PI strategy”
(p. 43). Additionally, upon the introduction of Crowder’s (1960) notion of branching as a
programming approach, future authors began to incorporate a decision phase in which
programmers had to choose a particular design paradigm to follow—linear, branching, or
some variation thereof—before program design could continue (Bullock, 1978; Markle,
1964). The following description of the program development process incorporates
phases and components most common across widely cited models (e.g., Bullock, 1978;
Lysaught & Williams, 1963; Markle, 1964; Taber, Glaser, & Schaefer, 1965). However,
as mentioned previously, since no standardized model or approach to PI development
exists, authors vary on the order and nomenclature in which these steps are presented, so
the following phases are offered with the understanding that no standard sequence is
intended. Early in the program development process, a need for instruction is defined,
along with the specification of content and the establishment of terminal performance
behaviors or outcomes. Also, characteristics and needs of the target group of learners are
analyzed so that the most appropriate starting point and instructional decisions can be
made. Following the definition of instructional need and audience, programmers conduct
a behavioral analysis to determine the incremental behaviors and tasks that will lead the
student to the terminal performance. When more is known about the learners and the
instructional need, the program creator selects a programming paradigm, referring to the
navigation path in which the learner will engage. After the general approach to
programming has been decided, the sequencing of content and the construction of
programmed sequences, called frames, can begin. Although authors differ on the stage at
which evaluation of the initial program should begin (Green, 1967; Lysaught & Williams,
1963; Markle, 1967), feedback is collected from students in trial runs prior to production
and program revisions are based on learner feedback.

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4.7.3 Basic Principles of Programmed Learning
Researchers of programmed learning formulated five principles shown below.
According to behaviorist psychology, a learning effect is considered to be measured by
the number of responses a learner makes under arranged conditions. Feedback should be
given to correct responses in order to "reinforce" such response, and it was thought that
such a process would require individual learning. The last principle; "Learner
verification" is the most valuable contribution that behaviorist psychology has made to
the pedagogy in terms of valuing an empirical approach. Such a standpoint is inherited in
"Formative Evaluation" or "Feedback and Improvement" in an ID process.
Five principles of programmed learning
Principles Explanation

Active learner To what extent a learner can understand is judged by making he/she
response answer questions. The extent of a learner's understanding is ascertained
from what is demonstrated in the responses.

Immediate Let a learner know whether his/her answer is correct or incorrect

feedback immediately. Give the learner the subsequent question after he/she
knows whether his/her response is right or wrong

Small steps Set small steps in order to prevent a learner from stumbling as much as
possible. When he/she makes a mistake, there is the risk of being labeled
a failure.
Self-pacing Let the learner decide the speed of learning so that he/she can learn at
his/her own pace. Consider that an appropriate speed varies from learner
to learner.
Learner Whether the program is good or bad is judged not based on a specialists'
verification opinions, but whether learning is actually established or not. To that end,
get learners who have yet to learn the subject matter to try the program
under development. Based on the trials, improve the material as
necessary.
Source: http://www.gsis.kumamoto-u.ac.jp/opencourses_en/pf/3Block/07/07-2_text.html

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4.7.4 Types of Programmed Learning
The two main systems of programmed learning
One was by Norman Crowder, a psychologist with the U.S. Air Force. He had
been asked to investigate the training of aircraft maintenance men. Crowder's system was
to set multiple choice questions in the text, and provide feedback for each of the
alternatives. Examples of this method show that the alternatives offered in questions were
chosen to cover mistakes which students were likely to make. Crowder's system, which
he called "intrinsic programming", was better known as "branching programming" on
account of its multiple-choice alternatives.
Much better known was the other style of programmed learning, as proposed by
the behaviourist B.F. Skinner. Skinner made some very effective criticisms of traditional
teaching methods. His scheme of programmed instruction was to present the material as
part of a "schedule of reinforcement" in typical behaviourist manner. The programmed
text of Skinner's theory of behaviorism is the most complete example of his ideas in
action. Skinner's system was generally called "linear programming" because its activities
were placed in otherwise continuous text. Skinner was a wonderful publicist for his own
ideas, as can be seen from this passage:
"There is a simple job to be done. The task can be stated in concrete
terms. The necessary techniques are known. The equipment can easily be
provided. Nothing stands in the way except cultural inertia... We are on
the threshold of an exciting and revolutionary period in which the
scientific study of man will be put to work in man's best interests.
Education must play its part. It must accept the fact that sweeping
revision of educational practice is possible and inevitable...”
Both methods were originally presented in machines, and both were later
presented in book form. Both systems were to an extent student centered. They were
ways of teaching individual learners who worked at their own pace. Both systems (in
different ways) used knowledge of results to promote learning. In both systems the
content was pre-tested to identify problems and iron them out. Both systems emphasised
clear learning objectives. Progress in learning was measured by pre and post-tests of
equivalent difficulty. Many practical tests showed the effectiveness of these methods.

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 4.8 METHODS/TECHNIQUES OF TEACHING FOR
DIFFERENT SUBJECTS ESPECIALLY FOR
JUNIOR SECTIONS
An educator needs to use appropriate teaching styles when teaching elementary
students. Lessons in the elementary classroom need to be structured differently from
those in the middle school or high school classroom.
Working as an elementary school teacher puts individuals in the position to work
with students from various communities, religious backgrounds and ethnicities. Teachers
are also exposed to children who have different ways of learning.
To be the most effective, teachers need to be able to help various types of
students get the most from their educational experience. An instructor should be aware
of numerous teaching techniques to use in the classroom. And, in order to maintain
success, teachers need to mix these techniques and tailor them to the situation and the
needs of each student.
Here are the most popular teaching styles used in the elementary classroom.
Demonstration
Many times teachers rely on demonstration to help their students comprehend
material. One of the most common ways that teachers accomplish this is by showing,
instead of just telling, by way of computer-based displays and experiments.
Other things teachers can use are projectors to display graphs and visual
brainstorm webs. The majority of individuals benefit from this method of teaching
despite their learning style.
Elementary students need supported practice, especially when working with
mathematics. Teachers should model a new concept several times and then take the
students through guided-practice. Once guided-practice has been completed, they should
begin practicing independently.
Hands-on
Elementary students generally learn best with hands-on methods. For instance,
students will most likely have difficulty understanding the concept of multiplication if it
is just explained to them. However, if they begin experimenting with multiplication and
practicing this type of problem, they will understand it better and recall how it works.
The traditional lecture
A standard, formal way of teaching is the traditional lecture method. In this
method, the teacher assumes the role of an expert and provides facts to the students.
Many times students will take notes on the information that is being taught.

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This teaching method is especially beneficial if a major exam is approaching. It is helpful
because it offers students the main topics to study and assists them in organizing a review
sheet to study.
Visual learners may have difficulty with this technique because they succeed by
seeing examples rather than just listening to them.
Collaboration
Teachers can create an activity and then encourage their students to work
together either in a group or with a partner. This method inspires students in several
ways, including:
 Problem solving
 Communication skills
 Interactive learning
This method is also helpful in determining which areas their students need
assistance in and which areas they are stronger. Collaboration should be followed by a
group discussion where students can converse about their perceptions and findings.
Hands-off
In this style of teaching, teachers give their students only minimal instructions.
Instead, teachers urge their students to study independently. This develops their self-
actualization and critical thinking skills.
This teaching style is considered more sophisticated. This approach works best for
students in their later years of elementary school. Students who can take on more
responsibility related to the learning process are ideal candidates for this teaching
method.

Activity
1. Which technique is most appropriate for teaching different subjects at junior
level? Why?

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4.9 CLASSROOM GAMES, PUZZLES AND ACTIVITIES OF
PRIMARY YEARS
These ten games are great for primary years. You can link many of them to
classroom curricula too.
The kids probably like the games you usually play, but a little variety can't hurt.
Why not try Password or Sparkle or Pass the Chicken? Simple rules for those games and
seven others can be found below.
1. Password
This game can be easily adapted for classroom use. Choose two students to be
the "contestants." You can always use the "I'm thinking of a number ..." guessing game to
determine the contestants. Those two students go to the front of the room and face their
classmates. Reveal a secret word -- write it on the chalkboard or a chart or hold up a card
-- to everyone but the two contestants. The rest of the students raise their hands to
volunteer one-word clues that might help the contestants guess the word. Contestants take
turns calling on clue volunteers until one of the contestants correctly guesses the secret
password. The contestant who guesses the password remains at the front of the class; the
student who gave the final clue replaces the other contestant.
Tip: Choose words appropriate for your students' abilities. Words for which they
might know multiple synonyms or meanings are best! You might use a thesaurus to
create a list of possible words before playing the game. Write those words in large letters
on cards so students can use them as the game is played. Save the cards from year to year.
Sample password: Lion
Possible clues: fierce, vicious, wild, savage, cruel, brutal
More possible passwords: understand, taste, slam, easy, recess, ancient, nasty, laugh,
drink, impatient, hot, pound, glimpse, friend, correct, motion, ruin
2. Sparkle
This game serves as good practice for the week's (or previous weeks') spelling
words. Arrange students in a line. The game leader calls out the first word. The first
person in line calls out the first letter in that word. The second person calls out the second
letter. The third person calls out the third letter and so on. The person who says the last
letter in the word must turn to the next person in the sequence and say sparkle. The
person who is "sparkled" must return to his or her seat. If a word is misspelled, the person
to say the first wrong letter must sit down and the spelling of that word continues. After a
student is sparkled, the leader calls out a new word. The game continues until only one
student remains standing.

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3. Silence
In Silence, silence is the name of the game. Students must arrange themselves in
order without uttering a peep! For example, challenge students to silently sequence
themselves according to height. The game can be adapted with very little preparation to
fit almost any curriculum theme. For example, if the class is studying capitals, count out
enough sticky notes for each student. On each note, write the name of a capital. Each
student wears a "capital" tag on his or her shirt. The students must silently sequence
themselves in alphabetical order. You might make the game even more challenging by
asking them to line up according to the country for each capital!
Options: Students can create their own tags. They might write their birthdays on
tags and arrange themselves in order from January 1 to December 31. They might write
their seven-digit phone numbers as a seven-digit number and arrange themselves in
numerical sequence.
Other categories: The possibilities are endless, but students might include
fractions (arrange in order of size), clocks (arrange printed a.m. and p.m. clock faces in
order of the time shown), or largest city populations (arrange tags with the largest cities
and their populations from largest to smallest).
4. Piecing the Puzzle
This game requires a little preparation -- but it's worth it! To prepare, laminate
five pictures. Calendar pictures are great for this activity! You might laminate pictures
relating to a teaching theme and then cut each picture into four to six puzzle pieces.
(Note: You want to end up with one puzzle piece for each student in your class, so you
might create a variety of four-piece, five-piece, and six-piece puzzles.) Hand a puzzle
piece to each student. Let students wander around the classroom to find their "puzzle
mates"!
Extra challenge! Laminate pictures from a themed calendar. Imagine students'
trying to piece together pictures of the 'Fairy Tale -- or the confusion spotted puzzle
pieces from a calendar of Dalmatian pictures might cause.
Tip: This activity might be fun for the first teacher meeting of the year too! Every teacher
could contribute a five-piece puzzle to a collection of puzzles that travels the school!
5. Whozit? Whatzit?
These quick little puzzles can be great fun. Write a couple of the puzzles on the
chalkboard and let students try to figure them out. Each puzzle contains several familiar
words. When carefully read and sounded out, the words reveal the name of a well-known
person, place, thing, or phrase. As students figure out the hidden names, they write their
responses on a sheet of scrap paper. The teacher can wander the room checking their
guesses. Have a prize ready for the first person to guess both of the day's puzzles.
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 Follow-up fun: After completing the puzzles below, students might like the
challenge of creating Whozit? Whatzit? puzzles of their own.
Sample Puzzles
 Sand Tackle Laws (Clue: fictional character) -- Santa Claus
 Buck Spun He (Clue: cartoon character) -- Bugs Bunny
 These Hound Dove Moo Sick (Clue: movie) -- The Sound of Music
 Tight An Hick (Clue: thing) -- Titanic
 Aisle Oh View (Clue: phrase) -- I love you
 Thumb Ill Key Wake Owl Licks He (Clue: place) -- The Milky Way
Galaxy
6. Four Corners
Four Corners is popular with teachers and students. Number the corners of the
classroom from 1 to 4. Select one student to be "It." That person closes his or her eyes
while the rest of the students go to one of the four corners in the classroom. When all
students are settled in a corner, It calls out a number. All the kids who chose the corner
with that number are out of the game and must sit down. It closes his or her eyes again,
calls out a number, and more students sit down. When the game gets down to four people
or fewer, each must choose a different corner. If It calls out a corner where nobody is
standing, It must choose again. The game continues until only one student is left. That
student becomes It.
7. Dictionary Deception
This game is based on a popular box game. To start the game, the teacher
chooses a word for which no student will know the meaning. The teacher writes the word
on the chalkboard and writes the definition of the word on a sheet of paper from a small
pad. Then the teacher hands a sheet from the same pad to each student. The student must
write on that sheet his or her name and a definition of the word. The teacher collects all
the definitions. One by one, the teacher reads the definitions. Students consider each
definition. Then, as the teacher rereads them, the students vote for the definition that they
believe is the real meaning of the word. Students earn a point if they guess the definition
correctly; they also earn a point each time another student selects their (fake) definition as
the true meaning of the word. The person with the most points at the end of the game
wins.
Some Words to Try
 fabulist (FA-beeyuh-list) -- a creator or writer of fables
 coppice (KAH-pes) -- a thicket, grove, or growth of small trees
 inquiline (IN-kweh-lign) -- an animal that lives habitually in the nest or
abode of another species
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  miliaria (mi-lee-AR-ee-eh) -- an inflammatory disorder of the skin
characterized by redness, burning, or itching
 baht (bot) -- a unit of money in Thailand
8. Chain Reaction
A teacher can easily adapt this game to many areas of the curriculum. The
teacher writes a category on the chalkboard -- foods, for example, each student writes the
letters A to Z on a sheet of paper. The students have five minutes to create an alphabetical
list of as many foods as they can think of. Then the game begins. The first student must
tell the name of a food. The second person must give the name of a food that begins with
the last letter of the food given by the first person. The third person must name a food
that begins with the last letter of the second person's food and so on. One at a time, as
students get wrong answers, they are eliminated.
Other possible categories: cities; songs; things in nature (for older students,
animal names or plant names); people's first names (for older students, famous people's
last names or, more specifically, authors' names).
9. Seven Up, Stand Up
This game is another old favorite! Choose seven students to be ‘It’. Those
students go to the front of the room. The other students put their heads on their desks so
they can't see. The seven ‘Its’ wander the room. Each taps one of the seated students on
the head. As a student is tapped, he or she raises a hand. When all seven ‘Its’ return to the
front of the room, they say in unison, "Seven up, stand up!" Each student who was tapped
has an opportunity to guess which student tapped him or her. If a student guesses
correctly, he or she replaces the person who did the tapping. The game begins again when
all have had a chance to guess.
10. Pass the Chicken!
In this game, nobody wants to hold the rubber chicken -- the game's only prop!
To begin the game, all students sit in a circle. Select one person to be It. That person
holds the rubber chicken. The teacher or a "caller" says to the person holding the chicken,
"Name five cities of Pakistan. Pass the chicken!" As soon as the caller says, "Pass the
chicken," the person holding the chicken passes it to the right. Students quickly pass the
chicken around the circle. If it returns to the original holder before he or she can name
five cities of Pakistan, the holder is still It. Otherwise, the person holding the chicken
when It finishes listing five cities is the new It. You should prepare the topic cards for
this game in advance. Topics can relate to your curriculum or be general information
topics. The student who is It must name five items in the called-out category in order to
get rid of the dreaded chicken!

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Some Suggested Topics
 Continents
 Oceans
 countries in Asia
 things that grow in the desert
 vegetables
 Crops
 rivers in Pakistan
 animals

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 4.10 QUESTION TECHNIQUES
Asking the right question is at the heart of effective communications and
information exchange. By using the right questions in a particular situation, you can
improve a whole range of communications skills: for example, you can gather better
information and learn more; you can build stronger relationships, manage people more
effectively and help others to learn too.
What Are Different Types of Questioning Techniques?

Why are questions asked?

Questioning is a natural behaviour and it starts from a very early age when we
are children and continues till the end. We ask questions, simply because we need
answers. Questions are asked for various reasons in various situations when one is
searching for solutions, answers,
answers, information etc. They are basic tools that help humans
grow and develop. Questions can be asked to gain knowledge, to clarify doubts, to know
the reality or truth behind an incident, out of curiosity, to make complicated issues
simpler, to resolve issues,
sues, to start a conversation, to share ideas, to make a plan, etc.
Children persistently ask a lot of questions all the time, and they learn and increase their
knowledge that way.

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 There is an old English Proverb, “He that nothing questions, nothing learns”.
There are many types of questions that can be used for questioning techniques. A
few basic ones that are important are listed below.
 Open questions
 Closed questions
 Funnel questions
 Probing questions
 Leading questions
 Rhetorical questions
One should know all the different types of questions, when to use which type of
questions and how to combine the different techniques to arrive at the best decision or
result.
1. Open questions - Open questions ask for elaborate / explanatory answers and
they begin with what, why, how, describe, explain, where, which, when etc. It
can be questions asking someone to explain what happened at a situation or
place, asking why it happened, asking for details of an incident, history of some
happenings, explanation about their circumstances, explanation of needs,
thoughts about something, ideas and feedback. Open questions help with a two
way conversation and builds up an interest in the conversation. Some examples
are
 What happened at the conference today?
 Could you please describe your needs and current circumstances?
 What do you think about this conclusion / discussion?
 Who were present at this incident?
 How did you arrive at this conclusion?

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2. Closed question – Closed Questions have very short answers like “yes” or “no”
or answers with a word or two. They are usually asked to test if someone has
understood certain policies, procedures, rules, regulations, explanations,
discussions, lectures etc. Closed questions are also asked for agreements or
disagreements, asking for how they feel, to be specific, for affirmation, etc. It is
best not to ask closed questions when a conversation is going on smoothly as it
can bring an end to the conversation and you might get into the risk of losing
required information. Some of the words used in closed questions are, are, do,
did, could, should etc. Some examples of closed questions are
 Will I get a response by tomorrow?
 Do we agree on this decision?
 Are you happy with the services that we provide?
 Which is your hometown?
 What do you do for a living?

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 Source: https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTMC_88.htm
3. Funnel questions – Just imagine the shape of a funnel while using these type of
questions. A funnel has a wide mouth and gradually narrows at the bottom.
Similarly, you start with a lot of general questions on a situation or incident and
then narrow it down to one point to arrive at a conclusion. This type of
questioning technique is used by investigators, researchers and detectives. In
cases where investigations are involved, these types of questions can be used to
gather information and then to narrow down to arrive at a decision. You can use a
lot of closed questions at the start and then widen on to asking open questions
thereby making the people feel comfortable answering your questions. An
example can be,
 When was the call made?
 Do you know the name of the person whom you spoke to?
 What sort of behaviour did they exhibit?
 What was your call about?
 What questions did you ask?
 What was the response?
 Did they mention anything specific?
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  Did they have a specific accent?
 How will you describe their approach?
 Etc…..
4. Probing questions or Trigger questions – Probing questions are used to gather
more details and information. These are asked to clarify doubts or
misunderstandings. These questions will help you pull out information from
people who are hiding information or avoiding from telling you something. Some
examples are
 What exactly is the current situation?
 Who exactly is requiring these details?
 When do you need these data by?
 How do you know that XYZ was involved?
 What is exactly this information needed for?
 Where exactly will you be using this?
 What types of products do you need, how and where will you be using
them?
 Can you be more specific?
5. Leading questions or Reflective questions – Leading questions are used to lead
the person whom you are talking to. This leads the speaker to give you answers,
while they know that you are giving them a choice. One has to be careful not to
be manipulative while using leading questions. Some examples are
 Well, I think this product looks more suitable for your needs, what do
you think?
 What would you prefer, A or B, as they both have similar features?
6. Rhetorical questions – Rhetorical questions are asked to keep people and
audience engaged. It also helps people think, be creative and come up with ideas.
Some examples are
 Isn’t this a fantastic offer?
 Isn’t this work perfect?
 Don’t you like the way this package is set up?
 Asking Powerful Questions
 Clarifying questions - Clarifying questions are used to verify
information. Once the discussion or talk is over, you finalise things to
confirm if that was what was discussed.
 Just to confirm, you have taken land line unlimited broadband and
television package. Is that correct?

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  Before we finish, let me go through this. You need a career to call you at
lunch time and dinner, 30 minutes each. Is that correct?
 Am I right in confirming that the delivery will be in 3 days’ time?
 Am I right in believing that you all understand that tomorrow is the last
day for submitting your paperwork?
 Tony Robbins quotes, “Successful people ask better questions, and as a
result, they get better answers”.
Questioning techniques are again used in all walks of life, at work, at home,
among friends and in other relationships too. This is one of the basic principles of
communication. To effectively ask questions you need to listen effectively so that you are
able to formulate the next question. Always use positive words and motivate the
questioned person to answer effectively. Maintain confidence, so that the customer or
client or anyone else who is talking trusts you to give an answer. Always ask relevant
questions and never random questions as this will be totally out of the subject that is
being discussed. By understanding and improving your questioning skills, you can
improve the way in which you communicate with people and your interpersonal skills.

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 4.11 COMMUNICATION
Communication (from Latin commūnicāre, meaning "to share" is the act of
conveying intended meanings from one entity or group to another through the use of
mutually understood signs and semiotic rules.
The basic steps of communication are:
 The forming of communicative intent.
 Message composition.
 Message encoding and decoding.
 Transmission of the encoded message as a sequence of signals using a specific
channel or medium.
 Reception of signals.
 Reconstruction of the original message.
 Interpretation and making sense of the reconstructed message.
4.11.1 Forms of Communication
Non-verbal
Nonverbal communication describes the process of conveying information in the
form of non-linguistic representations. Examples of nonverbal communication include
gestures, body language, facial expressions, eye contact, and how one dresses. Nonverbal
communication also relates to intent of a message. Examples of intent are voluntary,
intentional movements like shaking a hand or winking, as well as involuntary, such as
sweating. Speech also contains nonverbal elements known as paralanguage, e.g. rhythm,
intonation, tempo, and stress. There may even be a pheromone component. Research has
shown that up to 55% of human communication may occur through non-verbal facial
expressions, and a further 38% through para-language. It affects communication most at
the subconscious level and establishes trust. Likewise, written texts include nonverbal
elements such as handwriting style, spatial arrangement of words and the use of
emoticons to convey emotion.
Nonverbal communication demonstrates one of Wazlawick's laws: you cannot
not communicate. Once proximity has formed awareness, living creatures begin
interpreting any signals received. Some of the functions of nonverbal communication in
humans are to complement and illustrate, to reinforce and emphasize, to replace and
substitute, to control and regulate, and to contradict the denotative message.
Verbal
Verbal communication is the spoken or written conveyance of a message. Human
language can be defined as a system of symbols (sometimes known as lexemes) and the
grammars (rules) by which the symbols are manipulated. The word "language" also refers
to common properties of languages. Language learning normally occurs most intensively
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during human childhood. Most of the thousands of human languages use patterns of
sound or gesture for symbols which enable communication with others around them.
Languages tend to share certain properties, although there are exceptions. There is no
defined line between a language and a dialect. Constructed languages such as Esperanto,
programming languages, and various mathematical formalism is not necessarily restricted
to the properties shared by human languages.
Written communication
Over time the forms of and ideas about communication have evolved through the
continuing progression of technology. Advances include communications psychology
and media psychology, an emerging field of study.
The progression of written communication can be divided into three "information
communication revolutions":
Written communication first emerged through the use of pictographs. The
pictograms were made in stone, hence written communication was not yet mobile.
Pictograms began to develop standardized and simplified forms.
The next step occurred when writing began to appear on paper, papyrus, clay,
wax, and other media with common shared writing systems, leading to adaptable
alphabets. Communication became mobile.
The final stage is characterized by the transfer of information through controlled
waves of electromagnetic radiation (i.e., radio, microwave, infrared) and other electronic
signals.
Communication is thus a process by which meaning is assigned and conveyed in
an attempt to create shared understanding. Gregory Bateson called it "the replication of
tautologies in the universe. This process, which requires a vast repertoire of skills in
interpersonal processing, listening, observing, speaking, questioning, analyzing, gestures,
and evaluating enables collaboration and cooperation.
4.11.2 Objectives of Communication
Communication is the process of sending and receiving messages. However it is
said to be effective only when the message is understood and when it stimulates action or
encourages the receiver to think in new ways.
1. Stronger Decision Making
Your ability to communicate effectively increases productivity, both yours and
your organization.
2. Increased Productivity
With good communication skills, you can anticipate problems, make decisions,
co-ordinate work flow, supervise others, develop relationships and promote products and
services.
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3. Steadier Work Flow
Communication acts as tool for the effective work related flow of information.
4. Strong Business Relationships & Enhanced Professional Image
You can shape the impressions you and your company make on colleagues,
employees, supervisors, investors, and customers in addition to perceiving and
responding to the needs of these stakeholders (the various group you interact with)
without effective communication, people misunderstand each other and misinterpret
information. Ideas misfire or fail to gain attention and people and companies flounder.
5. Clearer Promotional Materials
Your organizations need for effective reach of company name and public
promotions are based on effective promotional material such as advertisements , bill
boards , online add , posters etc. are all communicated for effective message delivery and
meaning.
6. Provide Advice
Giving advice is based on individual-oriented and work-oriented, advice should
not give to the person for pinpointing his mistakes rather it should be helpful for his
improvement. Effective advice promotes understanding and it can be a two way process
if the subordinate staff given freedom.
7. Provide Order
Order is an authoritative communication pattern and it is directive to somebody
always a subordinate to do something. Orders will be written and oral orders, general and
specific orders, procedural and operational orders, mandatory and discretionary order.
Order should be clear and complete, execution should be possible and given in a friendly
way.
8. Suggestion
Suggestion is supposed to be very mild and subtle form of communication.
Suggestions are welcomed for it is not obligatory to accept them, it can be voluntary and
anonymous and submitted through suggestion boxes.
9. Persuasion
Persuasion may be defined as an effort ‘to influence the attitudes, feelings, or
beliefs of others, or to influence actions based on those attitudes, feelings, or beliefs.
Persuasion can be done to others if you are convinced, you do not impose, you are not
rigid are prepared to meet half-way and you can look at the situation from the other
person’s angle also.

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10. Education
Education is a very conscious process of communication, it involves both teaching and
learning by which organizations provide to their employees in the form of training.
Education is given for management, employees and outside public.

11. Warning
If the employees do not abide by the norms of the organization warning is a
power communication tool and it can be general and specific. Specific warning should be
administered in private and after thorough investigation. The aim of the warning should
be the organization betterment.
12 Raising Morale and Motivation
Morale stands for mental health and it is a sum of several qualities like courage,
resolution, confidence .High morale and effective performance go hand to hand.
Motivation is a process that account for an individual intensity, direction, and persistence
of effort towards attaining a goal.
13. To Give and Receive Information
Communication’s main idea is to give and receive information because managers
need complete, accurate and precise information to plan and organize employee need it to
translate planning in to reality. Information will cover all aspects of the business.
15. To Provide Counselling
Counseling is given to solve employees’ mental stress and improve the
employees’ productivity.
16. To Improve Discipline
Finally discipline is the foremost part of any business communication. The
various disciplinary codes are effectively communicated to employees through
disciplinary codes.
4.11.3 Characteristics of Effective Communication
Effective communication has common basic characteristics
1. Provide practical information: Business messages usually describe how to do
something, explain why a procedure was changed, highlight the cause of a problem or a
possible solution, discuss the status of a project, or explain why a new piece of equipment
should be purchased.
2. Give facts rather than impression: Business messages use concrete language and
specific details. Information must be clear, convincing, accurate and ethical. You must
present hard evidence (not just opinion) and present all sides of an argument before you
commit to a conclusion.

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3. Clarify and condense information: Business messages frequently use tables,
charts, photos, or diagrams to clarify or condense information, to explain a process, or to
emphasize important information.
4. State precise responsibilities: Business messages are directed to a specific
audience. Therefore, you must clearly state what is expected of, or what you can do for,
that particular audience.
5. Persuade others and offer recommendations: Business messages frequently
persuade employers, customers, or clients to purchase a product or service or adopt a plan
of action. To be effective, persuasive messages must show readers just how a product,
service or idea will benefit them specifically.
4.11.4 Functions of Communication
Communication serves four major functions within a group or organization:
Control, motivation, emotional expression, and information. Communication acts to
control member behavior in several ways. Organizations have authority hierarchies and
formal guidelines that employees are required to follow. When employees, for instance,
are required to first communicate any job related grievance to their immediate boss, to
follow their job description, or to comply with company policies, communication is
performing a control function. But informal communication also controls behavior. When
work groups tease or harass a member who produces too much and makes the rest of the
group look bad, they are informally communicating with, and controlling, the member’s
behavior. Communication fosters motivation by clarifying to employees what is to be
done, how well they are doing, and what can be done to improve performance if it’s
subpar. We saw this operating in our review of goal setting and reinforcement theories.
The formation of specific goals, feedback on progress toward the goals, and
reinforcement of desired behavior all stimulate motivation and require communication.
For many employees, their work group is a primary source for social interaction. The
communication that takes place within the group is a fundamental mechanism by which
members show their frustrations and feelings of satisfaction. Communication, therefore,
provides a release for the emotional expression of feelings and for fulfillment of social
needs. The final function that communication performs relates to its role in facilitating
decision making. It provides the information that individuals and groups need to make
decisions by transmitting the data to identify and evaluate alternative choices.
Common myths about communication:
— Words contain meaning. Untrue. In fact people attach meaning to words.
— Information equals communication. Untrue. What matters is the degree of
similarity between the message sent and the message received.

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— Communication is a product you can control. Untrue everything said or done
conveys a message. Ex. Facial expression or cloths.
— Good speakers are good communicators. Untrue. Effective communicators listen
to the audience and express their thoughts clearly in an understandable way.
Taking steps to establish effective communication:
— Increasing the awareness of communication
— Using and understanding verbal message
— Using and understanding nonlinguistic cues
— Listening and responding to other in a thought fuel way.
Attentive listening is crucial to effective listening:
Remember, do not jump to conclusions before hearing what the other person has to say.
Do not interrupt. Deep understanding of human interaction is essential.
Since interpersonal communication occurs whenever we interact with other
people. We learn interpersonal skills since birth.
We could enhance them with:
The 10 human relations commands:-
1. Speak to people
2. Smile at people
3. Call people by name
4. Be friendly and helpful
5. Be cordial
6. Be genuinely interested in people
7. Be generous with praise
8. Be considerate
9. Be alert
10. Have a good sense of humor.
4.11.5 Factor Affecting Communication effectiveness
Six rules of effective communication:
1) Organize your thoughts
2) Don’t think about it, think through it
3) Recognize that actions speak louder than words
4) Be concise
5) Always translate your message in to benefits for the other party
6) Listen carefully to the other party.
Effective communication strategies:
 The result of the communication is the responsibility of the
communicator
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  If you are not getting the result you want in communication try
something different. Communicate the message in others view point
 Always focus weather your communication is successful in reaching the
receiver. No matter whether the message is right or wrong.
 Communication can change reality and it is an effective tool for creating
trust.
Activity
1. Enlist the objectives of communication.

202
 4.12 DEVELOPING INTERPERSONAL SKILL AND
TEACHING STYLE
What are Interpersonal Skills?
Interpersonal skills are the life skills we use every day when we communicate
and interact with other people, both individually and in groups. People who have worked
on developing strong interpersonal skills are usually more successful in both their
professional and personal lives. Employers often seek to hire staff with 'strong
interpersonal skills' - they want people who will work well in a team and be able to
communicate effectively with colleagues, customers and clients.
Interpersonal skills are not just important in the workplace, our personal and social lives
can also benefit from better interpersonal skills. People with good interpersonal skills are
usually perceived as optimistic, calm, confident and charismatic - qualities that are often
endearing or appealing to others.
4.12.1 Fostering Personal Relationship with Students
Do our students know how to talk to each other? With adults? In the workforce?
In various parts of their lives?
There’s widespread anxiety that digital technology is producing children who are
growing up non communicative and detached from society. And while it’s true that we’re
seeing a massive shift in how we communicate and interact, every new technology
generates exaggerated concern about its impact on society. Heck, Socrates supposedly
railed against the advent of writing as it would cause people to forget what they’ve
remembered.
Nevertheless, teachers still need to spend time developing appropriate
interpersonal skills in our students. Here are a few tips for doing that in the digital age:
 Remember basic manners
As much as it makes me feel like I’ve turned into my father, I find myself
making it a point to remind students about the times when “please” and “thank you”
should always be used. Aside from the fact that it’s the right thing to do, it also makes the
other person feel valued and worthy of appropriate treatment.
While encouraging this type of behavior, always remember the saying, “A person who is
nice to you, but not nice to the waiter, is not a nice person.” Also, positive social behavior
lifts up the entire community and helps schools to focus on other more academic
concerns.
 Respect personality differences
There are a lot of different personality types in the world, and we have an
obligation to help our students figure out how to work with and manage all of them. It’s

203
unreasonable to give our students the idea that they will like everything about their future
friends, neighbors and co-workers.
Being patient with others, finding the “sweet spot” by having just enough — but
not too much contact, and not taking others too seriously are all good things to remind
our students. This lesson also teaches our students to avoid behaviors that push people
away, such as dominating a conversation, insisting that things get done their way, or not
meeting their deadlines and responsibilities.
 Work together collaboratively
Fewer and fewer careers have people working in isolation, so incorporate
collaborative and group-work lessons into your practice. To make this work effectively,
be sure to set up the groups yourself, have the students pursue legitimate and worthwhile
goals, avoid busywork, and explicitly teach the children the behaviors and ways to
interact in a group setting.
This is where balance is important. A part of your class should be dedicated to
the sharing of information, but that work should lead into students practicing their
interpersonal skills by working together. Some teachers take this a step further and
incorporate problem-based or challenge-based learning activities into the class.
 Practice scenarios
While it’s good to tell students about your expectations, it’s better to spend time
having them practice working through situations that illustrate why the expectations
matter.
Set time aside to give students scenarios that challenge their interpersonal skills.
How would they address a non-working group member? What are polite behaviors in a
social setting? What would a well-written and comprehensive complaint letter look like if
they were unhappy? The best way to have children adopt a behavior, other than modeling
it for them, is to have them explicitly practice it.
 Tell parents this is a goal
Your communications to parents should reinforce that your classroom is
primarily an academic place that students need to leave with more abilities and
knowledge than they had when they arrived. Yet it’s also reasonable for them to expect
their children to leave your class as better people. Let the parents know you’ll be setting
time aside to develop the appropriate habits that make them productive, useful and polite
members of society.
4.12.2 Developing Interpersonal Skills
There are a variety of skills that can help you to succeed in different areas of life
and Skills. However, the foundations for many other skills are built on strong
interpersonal skills since these are relevant to our personal relationships, social affairs
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and professional lives. Without good interpersonal skills it is often more difficult to
develop other important life skills.
Unlike specialised and technical skills (hard skills), interpersonal skills (soft
skills) are used every day and in every area of our lives.
Improving and developing your interpersonal skills is best done in steps, for example:
1. Focus on Your Basic Communication Skills
 Learn to Listen
Listening is not the same as hearing. Take time to listen carefully to what
others are saying through both their verbal and non-verbal communication.
Visit our Listening Skills pages to learn more.
 Choose Your Words
Be aware of the words you are using when talking to others. Could you be
misunderstood or confuse the issue? Practise clarity and learn to seek
feedback to ensure your message has been understood. Encourage others
to engage in communication and use appropriate questioning to develop
your understanding.
 Understand Why Communication Fails
Communication is rarely perfect and can fail for a number of reasons.
Learn about the various barriers to good communication so you can be
aware of—and reduce the likelihood of—ineffective interpersonal
communication and misunderstandings.
 Remember the Importance of Non-Verbal Communication
When we are nervous we tend to talk more quickly and therefore less
clearly. Being tense is also evident in our body language and other non-
verbal communication. Instead, try to stay calm, make eye contact and
smile. Let your confidence shine.
2. Improve your Personal Skills
 Be Positive
Try to remain positive and cheerful. People are much more likely to be
drawn to you if you can maintain a positive attitude. A positive attitude
also translates into improved self-confidence.
 Develop your Emotional Intelligence, and particularly your Empathy
Emotional intelligence is the ability to understand our own and others’
emotions, and their effect on behaviour and attitudes. It is therefore
perhaps best considered as both personal and interpersonal in its nature,
but there is no doubt that improving your emotional intelligence will help
in all areas of interpersonal skills. Improving your emotional intelligence
205
 improves your understanding that other people have different points of
view. It helps you to try to see things from their perspective. In doing so,
you may learn something whilst gaining the respect and trust of others.
 Understand and Manage Stress
It is much harder to communicate well when under stress. Learn to
recognise, manage and reduce stress in yourself and others. Although
stress is not always bad, it can have a detrimental effect on your
interpersonal communication. Learning how to recognise and manage
stress, in yourself and others, is an important personal skill.
 Learn to be Assertive
You should aim to be neither passive nor aggressive. Being assertive is
about expressing your feelings and beliefs in a way that others can
understand and respect. It is fundamental to successful interpersonal
relationships.
 Reflect and Improve
Think about previous conversations and other interpersonal interactions;
learn from your mistakes and successes. Always keep a positive attitude
but realize that you can always improve our communication skills.
3. Use Your Interpersonal Skills
 Working in Groups
We often find ourselves in group situations, professionally and socially.
Learn more about the different types of groups and teams.
 Negotiate, Persuade and Influence
Learn how to effectively negotiate with others, paving the way to mutual
respect, trust and lasting interpersonal relations. Learn more about how to
persuade and influence others for mutual benefit.
 Conflict Resolution and Mediation
Sometimes negotiation and persuasion are not enough to avoid conflict.
When this happens, you need strong conflict resolution and potentially
even mediation skills.
 Problem Solving and Decision-Making
Problem-solving and decision-making are key life skills. While both can
be done alone, they also frequently involve interpersonal elements, and
there is no doubt that better interpersonal skills will help with both.

206
 SELF-ASSESSMENT
1. Differentiate between role-play and simulation. How can they be used at
elementary level? Discuss
2. Explain the concept of teaching machine in program instruction.
3. Describe the role of communication and interpersonal relationship in teaching
learning process.
4. Elaborate the role of questioning technique in making lecture method effective.

REFERENCES
Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R., (Eds). (1999). How People Learn:
Brain, Mind, Experience, and School. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Hudspith, B. & Jenkins, H. (2001) Teaching the art of inquiry, Green Guide 3. Halifax,
Nova Scotia: Society for Teaching and Learning in Higher Education
Little, J. W. (1993). Teachers’ Professional Development in a Climate of Educational
Reform. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 15, 129-151.

Useful Websites
Classroom Games, Puzzles and Activities of Primary Years
http://www.educationworld.com/a_lesson/lesson/field_day_games.shtml Retrieved
03rd March 2017
Communication https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication Retrieved 03rd March
2017
Communication https://rkmvcbba.wordpress.com/2011/01/17/objectives-of-
communication-communication-process-and-functions-of-communication/
Retrieved 03rd March 2017
Demonstration Method http://navyadvancement.tpub.com/14504/css/Demonstration-
Method-27.htm Retrieved 3rd February 2017
Demonstration Method http://www.learnnc.org/lp/pages/5181 Retrieved 6th February
2017
Demonstration Method http://afghanag.ucdavis.edu/aboutus-questions/d_collaborating-
organizations/af-pak/FS_Ext_Presentations_Demo_Method_Purdue.pdf Retrieved
6th February 2017
Developing Interpersonal Skill and Teaching Style http://education.cu-
portland.edu/blog/principals-office/improving-interpersonal-skills/ Retrieved 03rd
March 2017

207
Developing Interpersonal Skill and Teaching Style
https://www.skillsyouneed.com/interpersonal-skills.html Retrieved 03rd March
2017
Developing Interpersonal Skill and Teaching Style
https://www.skillsyouneed.com/interpersonal-skills.html Retrieved 03rd March
2017
Drill & practice http://public.callutheran.edu/~mccamb/drillpractice.htm Retrieved 8th
February 2017
Drill & practice http://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-1-4419-
1428-6_706#close Retrieved 8th February 2017
Drill & practice http://education.seattlepi.com/advantages-disadvantages-practice-drills-
teaching-3685.html Retrieved 8th February 2017
Drill & practice https://edel518.wikispaces.com/Drill+and+Practice
Games and Simulations http://www.aect.org/edtech/ed1/17/index.html Retrieved 14th
February 2017
Games and Simulations https://www.edutopia.org/sims-vs-games Retrieved 14th
February 2017
Games and Simulations http://www.etc.edu.cn/eet/articles/gamessims/index.htm
Retrieved 14th February 2017
Games and Simulations http://www.theknowledgeguru.com/games-vs-simulations-
choosing-right-approach/ Retrieved 14th February 2017
Lecture Method
http://www.uq.edu.au/teach/teachingpracticeinventory/documents/Lecture-Method-
CIDDE.pdf Retrieved 3rd February 2017
Lecture Method http://www.drillpad.net/DP_IRL_MOI.htm Retrieved 3rd February
2017
Lecture Method
http://www.learningcommons.uoguelph.ca/guides/university_learning/accessibility/
lectures.html Retrieved 3rd February 2017
Lecture Method http://www2.le.ac.uk/offices/ld/resources/study/making-most-of-lectures
Retrieved 3rd February 2017
Lecture Method https://www.flinders.edu.au/teaching/quality/teaching-methods/the-
lecture/lecturing-guidelines.cfm Retrieved 3rd February 2017
Lecture Method http://www.facultyfocus.com/articles/teaching-professor-blog/when-
should-we-lecture/ Retrieved 3rd February 2017
Programmed Instructions https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmed_learning Retrieved
02nd March 2017
208
Programmed Instructions http://www.aect.org/edtech/20.pdf Retrieved 02nd March 2017
Programmed Instructions http://www.gsis.kumamoto-
u.ac.jp/opencourses_en/pf/3Block/07/07-2_text.html Retrieved 03rd March 2017
Problem Solving Approach/Inquiry Method http://www.usask.ca/gmcte/problem-inquiry-
based-learning Retrieved 9th February 2017
Problem Solving Approach/Inquiry Method
http://www.homeofbob.com/math/proces/prblmSlvn/tchrsRole.html Retrieved 9th
February 2017
Problem Solving Approach/Inquiry Method https://www.nap.edu/read/9596/chapter/10
Retrieved 9th February 2017
Project Method http://dppd.ubbcluj.ro/adn/article_1_2_5.pdf Retrieved 8th February
2017
Project Method https://www.reference.com/education/project-method-teaching-
ca4d11d2f2a52407 Retrieved 8th February 2017
Project Method http://www.slideshare.net/chinnuviju/project-method-39233116
Retrieved 9th February 2017
Question Techniques https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTMC_88.htm
Retrieved 03rd March 2017
Question Techniques https://toughnickel.com/business/Questioning-Techniques
Retrieved 03rd March 2017
Role-Playing https://expatsincebirth.com/2013/02/03/the-importance-of-role-plays-for-
children-and-us/ Retrieved 9th February 2017
Role-Playing http://www.thelearningkey.com/pdf/PurposeofRolePlayingAug08.pdf
Retrieved 9th February 2017
Role-Playing http://eprogressiveportfolio.blogspot.com/2012/06/normal-0-false-false-
false-en-us-x-none.html Retrieved 9th February 2017
Techniques of Teaching for Different Subjects Especially for Junior Sections
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styles-used-with-elementary-school-students/ Retrieved 03rd March 2017

209
209
Introduction 212
Objectives 212
5.1 Concept of Educational Technology 213
5.2 Instructional Technology 213
5.3 Purpose of Instructional Technology 214
5.4 Projected Aids and Its Kinds 215
5.4.1 Films 215
5.4.2 Film Strips 215
5.4.3 Power point Slides 216
5.4.4 Transparency 217
5.4.5 Overhead Projectors 218
5.4.6 Opaque Projector 218
5.4.7 Digital Projector 219
5.5 None-Projected Aids and its Kinds 220
5.5.1 Non-Projected two Dimensional Aids 220
I Photographs 220
II Flash cards 220
III Cartoon 222
IV Maps 223
V Posters 224
VI Charts 225
VII Strip Tease 225
VIII Flip charts 226
IX Graphs 227
X Chalk board 229
XI Marker Board 229
XII Flannel Board 230
XIII Bulletin Board 231
XIV Magnetic Board 231
5.5.2 Non Projected three Dimensional Visual Aids 231
I Models 231
II Mock up 232
III Diorama 232
IV Exhibitions 233
210
 V Resource packs and handbooks 234
VI Real Object and Specimen 234
VII Globe 235
VIII Paper handouts 235
IX Worksheet 235
5.6 Audio-Video Aids 237
5.6.1 Radio 237
5.6.2 Television 238
5.6.3 Passive Video 238
5.6.4 Interactive Video 239
5.7 Activity Aids 241
5.7.1 Laptops/Computers 241
5.7.2 Computers Assisted Instruction (CAI) 241
5.7.3 E-mail 242
5.7.4 C.D. ROM 243
5.7.5 Dramatization 244
5.7.6 Field Trips 245
5.8 Strength and Weakness of Media 246
5.9 Role of Media and Aids in Elementary Education 248
5.10 Developing Low Cost Material 251
5.11 Guiding Principle for the use of A.V Aids 252
Activity 253
Self-Assessment 254
References 255

211
 Educational technology is a systematic and organized process of applying modern
technology to improve the quality of education (efficiency, optimal, true, etc.). It is a
systematic way of conceptualizing the execution and evaluation of the educational process,
i. e. learning and teaching and help with the application of modern educational teaching
techniques. It includes instructional materials, methods and organization of work and
relationships, i.e. the behavior of all participants in the educational process. The term
“teaching resources” is commonly used, although they are not synonymous (Pedagoški
leksikon, 1996). The word technology is derived from the Greek word “techno” which
means the willingness, skills, knowledge of the way, rule, skill, tools and “logos” which
means science, word, learning, mental state. There is no single term for educational
technology. Different countries use different terms and synonyms as educational
technology, educational equipment, AV resources, and the technology of teaching.
Terminological differences mostly occur on the grounds of the approach to the technical
characteristics and the use of modern appliances, and not their actual application in
teaching i.e. their actual pedagogical application. For this reason, there are different
opinions among teachers in the field of social and technical sciences. Therefore, the
application of educational technology requires knowledge from several areas: pedagogy,
psychology, didactics, computer sciences, informatics... Because of this diversity, there are
also different perceptions of educational technology, where every author defines the
concept of educational technology, according to their needs. Educational technology is still
not being applied sufficiently, mostly for reasons of lack of school equipment necessary
resources and insufficient qualification of teachers for the implementation of these funds.
Educational technology has three domains of use:
 Technology as a tutor (computer gives instructions and guides the user),
 Technology as a teaching tool and
 Technology as a learning tool.

After studying this unit the prospective teachers will be able to:
1. define the instructional and educational technology.
2. describe different kinds of projected and non-projected aids and cite examples for
each.
3. utilize the media and aid at elementary level.
4. develop their understanding of low cost and no cost materials
5. develop some no cost and low cost materials
6. use no cost and low cost materials in classrooms.
7. discuss the guiding principles for use of A.V aids.
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 "Educational technology is the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning
and improving performance by creating, using, and managing appropriate technology
processes and resources (Januszewski & Molenda, 2008)."
The term Instructional Technology and Educational Technology are generally considered
synonymous.
”IT is the application of scientific process to learner, learning conditions.”(Robert
A.Cox, 2015)
“IT may be defined as the application of law, as well as recently discoveries of
science and technology to the process of education.”(S.S.KulKarim, 2004)
“IT is the branch of educational theories and tactics/ practices concern timidly with the
design and rules of messages which control the learning process.”(E.E. Hadden, 2011)
Instructional technology is the application of system approaches which involve necessary
media and material to bring about improvement. Educational technology is neither an end
itself nor a concept that consist all of education. It mainly accomplish some predetermine
clearly defined and unbiased educational and instructional objectives. Instructional
technology is neither technology in education nor technology of education; it should not
be confused with teaching or instruction, education or learning, engineering or science
but as a sum total of all.

The 21st century increases the needs as a result to which invention flood has
develop. (It also re-evaluate educational sector so when we talk IT we talk it in
education).Thus Instructional Technology is a systematic way of designing, developing,
and evaluating the total process of learning and teaching in terms of specific goals and
objectives, based on research in human learning and communication, and employing a
combination of human and non-human resources.
Instructional:-
“That teach people something”
It means to give knowledge for understanding or to teach something.
Technology: - (noun)
‘’New or modern invention which helps to save time and energy’’.
Modern inventions which makes life easy and save time are known as
technology. Instructional Technology is the art and study of building a learning system
and also building a feedback mechanism into the learning system in such a way that the
system is sensitive to the dynamics of each individual’s learning experience as well as the
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whole of everyone’s experience and is built in such a way that the system is ever
improving in its effectiveness and delivery of the subject matter. So instructional
technology with the help of education for better understanding and make the technology
useful and valuable.
Storm of IT interrupted life in 21 century and still it’s going on. The scientist Eric
Ashby define 4 revolutions era in 1967.
According to him revolution periods:-
i. 1st (Greek period):- home to school, parents to teacher, change in
learning setup.
ii. 2nd:- Thing which learnt in orally form begin to change in written form.
iii. 3rd:- Printing media revolution: - In those days material and knowledge
printed on the form of text books, magazine, handout etc.
iv. 4th:- IT.

Instructional technology encompasses all the materials and physical means an

instructor might use to implement instruction and facilitate students' achievement of
instructional objectives. This may include traditional materials such as chalkboards,
handouts, charts, slides, overheads, real objects, and videotape or film, as well newer
materials and methods such as computers, DVDs, CD-ROMs, the Internet, and
interactive video conferencing.

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 Projected visual aids are pictures shown upon a screen by use of a certain type of
machine such as a filmstrip projector, slide projector, overhead projector or TV/VCR. It
is refer to those aids where a bright light is passed through a transparent picture by means
of a lens and an enlarged picture is thrown or projected on the screen or the white wall.

● Provides greater enjoyment in learning

● Stimulates more rapid learning
● Increases retention: larger percentages and longer retention.
● Makes teaching situation adaptable to wider range
● Compels attention
● Enlarges or reduces actual size of objects
● Brings distant past and the present into the classroom
● Provides an easily reproduced record of an event.
● Influences and changes attitudes

(Used in the text as processed movie film.) A long, narrow strip of cellulose
nitrate, acetate or similar material containing a succession of small transparent
photographs. Common sizes are 8 and 16 millimeter, referring to the width of the strip.

Film strips are sequence of transparent still pictures with individual frames on 35
mm film. A tap recorded narration can be synchronized with film strip. Each strip
contains from 12 to 18 or more picture. It is a fixed sequence of related still on a roll of
35 mm film or 8 mm film.
Principles
1. Preview filmstrips before using them and selected carefully to meet the needs of
the topic to be taught.
2. Show again any part of the filmstrip needing more specific study.
3. Use filmstrip to stimulate emotions, build attitudes and to point up problems.
4. It should be introduced appropriately and its relationship to the topic of the study
brought out.
5. Use a pointer to direct attention, to specific details on the screen.
Types of filmstrip
1) Discussion filmstrip: it is continuous strip of film consisting of individual frames
arranged in sequence usually with explanatory titles.
2) Sound slide film: it is similar to filmstrip but instead of explanatory titles or
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 spoken discussion recorded explanation is audible, which is synchronized with
the pictures.
Advantages
1) Are compact, easily handled and always in proper sequence.
2) Can be supplemented with recordings.
3) Are inexpensive when quantity reproduction is required.
4) Are useful for group or individual study at projection rate are controlled by
instructor or user.
5) Are projected with simple light weight equipment.

Filmstrip Projector

It has definitely become a trend these days to come with a power point
presentation for various tasks. Starting from games to educational content there seems to
be no dearth to the things which this app can do. It is a very easy to make and use and
students are definitely pulled towards these flashy slides.
A few carefully selected slides or even one pertinent slide can:
(i) Attract attention,
(ii) Arouse interest,
(iii) Assist lesson development,
(iv) Test student understanding.
(v) Review instruction, and
(vi) Facilitate student-teacher participation.
A glass side is made up of a piece of sensitized glass similar to the sensitized
paper for use in photography. The slide may be in colour or in black and white. Different
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forms of glass slides- photographer etched-glass, slide, ink slides, etc.-may be used for
teaching purposes.

Microsoft PowerPoint is probably now the most commonly used form of visual
aid. Used well, it can really help in presentation; used badly, however, it can have the
opposite effect. The general principles are:

make it so small you can't read it use a big enough font (minimum 20 pt)
use a fussy background image keep the background simple
but don't over-do the animation - it gets
use animations when appropriate
distracting
use endless slides of bulleted lists that all
make things visual
look the same

Transparencies are popular instructional medium. They are simple to prepare and
easy to prepare and easy to operate with the overhead projector which is light weight.
A 10*10 inches sheet with printed, written or drawn material is placed on the
platform of the projector and a large image is projected on a screen behind.
The projector is used from near to the front of the room with the teacher standing or
sitting beside, facing the student.
Guidelines for making effective transparencies:
 Have one main idea on each transparency.
 Include only related figures and diagrams.
 Use simple lettering style in writing.
 Use diagrams in proposition to its lettering.
 Keep the message clear and simple.
 Emphasize the key messages.
 Use color and lettering with discretion.
Advantages:
 Permits face to face interaction with the students.
 Can be used in daylight conditions.
 Can present information in systemic developmental sequences.
 Requires limited planning and can be prepared in variety of inexpensive
methods.
 Easily available.

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 It consists of a base area with a transparent glass covering onto which light is
focused from below. A projector lies above this base i.e. "over the head", which
magnifies the light coming from below and projects it onto the desired point. This device
is quite indispensable whenever one thinks of a presentation to be given in a class. They
are a modified version of the slide projector used in 50s and 60s period which could
present a limited number of photographic images. These OHPs as we call them are much
better than their ancestors as a number of transparencies can be made and displayed. It is
both time-saving and easy to cover up a lot of topics in a quick manner.

Opaque projector is the only projector on which you can project a variety of
materials i.e. book pages, objects, coins, postcards, or any other similar flat material that
is non-transparent.
The opaque projector will project and simultaneously enlarge, directly from the
originals, printed matter, all kinds of written or pictorial matter in any sequence derived
by the teacher. It requires a dark room, as projector is large.

● Stimulates attention and arouses interest.

● Can project a wide range of materials like stamps, coins, specimen, when one
copy is available.
● Can be used for enlarging drawings, pictures and maps.
● Does not require any written or typed materials, hand-written material can be
used.
● Helps students to retain knowledge for longer period.
● Review instructional problems.
● Test knowledge and ability.
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 ● Simple operation.

Costly equipment.
● Needs to use it with care.
● Needs a dark room for projection.

These projectors are latest in the line which come with a HDMI port that can be
used to connect the laptop or computer with them and display on a screen the slides that
are available. They have a wider audience reach as compared to others. Also audio and
video files can be played with their help. Generally they are hoisted on the ceiling of a
room and are thus confused with an Overhead Projector due to the name which it
implies.

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 Those aids which do not require projector, projection screen or electricity. Such
materials can be simply shown, hung on the wall, touched and handled by any student.

are those aids which are used without any projection. So

they translate abstract ideas into a more realistic format. They allow instruction to move
from verbal representation to a more concrete level.

Photographs provide a picture of reality and are easily included in slides where
they can be used to illustrate a point or just provide a background. They are good for
illustrating action, evoking emotion and more. When you show a person doing
something is shown the audience may well empathize empathize with the image, putting
themselves in the place of that person.
A disadvantage of photos is that the important detail can be lost so it may be important
to ensure they are projected on a large screen.
It is also important with photographs of people that any legal constraints, such as
privacy laws, are considered. If in doubt, start by considering whether the person may or
may not be happy to be in the photograph. Whilst it is often ok to have people in the
background, when they are the subject and areare being used to promote something.

Photograph

Flashcards are a set pictured paper card of varying sizes that are flashed one by
one in a logical sequence.

• Used for small group

• Used in group discussion
• Used to enhance mental skill
• Provide strong visual learning
• Used to symbolize the difficult concept

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• The message can be brief, simple line drawing or photographs, cartoon s and
the content will be written in few lines at the back of the each card.
• 10” x 12” or 22” x 28” is commonly used size.
• 10-12 cards for one talk can be used. It should not be less than 3 and more
than 20.
• Prepare a picture for each idea which will give visual impact to the idea.
• The height of writing on the flash card is to be approximately 5 cm for better
visualization.

• Give brief introduction about the lesson to students

• Give instruction to student about their action while you flash the cards
• Flash the card in front of the class by holding it high both with hands so that
all the students can see it.
• Let the student respond as per instructions already given
• Review the lesson by selectively using flash cards.
• I t can be used to introduce and present topic
• It can be used to apply information already gained by student to new
situations
• It can be used to review a topic
• Can be used for drill and practice in elementary classes
• To develop the cognitive abilities of recognition and recall of student
• It can work as useful supplementary aid and can be effectively used with
other material

• Cannot be used for a large group

• Prone to get spoiled
• Preparation is time consuming
• Not applicable for each topic

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Flash Cards

A cartoon is a humorous caricature which gives a subtle message. In a cartoon

the features of object and people are exaggerated along with generally recognized
symbols.

Cartoons

The quality of drawing should be high primarily for visual effectiveness.

The symbol used should be familiar and represent a concept or ideas to which students
can react intellectually.

A cartoon can be effectively used to initiate

initiate certain lesson. It can be used for
making a lesson lively and interesting. It helps to permute fantasy, satire and
exaggeration.

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 A map is a graphic aid representing the proportionately as a diagram, the surface
of the earth, world or part of thereof. It conveys the message by lines, symbols, words
and colors.
Maps constitute an indispensable aid in teaching many subject like geography,
history, economics and social studies. The learning of these subjects becomes unreal,
inadequate and incomplete without map media.

Map

Types of maps:
 Political maps: these maps show political divisions of the world, a continent,
a nation.
 Physical maps: shows the physical contour of a place, area, and region.
 Relief maps: it shows the actual elevations and depressions in a place, area,
and region.
 Weather maps: shows the amount of rains, temperature extremes, humidity in
an area, region country.
 Population maps: shows the distribution of population in various parts of
region, country.
 Picture or tourist maps: shows historical spots monumental sites etc.
 Road maps: shows the roads of a region connecting various parts and points
together.
 Railway maps: shows the railway links between various points.
 Air maps: shows the air routes between various points. Sea root maps: shows
the sea routes between various sea ports

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 Posters are the graphic aids with short quick and typical messages with attention
capturing paintings.

• To do a special job
• To promote one point
• To support local demonstration
• Planned for specified people
• Tell the message at single glance
• Use bold letters
• Use pleasing colors
• It should be placed, where people pass or gather.

Posters give simple ideas and subject.

Poster
Material used for making posters are poster paper, Pencil, Stencil, Brush, Eraser,
Scale, Compass, Color and Glue.

• Brevity: message should be concise.

• Simplicity: Message should be easily understandable.
• Ideas: Should base on single idea and it should be relevant.
• Color: Suitable color and combination should be used to make the poster
attractive and eye catching.
• Display: While displaying one should be sure to find a place where there is
adequate light and where the large
la population will see it.

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It attracts attention.
• It conveys the message very quickly.
• It does not require a detailed study.
• Good poster leads to action with good motivation.
• It can stand alone and is self-explanatory.

• Poster does not always give enough information.

• When a poster is seen for longer time it may not be attractive.
• It is not suitable for all topics.

A chart is a combination of pictorial, graphic, numerical or vertical material,

which present a clear summary.
Purpose of charts
To visualize an item, it is otherwise difficult to explain only in words.
To highlight important points.
To provide outline for materials covered in presentation.
To show continuity in process.
For creating problems and stimulating thinking.
For showing development of structure.

Arrangement of facts and ideas for expressing the events in the process or
development of a significant issue to its point of resolution or we can show an
improvement over a period of years.

Arrangement of facts and ideas for expressing the relationship between right and
responsibilities or between a complex of condition and change or conflicts.

Arrangement of facts and ideas for expressing Chain transition or cycles.

Facts and ideas for expressing changes in specific items from beginning data and
its Evolution projections into future.

The information on the chart is covered with thin paper strip to which it has been
applied either by wax, tap or sticky substance or pins. As the speaker wishes to visually
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reinforce a point with words or symbol, he removes the appropriate strip or paper. It
produces interest.
Pull chart
It consist of written messages which are hidden by strip of thick paper. The
message can be shown to the viewer, one after another by pulling out concealing strips.

A set of charts related to specific topic have been tagged together and hung on a
supporting stand. The individual chart will carry a series of related material or message in
sequence. The salient point of specific topic will be presented.

Check that the flipcharts that are used fit the flipchart stand which will be
used.
Prepare the charts early enough so that there is time to review them and make
any changes or corrections beforehand
Design charts on paper first before drawing them on the actual flip chart pad
Lightly write text in pencil before using actual flip chart markers
Use markers meant for flipcharts, not regular magic markers – they "bleed"
through the paper
Apply the 7 x 7 rule: 7 words on a line and 7 lines on a sheet
Use only the top two-thirds of the page. If writing is too low down on the
page, the students sitting at the back will have difficulty reading it.
Print neatly, using upper and lower case letters. DON’T use all block letters –
they are difficult to read.
Large, bold type is easier to read than smaller type. Italic, script and
condensed fonts are more difficult to read than plain text (san serif, such as
Arial and Geneva (for MACs) or Verdana for PCs). Font size should be 24 or
larger, should be readable from the most distant seat in the room. Using
combined upper and lower case is preferable to all upper case.
Yellow, pink and pastel colors and too many colors. Black and blue are best.
Write lightly in pencil any notes as remainders next to key points. These
notes would not be seen by the students from where they are sitting.
Correct small errors with liquid paper; for large areas, cover them with
double layer of flipchart paper and correct the errors
Place a blank sheet between each of the text sheets – this prevents the written
material from other sheets from ‘peeping’ through

● To show the relationship through comparison and classification

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 ● To give the visual relationship of abstract ideas and facts
● To enable learner to get clarification and meaning at a glance
● To facilitate discussion and narration on the particular issue
● To create interest and draw student attention and provide motivation in atopic
or issue
● To generate awareness about the gravity and seriousness of the problem
● Preparation of charts

• Title or Caption: It is mentioned in bold letter either on top or bottom

• Message or Content: It may be graphic or pictorial or combination of both
• Generally charts are prepared in card paper or Mounting board

• Suitable words should be selected.

• Words should be plain, precise & meaningful.
• Size of the words should be visible and also readable by all students in a
class.
• Important point to be highlighted on a chart.
• Different color can be used to differentiate one concept from another.
• It also helps in catching attention and increasing power of remembrance.

• Verbal message is very often reinforced by Graphic message.

• The size of graph should be appropriate to the chart.
• Colors should be used appropriately in the chart.

Graphs are the visual teaching aids for presenting statistical data and contrasting
the trends or changes for certain attributes.

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Types of graphs
Some different types of graphs are as follows:

Pie also called circle diagram. Data are presented through the section of portion
of a circle. In determining the circumference of the circle we have to take in to
consideration a quantity known as pie. The surface area of a circle is to cover 360 degree.
The total frequency or value equated to 360 degree and then the angle corresponding to
component parts are calculated. After determining their angle the required sectors in the
circle are drawn.

Graphic presentation extend the scale horizontally

horizontally along the length of bar. Each
bar must be of the same width, height of the bar over a period represent the
corresponding time of the variable.
• Before making the bar chart makes rough sketches of it in a note book
• For drawing the bar graph use the chart paper of 50 X 72 cm size.
• The bars should be equal-spaced
equal
• Write the key to the bar graph in a box on the right hand side corner of chart
paper
• Numbers specifying the magnitude of the bars should be on the top the bars.

To show the trends and Relationship Line graph is used. Single line shows the
relation and variation. Quantitative data can be plotted or when the data is continuous it
can be plotted with line either horizontally or vertically. Plotted lines are joined to ma
make a
curve.

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 A Pictorial Graph is one which is used to represent a summary of data in science
and research or mathematical relation. Graphs are used to simplify data presentations to
pictures rather than using words all through.

A chalkboard or blackboard is a reusable writing surface on which text or

drawings are made with chalk or other erasable markers. Blackboards were originally
made of smooth, thin sheets of black or dark grey slate stone. Modern versions are often
green or brown and are thus sometimes called a green board or brown board instead.

A blackboard can simply be a piece of board painted with dark paint (usually
black or dark green). A more modern variation consists of a coiled sheet of plastic drawn
across two parallel rollers, which can be scrolled to create additional writing space while
saving what has been written. The highest grade chalkboards are made of a rougher
version porcelain enameled steel (black, green, blue or sometimes other colors). Porcelain
is very hard wearing and chalkboards made of porcelain usually last 10-20 years in
intensive use.

They produce a fair amount of dust, depending on the quality of chalk used.
Some people find this uncomfortable or may be allergic to it, and there has been
speculation about links between chalk dust and respiratory problems.
The dust also precludes the use of chalk in areas shared with dust-sensitive equipment
such as computers. However, these alternative methods of displaying information have
drawbacks of their own.
The scratching of fingernails on a blackboard is a sound that is well-known for
being extremely irritating.

White or black boards can be very useful to help explain the sequence of ideas or
routines, particularly in the sciences. Use them to clarify the title or to record the key
points as the presentation is introduced Rather than expecting the audience to follow
spoken description of an experiment or process, write each stage on the board, including
any complex terminology or precise references to help the audience take accurate notes.
However, once you have written something is written on the board either it will stay there
or rubbed it off both can be distracting to the audience. Check to make sure the audience
has taken down a reference before rubbing it off - there is nothing more frustrating than
not being given enough time! Avoid leaving out of date material from an earlier point of
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the presentation on the board as this might confuse the audience. If there is no need to
write 'live', check that the audience can read the writing.

Sometimes called a flannel graph. This teaching tool is called by different names:
Visual Board , Frick Board, Slap Board, Felt Board, Choreograph, Video graph
Flannel graph is a storytelling system that uses a board covered with flannel fabric,
usually resting on an easel. It is very similar to Fuzzy felt, although its primary use is as
a storytelling medium, rather than as a toy.

The principle involved is the interlocking of fibers of two rough or hairy

surfaces, so that the pieces pressed onto a background which is hard and vertical will
stay. It can be illustrated on a larger scale by pressing two tooth brushes or hair brushes
together, so the bristle inter-look. In case of flannel graph similar principle of friction
helps an object to cling to the surface of the board.
The flannel board is usually painted to depict a background scene appropriate to the story
being told. Paper cutouts of characters and objects in the story are then placed on the
board, and moved around, as the story unfolds. These cut outs are backed, either with
flannel, or with some other substance that adheres lightly to the flannel background, such
as coarse sandpaper.

● Permits numerous and varied arrangements of visual materials.

● Permits the use of either chart or small pieces of material
● Permits the development of a complete story.
● Promotes conscientious planning, which must precede the development of
the material in the first place.
● Challenges one to develop symbols to portray such things as abstractions.
● Easier to construct materials for flannel board than to make slides or movies.

● Transportation and storing of boards and materials is a problem. Suitable

tables to support boards must be available.
● Time and cost of making material for presentation present a problem.
● Cost of boards themselves can't be overlooked.
● Presentation is limited a new idea involves a lapse of time before the new
material can be added
● Might tend to deter one from using other more effective methods and
techniques when it is evident that other methods might be more appropriate.
● To tell a complete story it often takes either too much board space or smaller
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 designs and materials, some of which cannot be seen well.

It is a soft board which will hold pins or tags almost suitable. Simple device
placed either indoor or outdoor. Items generally displayed are photographs, publications,
posters, and newspaper cut outs.

● Explains important events

● Reports special activities

● Not effective for illiterate group.

● Takes lot of preplanning and preparation
A bulletin board (pin board, pin board or notice board in British English) is a
place where people can leave public messages, for example, to advertise things to buy or
sell, announce events or provide information. Dormitory corridors, well-trafficked
hallways, lobbies, and freestanding kiosks often have cork boards attached to facilitate
the posting of notices. At some universities, lampposts, bollards, trees, and walls often
become impromptu posting sites in areas where official boards are sparse in number.

It is a framed iron sheet carrying porcelain coating in some dark color generally
black or green. It can be used to display pictures, cut outs and light objects with disc
magnets or magnetic holders.

Movement of visual material is easy.

A model is recognizable representation of a real thing three dimensionally, that is

height, width, and depth is felt as reality.

1. Solid models: it is the replica of an original thing made with some suitable
material like clay, plaster of Paris, wood, iron etc. to show the external parts
of the things. I.e. globe, clay model of human and animal.
2. Cutaway and x-ray models: are the replicas of the original things to show
internal parts of a thing. Cross sectional models are difficult to make in the
class room or institutions as they require expertise to construct them e.g.
cross sectional model of human body.
3. Working models: these models are either actual working things or their
miniature replicas. For illustrating an operation e.g. a motor, a generator.
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 4. Sand models: made by using sand, clay, saw dust, ex: a tribal village, a forest
area.

● Models heighten reality of things and make learning direct and meaningful as
they are three dimensional.
● Models illustrate the application side of certain principles and laws.
● Models explain the complex and intricate operations in a simplified way and
thus make comprehension easier.
● Models are lasting and ultimately work out to be cheaper teaching aids.
● Still models are easy to make with the help of discarded materials like empty
boxes, pins, clips, nails, and clay.
● Models are of reasonable size and convenient to handle.
● Models involve the use of all the five senses and thus make learning
effective.

● It requires expertise to make.

● Time consuming.
● Some of the models may be very expensive.

A mockup is a model of an object or device that is created to follow a specific

design. This type of resource may be built to a specific scale, or constructed as a full-size
example of a newly developed product or device. Typically, a mockup is constructed to
convey the general idea of the actual product and is not a working model. When the
mockup is functional, it is usually referred to as a prototype.

A diorama is a three dimensional arrangement of related objects, models, and cut

outs to illustrate a central theme or concept.
The objects and models are generally placed in a big box or show case with a glass
covering and background printed with a shade or a scene. Ex: a harvest scene, a planting
scene etc.

● Provide a good opportunity to learn

● It gives the appearance of actual things which cannot be brought to the class
room
● Interesting and enhance creativity
● Live things also can be shown in diorama ex: aquarium
● Provides students to do project works
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 ● Needs expatriation for the preparation
● Require budget
● Sometimes it may misguide the student if is not the replica of actual thing.
● Sometimes cost effective

Diorama

Many times in the school, a department of the school or a class put up their work
for showing it to the people outside the school, and such a show is called exhibition.
The pieces of work done by the students for an exhibition are called exhibits.

 The exhibition should have a central theme with a few sub themes to focus
attention to a particular concept
 The exhibits should be clean , labeled properly
 The concepts of contrast in color and size should be used for lying out the
exhibitions
 The exhibits should be so placed that most visitors , can see them
 The place and exhibits should be well lighted
 To capture attention and interest of visitors , both motion and sound should
be utilized
 The exhibition should have some exhibits with operative mechanism such as
switches, handles, to be operated by the visitors to observe some happenings.
 The exhibition should include lot of demonstrations as they involve deeply
the students and the visitors
 The exhibition should be able to relate various subject areas to provide
integrated learning.

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  Exhibitions inspire the students to learn by doing things themselves and they
get a sense of involvement
 Exhibitions give students a sense of accomplishment and achievement
 Exhibitions develop social skills of communication , cooperation,
coordination
 Exhibitions foster better school community relations and make community
members conscious about the school
 Exhibitions couple information with pleasure
 Exhibitions foster creativity among students.

 Requires thorough preparation

 Time consuming
 Require funds or budget.

A resource pack is a collection of documents which supports the teaching or

training. It is best to present them in a labeled folder. A handbook is also a collection of
supporting documents but the material is bound together in a book. They are both
integrated and comprehensive so that the learner has all the materials together. It differs
from a set of handouts in that the material is all given out at once, usually at the
beginning of the training. It may also contain information on subjects not covered in the
classroom sessions.

A collection of real things for instructional use refers to objects.

A specimen is a sample of the real object or material.
Using objects and specimens: while using the specimen and objects as teaching
aids, a teacher must keep the following points in mind. Plan teaching with certain simple
and direct observations of the object or specimen being referred to. Ask questions from
the students to elicit more details of the features of the object or specimen under
observation. Clarify and emphasize important structural details of the object or specimen
under observation. Provide review and practice to make learning permanent.

 Local markets
 Manufacturers and factories
 Discarded material from the houses
 Specimen found in the nature can be collected by students from field trips
and nature hunt
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  Plasters casts can be purchased
 Wild flowers, leaves shells, stones butterflies moths, insects can also be
procured.

Objects and specimens should be mounted in shallow boxes in an artistic way

and the boxes should be covered with cellophane paper. Also label each object or
specimen using self-adhesive paper.

 Collection of objects and specimens by students requires interaction with

others leading to development of social skills and values.
 Students when collect and display objects and specimens derive satisfaction
of contributing to the school and teacher something worthwhile.
 Student’s power of observation and first hand experiences is enhanced by
collection of objects and specimens.
 Student’s personal collection of objects and specimens can be a good source
of doing investigatory projects.
 Collection of objects and specimens become an interesting educational
pursuit of the teacher and students alike.
 It arouse some interest among students in learning
 Objects and specimens involve all the five senses in the process of learning
 It heighten the reality in the classroom
 It makes teaching lively.

A globe is a spherical model of earth.

Handouts are incredibly useful. Use a handout if the information is too detailed to
fit on a slide or if the audience need to have a full record of the findings. Consider the
merits of passing round the handouts at the beginning, middle and end of a presentation.
Given too early and they may prove a distraction. Given too late and the audience may
have taken too many unnecessary notes. Given out in the middle and the audience will
inevitably read rather than listen. One powerful way of avoiding these pitfalls is to give
out incomplete handouts at key stages during the presentation. The missing details can be
highlighted vocally, encouraging the audience to fill in the gaps.

A worksheet lists questions or activities for students or trainees to work through.

Pre-prepared worksheets can be used successfully with groups with differing abilities or
language skills because each person can work at their own pace.
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 Worksheets can be used for homework or a revision programme, or they can
include further details to be studied for the next lesson. They can be photocopied, or
copies can be made using a jelly copier or Banda machine. In development work,
worksheets can reinforce or remind trainees about a particular message or technique.
Worksheets provide flexibility in the classroom as well as in the workshop, because they
can be used individually, in pairs, or in small groups to facilitate teamwork skills.

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 According to Kinder S. James: Audio visual aids are any device which can be
used to make the learning experience more concrete, more realistic and more dynamic.
According to Carter. V. Good: audio visual aids are those aids which help in completing
the triangular process of learning that is motivation, classification and stimulation.

These aids depend on single sense that is hearing. An attentive and discipline
listener is the key goal of success through this form of communication. Audio aids are
very important in Pakistan because large percentage of population is illiterate and do not
have access to books and newspapers. Therefore, communication can be brought about
by the sense of hearing.

The most common form of public education and entertainment is radio receivers.
Radio is a device with which the whole mass can be contacted at a time, efficiently
and economically. Radio is a good source of communication of idea. It gives news-
bulletins, special programmes for rural people, housewives and children. It is a good
source of disseminating information for health workers, farmers etc. In case of audio-
aids, the message has to be simple so that the people can understand and act. The
broadcaster has to get and hold the attention of the audience, otherwise the message is
lost. The radio receiving set receives only one selected programme at a time, and conveys
the same through its speaker. The station is selected by a tuner of the receiving set, which
tunes the set to the frequency of the station. The movement of the tuner over the dial of
the radio set is controlled by a knob. The entire broadcast frequency of the tuner is
divided into a number of bands, each band including a small range of frequencies
or wavelengths. A band selector switch or knob is incorporated in the Cabinet of the
radio. There is also an on and off switch and volume control are incorporated in a single
knob. A radio can be operated by dry battery, wet battery or electricity.

 Announcements-meetings, demonstrations etc.

 Intimation or information- regarding availability of material, prices, places etc.
 Warnings-relating to weather, outbreaks of diseases.
 News reviews-about farmers etc.
 Interviews.
 Questions & Answers.
 Short talks.
 Play, skits, etc.
 Features and Documentaries.
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  Can bring realism

 It is a one way communication and audience reaction is not known.

 It requires concentrated attention of the listeners as only aural sense is used.
 Time-the learners have to adjust their time to the particular programme timing.
 Pre Rehearsing is not possible.
 Radio set should be in a working condition.
 Frequently loses out in competition with entertainment.

Television is being acknowledged as a powerful medium of mass education.

Using a television as a classroom instructional aids:
Procure in advance the information from the programme manual about the background
and objectives of educational programme. Collect other instructional materials that relate
to the program and instruct students to watch in the classroom.
Discuss about the programme topic and build up a background of the students to
have a meaning of the programme. Motivate students to watch the program critically and
for specific details. During the programme, draw attention of students to certain
important aspects with short phrases.
Video gives a chance to show stimulating visual information. Use video to bring
movement, pictures and sound into the presentation. Always make sure that the clip is
directly relevant to the content. Tell the audience what to look for. Avoid showing any
more film than you needed.

Passive video cassettes provide motion, color, sound, and in many cases, special
effects with advanced graphic and animation techniques. High-quality, commercially
produced video cassettes are available for almost every subject pertaining to aviation
training. Consequently, video has replaced many of the projection-type instructional aids.

The current generation of students is sometimes referred to as the video

generation. Some educators have theorized that TV has produced a visual culture that has
actually changed the way people learn. In any case, it is apparent that most, if not all,
students are familiar with and receptive to video. For instructors, the convenience of
video is certainly an advantage. The capability to easily stop, freeze, rewind, and replay is
particularly helpful for both instructors and students. The cost of a video cassette and the
associated equipment, although higher than some of the more basic instructional aid
equipment, is fairly economical. In addition, the video cassette recorder and television
can be used for other than instructional purposes.
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 Students are often accustomed to dramatic, action-packed film or video that is
designed as entertainment. At the same time, they tend to watch film or TV in a passive
way without attempting to absorb what they are seeing and hearing. Instructional video,
in comparison, normally is perceived as much less exciting and less stimulating visually.
This, coupled with an inattentive viewing style, can diminish the instructional value of
the video.
Guidelines for instructors
As is true with any instructional aid, instructors need to follow some basic
guidelines when using video. For example, the video presentation is not designed to
replace the instructor. Prior planning and rehearsal will help determine the important
points and concepts that should be stressed, either during the presentation or as part of a
summary. Instructors should also try to prepare students for viewing video programs by
telling them what to watch carefully, what is important, or possibly, what is incorrect. In
addition, instructors should be available to summarize the presentation and answer any
questions students may have regarding content.

Interactive video refers broadly to software that responds quickly to certain

choices and commands by the user. A typical system consists of a combination of a
compact disk, computer, and video technology. A compact disk (CD) is a format for
storing information digitally. A major advantage of a CD is the capability to store
enormous amounts of information. As an example, a single compact disk may contain all
pertinent aviation regulations, plus the complete AIM. With search and find features
incorporated, a CD is a powerful information source. The software may include
additional features such as image banks with full color photos and graphics, as well as
questions or directions which are programmed to create interactivity for students as they
progress through the course.
The questions or directions are programmed using a branching technique, which
provides several possible courses of action for the user to choose in order to move from
one sequence to another. For example, a program may indicate, "That was incorrect. Go
back to ... and try again."
Interactive video solves one of the main problems of passive video in that it
increases involvement of the student in the learning process. Well-designed interactive
video, when properly used, is highly effective as an instructional aid. Each student
essentially receives a customized learning experience.
Distance learning, or distance education, is another trend applicable to aviation.
In general terms, distance learning is the use of print or electronic media to deliver
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instruction when the instructor and student are separated. It also may be defined as a
system and process that connects students with resources for learning. As sources for
access to information expand, the possibilities for distance learning increases.

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 There are certain learning situations in which student participation through direct
experiences can be easily incorporated, these are called activity aids. The activity
teaching aids are really of great value as they put students in a role of active seekers of
knowledge.

They have revolutionized the way things are done in any field including the field
of education. They are vital for making presentations, for learning computer
programming languages and combined with the internet knowledge is right in front.

Computer assisted instruction (CAI) includes a variety of computer-based

packages that provide interactive instruction. Some are sophisticated and expensive
commercial packages while other applications are simple solutions developed by
individuals for a local situation. Since work done in one subject area is difficult to
transfer to other subject areas, much time and money needs to be invested toward its
development. However, once an application has been set up, the cost per additional
student is relatively small. Since fewer face to face lectures and seminars are required,
this also places fewer geographical and temporal constraints on staff and students.
Computer assisted instruction can be Internet-based or run on a personal computer from a
CD or DVD. Presentations on computers are particularly suited to subjects that are
visually intensive, detail oriented, and difficult to conceptualize. Upper level science
courses can benefit the most using the "virtual" cases to illustrate the
complex biochemical processes or microscopic images as well as reducing the need to
use animal or human tissue. Since the 1970s, CAI packages have become more advanced,
interactive, and attractive multimedia learning experiences.
Computer educational systems typically incorporate functions such as:
 Assessing student capabilities with a pre-test
 Presenting educational materials in a navigable form
 Providing repetitive drills to improve the student's command of knowledge
 Providing game-based drills to increase learning enjoyment
 Assessing student progress with a post-test
 Routing students through a series of courseware instructional programs.
 Recording student scores and progress for later inspection by a courseware
instructor.
With some systems, feedback can be geared towards a student's specific
mistakes, or the computer can navigate the student through a series of questions adapting
to what the student appears to have learned or not learned. This kind of feedback is
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especially useful when learning a language, and numerous computer-assisted language
learning (CALL) programs have been developed. A typical CALL program presents a
stimulus to which the learner must respond. The stimulus may be presented in any
combination of text, still images, sound, and motion video. The learner responds by
typing at the keyboard, pointing and clicking with the mouse, or speaking into a
microphone. The computer offers feedback, indicating whether the learner’s response is
right or wrong and, in the more sophisticated programs, attempting to analyze the
learner’s response and to pinpoint errors.
The term, "Learning Design", refers to the type of activity enabled by software
such as the open-source system LAMS (Learning Activity Management System) which
supports sequences of activities that can be both adaptive and collaborative. Computer-
aided assessment (also but less commonly referred to as e-Assessment), ranges from
automated multiple-choice tests to more sophisticated systems.
Communication technologies are generally categorized according to whether the
activity is done at the same time as others online or not. Asynchronous activities use
technologies such as blogs, wikis, and discussion boards. Synchronous activities occur
with all participants joining in at once, as with a chat session or a virtual classroom or
meeting.

One advantage of Email is that it combines the immediacy of the telephone with
the control you have when you can choose when to read the post. It means that someone
can send a message and know it will arrive in milliseconds but the receiver can choose
when to read and when respond to it. Another advantage of Email is the ease with which
messages can be stored and retrieved.
For teaching, Email can be used in the following ways:
 Email is especially good if there is a need to arrange a meeting between
several people. A list of possible dates can be sent to everyone and the replies
also sent to everyone.
 Email is useful for answering the more mundane sorts of questions that arise:
questions about readings, assignments, problems with concepts or practical
work, many of which can be dealt with in a short message in return, or an
appointment can be made.
Finally, Email can be used to have discussions between students. Everyone has
the chance to participate and their messages can be sent to all members of the group.
Obviously, for Email to be used successfully in teaching, all course participants must be
able to use it successfully and fairly confidently. They also must look for messages
regularly. The implications then for using Email in teaching are threefold:
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 1. Students must have access to network facilities to connect to the mail.
2. They must know how to use the system for receiving, sending and storing
messages. This may mean that a hands-on session to teach the group how to
use Email is necessary.
3. Email must be an integral part of the course so that it is expected that
communications via Email carry the same weight as communications using
other means.

It is often quite difficult to get to know individual students during the one class
meeting each week. Email has meant to know many more students on this more
individualized level. Our interactions on Email have allowed the teachers to see the
students as individuals in the big group where it might not have otherwise.
Many of the Email interactions I have with students are an extension of the kinds
of work we do in class. Email allows us a different sort of discussion than we have in the
usual 1.5 hour session. Email can be rather continuous and many students welcome the
opportunity for ongoing discussions on areas they may have be having difficulty with; or
areas they have a particular interest in.

It is very hard to train people about the etiquette that surrounds any form of
communication. The etiquette of Email is quite different from written letters or telephone.
Misspellings or typos are readily accepted and often expected. Sending of blank
messages is a regular occurrence for all of us; or neglecting to attach a file we had meant
to. Messages often carry no salutations.
It's common to ask for a message to be resent when someone has inadvertently
deleted it.
Using the reply form of sending a message means that you can include parts of the
original message and do not need to reply in full sentences.
Trying to be funny is discouraged because it is so difficult over this medium.

The acronym CD-ROM stands for compact disc-read only memory, denoting the
fact that CD-ROM discs are read-only devices; data cannot be written to a CD-ROM by a
conventional player.
The four main types of Compact Disc formats are:
1. CD Audio
2. CD-ROM (Compact Disc-Read Only Memory)
3. CD-I (Compact Disc-Interactive)
4. CD-ROM/XA (CD-ROM Extended Architecture)
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Some of the claimed advantages of the compact disc are:
 Storage capacity is very high. A standard disc is able to store 650 mb of
data. This is the equivalent to approximately 2 million pages of text or 74
minutes of high quality music.
 The costs associated with CD-ROM storage are typically very low.
 CD-ROM drives are inexpensive and can be repaired or replaced easily.
 Some of the claimed disadvantages of the compact disc include:
 They are relatively fragile. They are easily damaged, for example by
accidental scratches or exposure to heat.
 CD-ROM drives are relatively slow in comparison to other storage devices,
such as the hard disc drive.
 CD-ROM is a read only medium. Although listed as a disadvantage, this can
sometimes be seen as an advantage, since unauthorized changes and
accidental erasure of data can be prevented. (Bocij et al, 1999)
 The physical construction of a CD-ROM consists of an injection molded,
clear polycarbonate disc with a single spiral track on it.

Dramatization is a very potent method of keeping the class room instruction

lively and interesting. When a teacher dramatizes a lesson, the students become both the
spectators and participants. This makes learning easy and permanents.

Types of dramatizations suitable for classroom instruction:-

Role-play
● Play lets
● Pageant
● Pantomime
● Tableaux

Dramatization gives an added advantage of students working as both observers

(spectators) and doers (participants) unlike in experiment where there are just doers and
in demonstration where there are just observers.
Dramatization makes learning a pleasure children love to act and show off.
Dramatization involves students totally and they appreciate the lessons remember it better
Dramatization develops the social skills required for them such as cooperation,
coordination, punctuality, and human relations etc.
Dramatization makes students creative, sensitive, and alert.

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 According to Hedger ken Field trip may be defined as “an educational procedure
by which the student studies firsthand objects and materials in their natural environment.”
Types of field trips:
Depending on the place of visit and its duration, field trips are mainly of the following
four types, namely:-
• Local school trips.
• Community trip.
• Educational trips.
• The natural hunt.

Field trip provides learning experience in the real life situation by direct contact
with objects, process, and systems and thus has many advantages which are enumerated
as follows:
It provides accurate information objects, process, and systems in their real life
setting.
It provides meaningful direct experience and hence results in lasting learning.
The students learning can be easily diverted towards effective learning.
Field trips are valuable aids to what students are curious about the natural and
man-made process and objects.
Field trips can effectively supplement the classroom learning through application
and reviewing the experiences of student.

A field trip may be occasional activity which at best supplement some learning
segments of the syllabus.
They can be expensive and out of reach for many disadvantaged and poor
students.
Field trips require proper and detailed planning to make them meaningful
otherwise the trip leads to confusion, and fails to fulfill the requirement.

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 Advantages of using media in teaching and learning process
Instructional media is a tool used by teachers when teaching to help clarify the subject
matter presented to students, and prevent the occurrence of verbal self-student. Teaching
with much use of verbal would be boring, instead of more interesting if the students
delighted in learning, or pleased because they feel attracted to and understand the lessons
they receive. Thus, learning activities will be more effective.
Effective learning must begin from direct experience or experience in the
concrete and toward a more abstract experience. Learning will be more effective if
assisted with the props in teaching than in unassisted with a teaching tool. In order for
teaching and learning process can work well, students should be encouraged to utilize all
the tools ‘senses’. The teacher tries to show the stimulus, which can be processed in
many senses. The more sensing devices used to receive and process information, the
more likely the information is understandable and can be maintained in memory.
Hamalik (1986) pointed out that the use of teaching media in teaching and learning can
generate new desires and interests, to encourage motivation and stimulation and learning
activities, and even brought a psychological influence on students.
Thus, students are expected to be able to receive and absorb easily and good
messages in the material presented. To take advantage of all sense organ, senses in
learning activities needed stimulus. This is confirmed by Arsyad (2003), who said that,
teaching and learning activities using the media were replaced by terms such as tool of
view heard, teaching materials and communication of view heard, educational teaching
aids of view, educational technology, teaching aids, and media explanatory. The
development of science and technology increasingly encourage renewal efforts in the
utilization of technology results in the learning process. Teachers are required to use tools
that could be provided by the school, did not rule out that such instruments in accordance
with the developments and demands of the times. Teachers must be able to use cheap and
efficient tool that is simple and unpretentious though it is a necessity in order to achieve
the expected objectives of teaching (Arsyad, 2003).
For that in using the medium of teaching teachers should have sufficient
knowledge and understanding about the medium of teaching, such as what is conveyed
by Hamalik (1994).
The teaching of teachers in using the media must understand about:
(1) Media as a communication tool to further streamline the process of
learning teaching.
(2) The functions of the media in order to achieve educational goals.
(3) The nutty gritty of the process of learning.
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 (4) The relationship between teaching methods with educational media.
(5) The value or benefits of media education in teaching.
(6) Selection and use of media education.
(7) Different types of educational media tools and techniques.
(8) Media education in each subject.
(9) Business innovation in education.

Here are some counter arguments against, teachers being expected to use
technology in the classroom:

They feel that the ability to use technology has got nothing to do with learning
English per se, and if such high standard and qualification are needed for learners to
survive in the job market, then these learners should be taking classes in IT, and not be
relying on their English teacher to provide them with such training.

It takes hours to moderate a wiki or Moodle account, to respond to comments on a

blog, to find appropriate games and video clips, to maintain the students’ interest in class chats
on Twitter or Face book, and to read other teachers’ blogs for more ideas and development.

Some learners from less-privileged backgrounds might feel left out and inferior.
They might not be as familiar with certain online platforms and styles of games because
they do not have easy access to a computer or a game console at home. They might not
have a smart phone and have to share a classmate’s.
Some learners simply don’t have the time to participate outside of classroom
hours. This is especially true when teaching Business English or doing cultural training.
These clients not only have a busy work schedule, but might not see the teacher any more
than once a week, or even once a month. Class participation is extremely hard to maintain
under such circumstances.

The smaller schools that offer perfectly student-centered classes that cannot
afford such luxuries are seen as not keeping up with the times.

An awareness of the issues that face teachers who are wary of the exponential
increase of technological tools consider that it might helpful for them to utilize
technology in the best way for their learners and their teaching context.
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 The process of teaching - learning depends upon the different type of equipment
available in the classroom. There are many aids available these days like, audio, visual
and audio- visual aids. They have very much importance in TLP (Teaching Learning
Process).
Meaning of Teaching Aids
As we all know that today's age is the age of science and technology. The
teaching learning programmes have also been affected by it. The process of teaching -
learning depends upon the different type of equipment available in the classroom.

(1) Every individual has the tendency to forget. Proper use of teaching aids
helps to retain more concept permanently.
(2) Students can learn better when they are motivated properly through
different teaching aids.
(3) Teaching aids develop the proper image when the students see, hear taste
and smell properly.
(4) Teaching aids provide complete example for conceptual thinking.
(5) The teaching aids create the environment of interest for the students
(6) Teaching aids helps to increase the vocabulary of the students.
(7) Teaching aids helps the teacher to get sometime and make learning
permanent.
(8) Teaching aids provide direct experience to the students.

Teaching aids play a very important role in Teaching- Learning process.

Importance of teaching aids are as follows:-
(1) Motivation
Teaching aids motivate the students so that they can learn better.
(2) Clarification
Through teaching aids, the teacher clarify the subject matter more easily.
(3) Discouragement of Cramming Teaching aids can facilitate the proper
understanding to the students which discourage the act of cramming.
(4) Increase the Vocabulary
Teaching aids helps to increase the vocabulary of the students more
effectively.

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 (5) Saves Time and Money
(6) Classroom Live and active
Teaching aids make the classroom live and active.
(7) Avoids Dullness
(8) Direct Experience
Teaching aids provide direct experience to the students

Instructional aids used properly help the instructor communicate effectively by

adding realism and substance to ideas, descriptions, and explanations that are used in the
course of instruction.
To use instructional aids effectively, the timing or introduction of the aid in the
lesson is an important factor. The instructor should use appropriate procedures and
techniques when employing instructional aids. Though there are many different types of
aids, selection and use of instructional aids should be chosen carefully and used correctly
during instruction. Summary of factors which may influence choice of teaching aids. The
following are some of the common factors which may influence the choice of teaching
aids:
The nature of audience
(a) Size of class
(b) Level of understanding
(c) Age of learners
(d) Aptitude
(e) Experience
The nature of changes desired in the audience such as:
(a) Learning a new skill
(b) Gaining information
(c) Bringing about change in attitude
Nature of subject being taught
Relative cost in terms of
- Time
- Money
- Energy
The ability of the teachers to handle the aid.
It must however be emphasized that teaching aids cannot solve all problems of
teaching.
They can make the teaching and learning more effective. Above all teaching aids
require a lot of skill and proper attitude on the part of the teacher not only in their
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construction, but also their use.
Besides, the decision whether to use some aids or not in a classroom may be
determined by the prevailing situation. This may have nothing to do with either the
teacher or the learners. For example, the use of audio-visual aids like television sets,
slides or overhead projector requires the availability of electric power. So in a situation
where there is no electricity, their use is rendered impossible.

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 Low cost / No cost Materials are the teaching aids require no cost or available
cheaply and developed by locally available resources and expedite the process of learning
in the classroom. Low cost/ No cost materials are developed from the waste and help the
teachers in making the teaching interesting and concrete. Low cost/no cost material all
types of materials that can be of very low cost or no cost obtained from the environment
to simplify the teaching of a subject or concepts of a topic.
Low-cost teaching learning materials are materials which have the following
characteristics/qualities:
● The materials can be made by teachers, pupils or members of the
community.
● The materials supplied can be put to effective use by the teachers and pupils
in the classroom and do not incur extra costs.
● The processes in the production of the materials are simple and
inexpensive.
● The production of the materials is not time consuming.
● The materials are freely and easily available from the local environment.
● These materials can be:
- Plants (bamboo, leaves, etc.)
- Animal (Shell, skin, bones, etc.)
- Mineral (limestone, charcoal, etc.)
- Industrial waste: fuses, used batteries.
- Domestic waste: tin cans, milk or cookies boxes, bicycle parts
Because of this, the main consideration is not the low-cost factor of the
materials, but factors like ease of availability, ease of production.

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 There are several sources of instructional aids. While there are commercially
available instructional aids, the instructor is also a very important source. Most of the
commercially produced instructional aids are very scarce and often unaffordable. For the
instructor to achieve set objectives effectively and efficiently, s/he will have to design,
construct and use desired instructional aids. This practice is called Improvisation.
As an instructor, one may notice a particular instructional problem which may be solved
by use of some type of aid. Most well designed and constructed instructional aids are
relatively simple. Plan, lay-out and proportion are important features of an effective
instructional aid. Use of color whenever possible will serve to appeal to the senses and
also define certain parts and show their relationships.
If the designed instructional aid is an object, the instructor should select the
material to be used. Material to be used should be those which are locally available and
cheap in terms of cost. Oh the other hand, if the instructional aid is a model, materials and
their costs should be estimated and coasted. The instructor should use tools and
equipment available in the institution and should involve the trainees in the construction
of aids as far as it is possible. This practice helps trainees to acquire “hands-on”
experience when they later become instructors in their own right. Visual aids combined
with verbal explanations are very effective.
The chalkboard being the commonest visual aid, when used properly can be quite
effective. The instructor requires to plan the use of a chalkboard with imagination and
creativity. With a little drawing ability, the chalkboard can be a good aid. The following
tips could improve the use of the chalkboard:
 Plan all the chalkboard illustrations before the lesson begins
 Draw complicated diagrams before the lesson starts
Use different color of chalk to highlight important points
 All writings on the chalkboard should be simple, clear and distinct.
 For permanent reference visual aids; large pictures, diagrams, posters and charts
are the practice forms of instructional aids.
The following are some tips for preparing visual aids:
 Omit all the unnecessary details
 Use simple and easy to read letters for writings
Ensure technical symbols are correct.

These projected and non-projected aids are the instructional media. They serve as
the channel of instruction. These aids can help the imaginative teacher to solve all the
communication problems. They help to extend human experience. They result in greater
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acquisition of knowledge of facts and ensure longer retention, if the information gained.
They provide first hand experiences in a variety of ways and sometimes make the pupils
actively participate. They add an interest and involvement to the lesson.

1. Develop a list of low cost materials useful in preparation of a chart.

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2. Make a book while drawing different types of maps.
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3. Develop flip charts for the class on the theme of projector slides.
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4. Follow the steps and complete the cycle of teaching learning process:
Step 1: choose the topic.
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Step 2: Choose resources. Which resources suit this topic best?
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Step 3: Finding out what the students already know. What do the students already know
about this topic? What else about the topic are they interested in finding out? How will
the children tell me what they know?
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Step 4: Write understandings about the topic. What do we want the children to learn
about?
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Step 5: Introduce the new resources that will help the children learn about the topic.
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Step 6: Develop the topic through the different curriculum areas. (E.g. mathematics,
language, art)
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Step 7: Allow the learners to share what they have learnt about the topic.
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Step 8: Assess the students learning. Evaluate the teaching strategies.
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1. Differentiate between Instructional and educational technology.

2. Explain the importance and usefulness of instructional technology.
3. Prove that some old audio/visual aids mentioned in unit are closely linked
with the trends of technology development.
4. Trace in systemic way, the development of education/instructional
technology in Pakistan.

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Pitler,alt. (2012) Using Technology with Classroom Instruction that Works. 2nd
Edition, An ASCD.Publisher

Mishra & Yadav. B, (2014).Audio-Visual Aids & The Secondary School Teaching
Global Journal of HUMAN-SOCIAL SCIENCE Linguistics & Education, Volume
14 Issue 1 Version
ISSN: 2249-460x & Print ISSN: 0975-587X

Hamid, M. and Ahmad, A. (2011) Essentials of Instructional Technology.

Retrieved from http://www.sciencepub.net/book/050_7051book_1_66.pdf

Dunmire (2010) The use of Instructional Technology in the Classroom: Selection and
Effectiveness. Retrieved from http://www.usma.edu/cfe/literature/dunmire_10.pdf

Turner.J.H, (1956) Audiovisual Materials for the Teaching of the Classics: A Review-
Article The Classical Weekly Vol. 50, No. 4, The Johns Hopkins University Press.
pp. 49-62
DOI: 10.2307/4343879

Douglas.B, (2011)“Teaching by principles an interactive Approach to Language

Pedagogy”. Addison Wesley Longman Inc. New York.

Norbert. S, (2008) “Understanding Learn Models for Learning and Instruction”. Acid-
free paper. New York.

Rebecca.H, (2002) “Teaching and Researching Speaking”. Pearson Education.

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UNIT - 6

CLASSROOM RELATED
PROBLEMS

Written by: Muhammad Bilal Malik

Reviewed by: Ms. Tooba Saleem
Dr. Sidra Rizwan

257
 CONTENTS
Introduction 260
Objectives 260
6.1 Student Groups 261
6.2 Behavior Problems 261
6.2.1 Sensory Processing Disorder 262
6.2.2 Aggressive Students 262
6.2.3 Inappropriate Language 262
6.2.4 Inattentive Students 262
6.3 Social Problems 262
6.3.1. Not paying attention in class. 262
6.3.2. Difficulty making friends. 263
6.3.3. Disruptive in class. 263
6.3.4. Reports of aggressiveness or anger. 263
6.3.5. Failing grades. 263
6.4 Criminal Behavior 264
6.4.1 What is Crime? And Criminal Behavior 264
6.5 Physical and Sensory Disabilities 265
6.5.1 Different forms of Sensory and Physical Difficulties 265
6.6 Learning Deficits 265
6.6.1 Auditory Processing Disorder (APD) 267
6.6.2 Dyscalculia 268
6.6.3 Dysgraphia 268
6.6.4 Dyslexia 268
6.6.5 Language Processing Disorder 268
6.6.6 Non-Verbal Learning Disabilities 268
6.6.7 Visual Perceptual/Visual Motor Deficit 268
6.6.8 ADHD 269
6.6.9 Dyspraxia 269
6.6.10 Executive Functioning 269
6.6.11 Memory 269
6.7 Visual Impairment 269
6.7.1 Characteristics 270
6.7.2 Educational Implications 270
6.8 Hearing Impairment 271
6.8.1 Identification 271

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6.9 Speech Disabilities 271
6.9.1 Articulation 271
6.9.2 Fluency 272
6.9.3 Voice 272
6.9.4 Language 272
Activity 273
Self-Assessment 273
References 274

259
 INTRODUCTION
In a regular class, there are always some students who face problems during
classroom teaching. For example, having cognitive, emotional or physical problems. A
big challenge for a teacher in the classroom is to diagnose the need and accommodate
such students in regular classroom. The teacher must instruct and evaluate such students
along with the normal students. It is also the responsibility of a teacher to use strategies
for gaining information to identify the problems of students who may need special
attention. In this unit, we will look at some problems faced by the students in the
classroom and some remedial actions to solve these issues.

OBJECTIVES
After completing this unit the prospective teachers will be able to:
1. diagnose the problems faced by students in the classroom.
2. understanding Behavioral, Hearing, Learning, visual and speech problems.
3. assess the criminal behaviour and its causes in students.
4. assess the students with special needs and take remedial measures for them.

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 6.1 STUDENT GROUPS
A student group is an organization of students, typically at a high school, college
or university, who share a common background or interest. Student groups may be
supervised by a member of faculty, but are typically organized and attended
independently. Student groups may elect people to positions of responsibility in the
group, such as president, vice-president, treasurer, and business manager.
Students may form groups for people of a common ethnicity or religion. Others form
around common interests such as science, art, music, and sports. Some student groups
focus on a particular aspect of the school, such as community service, student
government, or environmental activism.

6.2 BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS

Behavior related problems of students in class interfere with the lessons being
taught and disturb other students. These problems often overwhelm teachers, particularly
novices, and some consider them the most difficult aspect of a teacher’s daily work.
Children who exhibit such behavioral problems require extra attention on constant bases,
which places stress on teachers and also slows the pace at which lessons are delivered
and completed.
The problem affects the whole classroom. Behavior problems distract other
students from learning and require teachers to spend precious instruction time on
discipline and behavior management. Over half of teachers wish they could spend fewer
school day minutes on discipline.
An elementary educator defined the problem in this way: “The time it takes to
referee fights and solve bullying issues takes away from academic instruction and keeps
students from achieving as much as they could.”
Concern about behavior issues was not limited to any particular demographic
group. While teachers who worked in schools in low-income areas reported concerns
about behavioral issues at a higher rate (65%), teachers who worked in high-income areas
were not far behind. In high-income areas, 56 percent of teachers reported more
behavioral issues that interfere with teaching and learning.
Teachers are committed to helping all their students succeed, including those
with behavioral issues. They say, however, that they need help. Overall, 64 percent of
teachers say that they need more professional development and training to meet the needs
of students with behavioral issues, while 72 percent need more tangible school resources.

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6.2.1 Sensory Processing Disorder
Children with sensory processing disorder can be disruptive in the classroom
because they are unable to keep pace with daily lessons. They might walk around or talk
at inappropriate times, and their special needs divert the teacher’s attention from the set
program. Children with this disorder find it difficult to organize and make sense of the
sensory information that their brain receives from the world around them. Normal
activities can seem confusing and overwhelming to them. They often have problems in
learning and prefer not to play with classmates during recess.
6.2.2 Aggressive Students
Aggressive behavior is a serious problem and is to be disruptive to a supportive
and safe learning environment. Physical aggression can be violent, even between young
students, and both pupils might get hurt. Aggression between students in the classroom or
playground disrupts all other activities and negatively affects teachers and other students.
Apart from the initial disruption, the after-effects of physical fighting remain with
sensitive pupils and interfere with their school day.
6.2.3 Inappropriate Language
Although commonplace in the classroom, inappropriate language does not belong
in school and is offensive to many students and teachers. Students may use foul language
to impress their classmates or to get the attention of their teacher. Some students use
inappropriate language to express frustration or anger, while others use this type of
language because it is normal in their home environment. In all cases, teachers should
discourage students from swearing in either the classroom or on the playground.
6.2.4 Inattentive Students
Inattentive students tend to fall behind their classmates unless appropriate steps are
taken. In certain cases, students may suffer from attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
(ADHD), which causes them to have difficulty in controlling their behavior. These students
have trouble in organizing school work and sustaining attention. They struggle with starting
projects, and even simple school tasks can overwhelm them. These children often require
extra attention from teachers, so normal school lessons take longer to complete, and
students without learning or other behavior problems become bored and frustrated.
6.3 SOCIAL PROBLEMS
Experiences and researchers show that a lot of the behaviors and struggles are
observed on school grounds first.
6.3.1. Not paying attention in class
When a child or teen is reported as not paying attention in class, parents often
worry right away that their child has attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
While this is certainly a possibility, inattention can also be a symptom of boredom, lack
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of sleep, adequate nutrition, or preoccupation with other problems. When inattention is
such a problem that the child’s grades are suffering, or it is causing them emotional
distress, it’s best to seek professional intervention.
6.3.2. Difficulty in making friends
This is most common with kids in elementary school who are just getting started
in the school social scene. The possibility of a disorder on the Autism spectrum is always
looming when parents report social difficulties. While we want to look at all possibilities,
this can also be a symptom of a child who is shy, inexperienced in social settings, or even
suffering from a mild form of social phobia. If the teachers are reporting this is a problem
or the child is telling you they are worried, and the problem persists despite your greatest
efforts, seek professional advisement.
6.3.3. Disruptive behaviour in class
When a child or teen is disruptive in class, it is usually treated as strictly a
behavior problem without considering all the potential reasons for the behavior. Many
times, like most of these issues, there is an underlying reason. First, kids and teens are
extremely vulnerable to the need for social acceptance. This need can drive them to
behave in ways that will get them into trouble or even put their safety at risk. They may
also be disruptive because they are bored, cannot understand the teacher, cannot see the
teacher, or are not being challenged enough. Such type of children may also be struggling
with the material and find they are so far behind that it “saves face” to look as if they are
failing because they don’t care, rather than being unable to understand the material.
Many, many possibilities.
6.3.4. Reports of aggressiveness or anger
When children act aggressively towards others or express a high level of anger, it
can be worrisome. They are often angry about something going on at home, such as a
divorce, or an issue at school, such as a bully. When a child is this angry, seek help from
a professional so they can work through some of that anger, as well as learn some
positive coping skills.
6.3.5. Failing grades
When kids fail their classes, it’s best to determine the reason as soon as possible.
The longer the issue goes on, more and more behind they will fall. Not only there is a
possibility that they may repeat a grade, but they can feel defeated and believe they are
not smart. This is rarely the case. In order to find the real reason information can be taken
from the teachers and the student to find out more about what subjects they are failing,
whether the problem is the test grades or homework. These details can help discover the
root of the problem. If required the case may be discussed with a professional about the
possible next step. There may be a need for psychological testing or therapy.
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 6.4 CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR

6.4.1 What is Crime? And Criminal Behavior

The Oxford English Dictionary defines crime simply as: ‘An action or omission
which constitutes an offence and is punishable by law’.
The Oxford Dictionary of Sociology defines crime in a more complex way: ‘an
offence which goes beyond the personal and into the public sphere, breaking prohibitory
rules or laws, to which legitimate punishments or sanctions are attached, and which
requires the intervention of a public authority.’
The difference between these two definitions goes to the heart of issues
surrounding crime. As the Oxford English Dictionary definition makes clear, the law
ultimately defines what is and is not crime. While popular definitions approach the law as
a given, sociological definitions approach the issue in a more social way – drawing
attention not only to the act itself but the law itself and whose interests it seeks to protect.
It makes a distinction between private offences (such as arguments or personal disputes)
and public offences that offend a broader set of social norms or values.
Criminologists therefore look beyond this strict legal definition to examine the
social and cultural roots of crime and criminalization, including a questioning approach
as to why certain activities are labelled as ‘crime’ while others are not.
All social groups make rules and attempt, at some time and under some
circumstances, to enforce them. Social rules define situations and the kinds of behavior
appropriate to them, specifying some actions as “right” and forbidding other as “wrong”.
When a rule is enforced, the person who is supposed to have broken it may be a special
kind of person, one who cannot be trusted to live by the rules agreed on by the group. He
is regarded as an outsider.’

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 6.5 PHYSICAL AND SENSORY DISABILITIES
The word disability covers a vast range of different things, from mild to more
severe impairments.
 People with the same disability may have different capabilities just like
anyone else.
 A disability may exist from birth or be acquired later in life.
 A person may have one or more disabilities.
 A disability may not always be apparent, for example epilepsy or a brain
injury from an accident.
 Disability may be severe in its impact on a person’s life.
6.5.1 Different forms of Sensory and Physical Difficulties
A sensory disability is a disability of the senses (e.g. sight, hearing, smell, touch,
taste). As 95% of the information about the world around us comes from our sight and
hearing, a sensory disability can affect how a person gathers information from the world
around them.
Sensory needs, which can be hearing loss and/or visual impairment or sensory
processing difficulties and physical difficulties, can occur for a variety of reasons, e.g.
congenital conditions (some progressive), injury or disease. The important consideration
in this area is the degree to which the difficulties impact on a child’s or young person’s
ability to access educational opportunities.
Hearing Loss
Hearing loss can be sensor neural, conductive or mixed
The levels of hearing loss are mild, moderate, severe or profound.
Vision Loss
Visual impairment is an eye condition that cannot be fully corrected by glasses or
contact lenses
The levels of vision are mild, moderate, severe or profound.
Multisensory Impairment
Multisensory impairment occurs when there is a hearing loss and visual
impairment, which are both educationally significant although they may be at different
levels.
Sensory Processing Difficulty
Our body and the environment send information to our brain through our senses.
We process and organize this information so that we feel comfortable and secure. When a
child has difficulty in coping with these demands, they may have sensory processing
difficulties.

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A child may be under-sensitive or over-sensitive in the five areas:
1. Proprioception
2. Vestibular
3. Auditory
4. Oral Sensory
5. Tactile
Physical Difficulty
Physical/medical injures can be for a variety of reasons, e.g. congenital
conditions (some progressive), injury or disease. A child with a physical difficulty may
have a diagnosed medical condition which affects them physically. There may be an
undiagnosed condition where the child presents with delayed development or impairment
with their physical ability and/or presentation.

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 6.6 LEARNING DEFICITS
Learning disabilities are neurologically-based processing problems. These
processing problems can interfere with learning basic skills such as reading, writing
and/or math. They can also interfere with higher level skills such as organization, time
planning, abstract reasoning, long or short term memory and attention. It is important to
realize that learning disabilities can affect an individual’s life beyond academics and can
impact relationships with family, friends and in the workplace.
Since the difficulties with reading, writing and/or math are recognizable
problems during the school years, the signs and symptoms of learning disabilities are
most often diagnosed during that time. However, some individuals do not receive an
evaluation until they are in post-secondary education or adults in the workforce. Other
individuals with learning disabilities may never receive an evaluation and go through life,
never knowing why they have difficulties with academics and why they may be having
problems in their jobs or in relationships with family and friends.
Learning disabilities should not be confused with learning problems which are
primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor handicaps; of mental retardation; of
emotional disturbance; or of environmental, cultural or economic disadvantages.
People with learning disabilities are of average or above average intelligence. There often
appears to be a gap between the individual’s potential and actual achievement. Therefore,
learning disabilities are referred to as "hidden disabilities": the person looks perfectly
“normal” and seems to be a very bright and intelligent person, yet may be unable to
demonstrate the skill level expected from someone of a similar age.
A learning disability cannot be cured or fixed; it is a lifelong challenge.
However, with appropriate support and intervention, people with learning disabilities can
achieve success in school, at work, in relationships, and in the community.
In Federal law, under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), the
term is "specific learning disability," one of 13 categories of disability under that law.
"Learning Disabilities" is an "umbrella" term describing several other, more specific
learning disabilities, such as dyslexia and dysgraphia. Find the signs and symptoms of
each, plus strategies to help below.
Specific Learning Disabilities
6.6.1 Auditory Processing Disorder (APD)
APD is also known as Central Auditory Processing Disorder, it is a condition that
adversely affects how sound that travels unimpeded through the ear is processed or
interpreted by the brain. Individuals with APD do not recognize subtle differences
between sounds in words, even when the sounds are loud and clear enough to be heard.

267
They can also find it difficult to tell where sounds are coming from, to make sense of the
order of sounds, or to block out competing background noises.
6.6.2 Dyscalculia
It is a specific learning disability that affects a person’s ability to understand
numbers and learn math facts. Individuals with this type of learning disability may also
have poor comprehension of math symbols, may struggle with memorizing and
organizing numbers, have difficulty telling time, or have trouble with counting.
6.6.3 Dysgraphia
It is a specific learning disability that affects a person’s handwriting ability and
fine motor skills. Problems may include illegible handwriting, inconsistent spacing, poor
spatial planning on paper, poor spelling, and difficulty composing writing as well as
thinking and writing at the same time.
6.6.4 Dyslexia
It is a specific learning disability that affects reading and related language-based
processing skills. The severity can differ in each individual but can affect reading
fluency, decoding, reading comprehension, recall, writing, spelling, and sometimes
speech and can exist along with other related disorders. Dyslexia is sometimes referred to
as a Language-Based Learning Disability.me time.
6.6.5 Language Processing Disorder (LPD)
It is a specific type of Auditory Processing Disorder (APD) in which there is
difficulty attaching meaning to sound groups that form words, sentences and stories.
While an APD affects the interpretation of all sounds coming into the brain, LPD relates
only to the processing of language. LPD can affect expressive language and/or receptive
language.
6.6.6 Non-Verbal Learning Disabilities (NLD or NVLD)
It is a disorder which is usually characterized by a significant discrepancy
between higher verbal skills and weaker motor, visual-spatial and social skills. Typically,
an individual with NLD (or NVLD) has trouble interpreting nonverbal cues like facial
expressions or body language, and may have poor coordination.
6.6.7 Visual Perceptual/Visual Motor Deficit
It is a disorder that affects the understanding of information that a person sees, or
the ability to draw or copy. A characteristic seen in people with learning disabilities such
as Dysgraphia or Non-verbal LD, it can result in missing subtle differences in shapes or
printed letters, losing place frequently, struggles with cutting, holding pencil too tightly,
or poor eye/hand coordination.

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Other Related Disorders
6.6.8 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
It is a disorder that includes difficulty staying focused and paying attention,
difficulty controlling behavior and hyperactivity. Distracted teenage student looking out
of classroom window during school display symptoms of ADHD. Although ADHD is not
considered a learning disability, research indicates that from 30-50 percent of children
with ADHD also have a specific learning disability, and that the two conditions can
interact to make learning extremely challenging.
6.6.9 Dyspraxia
It is a disorder that is characterized by difficulty in muscle control, which causes
problems with movement and coordination, language and speech, and can affect learning.
Although it is not a learning disability, dyspraxia often exists along with dyslexia,
dyscalculia or ADHD.
6.6.10 Executive Functioning
An inefficiency in the cognitive management systems of the brain that affects a
variety of neuropsychological processes such as planning, organization, strategizing,
paying attention to and remembering details, and managing time and space. Although not
a learning disability, different patterns of weakness in executive functioning are almost
always seen in the learning profiles of individuals who have specific learning disabilities
or ADHD.
6.6.11 Memory
There are three types of memory that play an important role in learning i
Working memory, ii short-term memory and iii long-term memory. These are
used in the processing of both verbal and non-verbal information. If there is deficit in any
of these types of memory, the ability to store and retrieve information which is required
to carry out tasks can be impaired.
6.7 VISUAL IMPAIRMENT
The terms partially sighted, low vision, legally blind, and totally blind are used in
the educational context to describe students with visual impairments. These terms are
defined as follows:
• “Partially sighted” indicates some type of visual problem has resulted in a
need for special education;
• “Low vision” generally refers to a severe visual impairment, not necessarily
limited to distance vision. Low vision applies to all individuals with sight
who are unable to read the newspaper at a normal viewing distance, even
with the aid of eyeglasses or contact lenses. They use a combination of vision

269
 and other senses to learn, although they may require adaptations in lighting,
the size of print, and, sometimes, braille;
• “Legally blind” indicates that a person has less than 20/200 vision in the
better eye or a very limited field of vision (20 degrees at its widest point);
and
• Totally blind students, who learn via braille or other non-visual media.
Visual impairment is the consequence of a functional loss of vision, rather
than the eye disorder itself. Eye disorders which can lead to visual
impairments can include retinal degeneration, albinism, cataracts, and
glaucoma, muscular problems that result in visual disturbances, corneal
disorders, diabetic retinopathy, congenital disorders, and infection.
6.7.1 Characteristics
The effect of visual problems on a child’s development depends on the severity,
type of loss, age at which the condition appears, and overall functioning level of the
child. Many children who have multiple disabilities may also have visual impairments
resulting in motor, cognitive, and/or social developmental delays. A young child with
visual impairments has little reason to explore the interesting objects in the environment
and, thus, may miss opportunities to have experiences to learn. This lack of exploration
may continue until learning becomes motivating or until intervention begins. Because the
child cannot see parents or peers, he or she may be unable to imitate social behavior or
under- stand nonverbal cues. Visual disabilities can create obstacles to a growing child’s
independence.
6.7.2 Educational Implications
Children with visual impairments can be assessed early to benefit from early
intervention programs, when applicable. Technology in the form of computers and low-
vision optical and video aids enable many partially sighted, low vision, and blind children
to participate in regular class activities. Large print materials, books on tape, and braille
books are available. Students with visual impairments may need additional help with
special equipment and modifications in the regular curriculum to emphasize listening
skills, communication, orientation and mobility, vocation/career options, and daily living
skills. Students with low vision or those who are legally blind may need help in using
their residual vision more efficiently and in working with special aids and materials.
Students who have visual impairments combined with other types of disabilities have a
greater need for an interdisciplinary approach and may require greater emphasis on self-
care and daily living skills.

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 6.8 HEARING IMPAIRMENT
Hearing impairment refers to students who have an impairment in hearing,
whether permanent or fluctuating, that has a negative impact on their educational
performance but is not considered deafness (Federal Register, section 300.7) Hearing
impairments may be present at birth or acquired at any time during a person's life. Early
detection of a hearing impairment can prevent or minimize the impact of the impairment
on the overall development of a person (Batshaw, 1997). Most students with hearing
impairments can use speech as the main source for acquiring language (Hardman et al.,
1990). The social integration of students with hearing impairment or deafness varies.
6.8.1 Identification
The inability to hear and understand may isolate some students from their peers.
Some people with hearing impairments are active in communities specifically intended to
provide mutual support among those with hearing impairment or deafness. Students with
hearing impairment or deafness may experience difficulties with articulation of language.
This may make it difficult for them to communicate and socialize with their peers
Students with hearing impairment or deafness may use a telecommunication device to
communicate over long distances or a teletypewriter and printer to communicate over the
phone. They may also use technology such as e-mail to communicate over long distances.
Students with hearing impairment may require assistive devices such as hearing aids,
which amplify sound, to facilitate oral communication skills.
6.9 SPEECH DISABILITIES
There are many kinds of speech and language disorders that can affect children.
There are four major areas in which these impairments can be noticed. These are the
areas of:
6.9.1 Articulation
Speech impairments where the child produces sounds incorrectly (e.g., lisp,
difficulty articulating certain sounds, such as “l” or “r”). Problems saying’s’, 'z, 'r', 'l' and
'th' are common in functional speech disorders. If they use the term at all, speech-
language pathologist (SLP)/ speech and language therapist (SLT) usually use the lay
term 'lisp' to refer to a difficulty achieving the correct tongue position when pronouncing
the /s/ and /z/ sounds.
A lisp is a Functional Speech Disorder (FSD), and a functional speech disorder is
a difficulty learning to make a specific speech sound, or a few specific speech sounds.
The word 'functional' means that the cause of the disorder is not known. Indeed, in some
literature FSDs are referred to as 'speech delay of unknown origin' or 'speech disorder of
unknown origin' which may persist into adolescence and adulthood as 'residual errors'.
They can be treated successfully, by SLP/ SLT in motivated children and adults.
271
6.9.2 Fluency
Speech impairments where a child’s flow of speech is disrupted by sounds,
syllables, and words that are repeated, prolonged, or avoided and where there may be
silent blocks or inappropriate inhalation, exhalation, or phonation patterns.
6.9.3 Voice
Voice is the sound that’s produced when air from the lungs pushes through the
voice box in the throat (also called the larynx), making the vocal folds within vibrate.
From there, the sound generated travels up through the spaces of the throat, nose, and
mouth, and emerges as our “voice.” A voice disorder involves problems with the pitch,
loudness, resonance, or quality of the voice. The voice may be hoarse, raspy, or harsh.
For some, it may sound quite nasal; others might seem as if they are “stuffed up.” People
with voice problems often notice changes in pitch, loss of voice, loss of endurance, and
sometimes a sharp or dull pain associated with voice use.
6.9.4 Language
Language has to do with meanings, rather than sounds. A language disorder
refers to an impaired ability to understand and/or use words in context. A child may have
an expressive language disorder (difficulty in expressing ideas or needs), a receptive
language disorder (difficulty in understanding what others are saying), or a mixed
language disorder (which involves both).
Some characteristics of language disorders include:
 improper use of words and their meanings,
 inability to express ideas,
 inappropriate grammatical patterns,
 reduced vocabulary, and
 inability to follow directions
Children may hear or see a word but not be able to understand its meaning. They
may have trouble getting others to understand what they are trying to communicate.
These symptoms can easily be mistaken for other disabilities such as autism or learning
disabilities, so it’s very important to ensure that the child receives a thorough evaluation
by a certified speech-language pathologist.

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 ACTIVITY
 Identify the speech problems from given unit and investigate the student who
face these types of difficulties.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

Observe any two classes in your school of same level and try to find difference in
problems faced by students in both classes.

A B

SELF-ASSESSMENT
1. Which type of difficulties are time constraint. Explain.
2. Do the problems faced by students vary according to the situation and
conditions? Investigate and explain.
3. Enlist the problems of student which may occur in daily classroom teaching.
Suggest ways to handle these problems.

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common-behavior-problems-in-the-classroom#gsc.tab=0
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school-that-lead-to-counseling
 http://www.sccjr.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/SCCJR-What-is-crime.pdf
 http://speech-language-therapy.com/index.php?view=article&id=86:lisp
Retrieved 29 May 2017
 U.S. Department of Education. (2010, December). Twenty-ninth annual report to
Congress on the Implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education
Act: 2007. Online at: http://www2.ed.gov/about/reports/annual/osep/2007/parts-
b-c/index.html

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UNIT - 7

CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
SKILLS

Written by: Muhammad Bilal Malik

Reviewed by: Ms. Tooba Saleem
Dr. Sidra Rizwan

275
 CONTENTS
Introduction 277
Objectives 277
7.1 Classroom Management as related to Teaching 278
7.2 Basic Concepts Related to Classroom Management 279
7.2.1 Classroom Management 279
7.2.2 Control 279
7.3 Types of Classroom Management Techniques 280
7.3.1 Behavior reminder 280
7.3.2 Academic adjustment 280
7.3.3 Environmental adjustment 281
7.3.4 Warning 281
7.3.5 Time-out 281
7.3.6 Response cost 282
7.3.7 Behavior conference 282
7.3.8 Defusing strategies 283
7.4 Punishment 284
7.5 Classroom Climate 287
7.6 Organizational Aspect of Management 289
7.7 Personality Dimensions of Management 297
7.8 Care of Equipment and Material 298
Activity 301
Self-Assessment 302
References 303

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 INTRODUCTION
Classroom management is a term teachers use to describe the process of ensuring
that classroom lessons run smoothly despite disruptive behavior by students. The term
also implies the prevention of disruptive behavior. It is an important component of
effective teaching. If you as a teacher have your classroom strategies written down, show
consistency in following them and always plan before hand, then your students will be
less likely to find time to cause disruptions. From the start of the first day of school and
for the entire school year, you must take control of your classroom environment.
Students, parents, and the school administration should know from the beginning your
style of managing your classroom. Many teachers use different styles and techniques of
classroom management and each of them must set his/her own procedures, routines, goals
and values so that the classroom may be managed effectively. In this unit we will discuss
classroom management related to teaching, problems of classroom management,
organization, dimensions etc.

OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit prospective teachers will be able to:
1. describe the classroom management.
2. determine the classroom related problems and their solutions.
3. discuss different organizational aspects of classroom management.
4. correlate the personal dimension of classroom management.
5. analyze the essential components of classroom management.

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7.1 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT AS RELATED TO TEACHING
Classroom management is the organization of the learning environment of a
group of individuals within a classroom setting. In the early 1970s classroom
management was seen as separate from classroom instruction. Teachers' management
decisions were viewed as precursors to instruction, and were treated in the literature as if
they were content-free. The image was of a teacher first attending to classroom
management, and then beginning instruction without further reference to management
decisions. Research in the 1980s, however, demonstrated that management and
instruction are not separate, but are inextricably interwoven and complex.
A teacher's classroom-management system communicates information about the
teacher's beliefs on content and the learning process. It also confines the kinds of
instruction that will take place in a particular classroom. A classroom in which the
teacher takes complete responsibility for guiding students' actions constitutes a different
learning environment than one in which students are encouraged and taught to assume
responsibility for their own behaviors. Content will be approached and understood
differently in each of these settings. Furthermore, more intellectually demanding
academic work and activities in which students create products or encounter novel
problems require complex management decisions. This correlation between instructional
activity and management complexity further reinforces the interrelated nature of
classroom management and curriculum.
The interwoven nature of classroom management and classroom instruction is
especially easy to see from a student perspective. Students have at least two cognitive
demands on them at all times: academic task demands (understanding and working with
content) and social task demands (interacting with others concerning that content). This
means that students must simultaneously work at understanding the content and finding
appropriate and effective ways to participate in order to demonstrate that understanding.
The teacher must facilitate the learning of these academic and social tasks. Thus from the
perspective of what students need to know in order to be successful, management and
instruction cannot be separated.

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 7.2 BASIC CONCEPTS RELATED TO CLASSROOM
MANAGEMENT
7.2.1 Classroom Management
Classroom management is the process by which teachers and schools create and
maintain appropriate behavior of students in classroom settings. The purpose of
implementing classroom management strategies is to enhance prosocial behavior and
increase student academic engagement (Emmer & Sabornie, 2015; Everston &
Weinstein, 2006). Effective classroom management principles work across almost all
subject areas and grade levels (Brophy, 2006; Lewis, et al., 2006).
Classroom management systems are effective because they increase student
success by creating an orderly learning environment that enhances students' academic
skills and competencies, as well as their social and emotional development. Classroom
management systems are most effective when they adhere to three basic principles
(Brophy, 2006, pp. 39-40):
 Emphasize student expectations for behavior and learning.
 Promote active learning and student involvement.
 Identify important student behaviors for success.
More specifically:
 What behaviors are required to reach the goals of learning activities?
 What implications does a particular learning activity have for student roles?
 How will the teacher prepare students to take on these roles?
7.2.2 Control
Control, or controlling, is one of the managerial functions like planning,
organizing, staffing and directing. It is an important function because it helps to check the
errors and to take the corrective action so that deviation from standards are minimized
and stated goals of the organization are achieved in a desired manner.
According to modern concepts, control is a foreseeing action whereas earlier
concept of control was used only when errors were detected. Control in management
means setting standards, measuring actual performance and taking corrective action.
The Organizational Control Process. The control process involves carefully collecting
information about a system, process, person, or group of people in order to make
necessary decisions about each. Managers set up control systems that consist of four key
steps: Establish standards to measure performance.

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 7.3 TYPES OF CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
TECHNIQUES
Teachers who can draw on a range of responses when dealing with common
classroom misbehaviors are more likely to keep those students in the classroom, resulting
in fewer disruptions to instruction, enhanced teacher authority, and better learning
outcomes for struggling students (Sprick, Borgmeier, & Nolet, 2002). A good organizing
tool for teachers is to create a classroom menu that outlines a range of response options
for behavior management and discipline. Teachers are able to assert positive classroom
control when they apply such a behavior management menu consistently and flexibly--
choosing disciplinary responses that match each student's presenting concerns (Marzano,
Marzano, & Pickering, 2003).
Teachers can use these categories as a framework for organizing their own
effective strategies for managing students’ behavioral problems.
7.3.1 Behavioral Reminder
A behavioral reminder is a brief, neutral prompt to help the student to remember
and follow classroom behavioral expectations (Simonsen, Fairbanks, Briesch, Myers &
Sugai, 2008).
When to Use: This strategy is used when the student appears to be distracted or
otherwise requires a simple reminder of expected behaviors.
Examples: Here are examples of behavioral reminders:
The teacher makes eye contact with the student who is misbehaving and points to
a classroom rules chart.
The teacher approaches the off-task student to remind him/her of the specific
academic task the student should be doing.
The teacher proactively provides behavioral reminders just when the student
needs to use them.
7.3.2. Academic Adjustment
An academic adjustment is a change made to the student's academic task to
improve behaviors. Such changes could include the amount of work assigned, provision
of support to the student during the work, giving additional time to complete the work,
etc. (Kern, Bambara & Fogt, 2002).
When to Use: Academic adjustments can be useful when the teacher judges that
the student's problem behaviors are triggered or exacerbated by the required academic
task(s).
Examples: Here are examples of academic adjustments:
The teacher pre-teaches challenging vocabulary to the student prior to a large-
group discussion.
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 The teacher adjusts the difficulty of the assigned academic work to match the
student's abilities ('instructional match').
The teacher allows the student additional time to complete an academic task.
7.3.3. Environmental Adjustment
An environmental adjustment is a change made to some aspect of the student's
environment to improve behaviors (Kern & Clemens, 2007).
When to Use: This strategy is used when the teacher judges that an environmental
element (e.g., distracting activities, proximity of another student) is contributing to the
student's problem behavior.
Examples: Here are examples of environmental adjustments:
The teacher moves the student's seat away from distracting peers.
The teacher collects distracting objects from a student (e.g., small toys,
paperclips) during a work session.
The student is given a schedule of the day to prepare her for upcoming academic
activities.
7.3.4. Warning
A warning is a teacher statement informing the student that continued
misbehavior will be followed by a specific disciplinary consequence (Simonsen,
Fairbanks, Briesch, Myers & Sugai, 2008).
When to Use: A warning is appropriate when the teacher judges (a) that the student has
control over his or her behavior and (b) that a pointed reminder of impending behavioral
consequences may improve the student's behavior. Whenever possible, it is
recommended that proactive strategies such as providing behavioral reminders or
eliminating environmental/academic triggers be tried before using warnings.
Examples: Here are examples of warnings:
The teacher tells the student that if the problem behavior continues, the student
will lose the opportunity for free time later that day.
The student is warned that continued misbehavior will result in the teacher's
calling the parent.
7.3.5. Time out
Time-out (from reinforcement) is a brief removal of the student from the setting
due to problematic behaviors (Yell, 1994).
When to Use: Time-out from reinforcement can be effective in situations when the
student would prefer to be in the classroom setting rather than in the time-out setting.
Time-out sessions should typically be brief (e.g., 3-10 minutes). Because time-out is a
punishment procedure, the teacher should first ensure that appropriate, less intrusive
efforts to improve student behavior (e.g., behavior reminders, warnings, elimination of
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behavioral triggers) have been attempted before using it. If a teacher finds that a student
does not improve behaviors despite several repetitions of time-out, other behavior
management strategies should be tried instead.
Preparation: If time-out is to occur within the classroom, the teacher should
identify the time-out location in advance and ensure that students placed there can be
easily observed but are sufficiently removed from the current classroom activity. If the
time-out location is out of the classroom, the teacher should arrange with other adults in
advance (e.g., participating teachers whose classrooms may be time-out locations) to
work out details for students to enter and exit time-out and for supervising students
during time-out.
Examples: Here are examples of time-out from reinforcement:
The teacher sends a student to a study carrel in the corner of the classroom for 5 minutes
for misbehavior.
The teacher sends a misbehaving student to a neighboring classroom for 10
minutes, where the student is to sit alone and complete classwork.
7.3.6. Response Cost
Response cost is the taking away of privileges or other valued elements ('cost') in
response to student misbehavior (DuPaul & Stoner, 2002)
When to Use: Response cost can be an effective response to misbehavior, provided that
the student actually values the privilege or element being taken away. Because response
cost is a punishment procedure, the teacher should first ensure that appropriate, less
intrusive efforts to improve student behavior (e.g., behavior reminders, warnings,
elimination of behavioral triggers) have been attempted before using it.
Preparation: Prior to implementing response cost, the teacher may want to create a series
of 'privileges' in the classroom that students find motivating and do not want to lose (e.g.,
point systems for good behavior; free time).
Examples: Here are examples of response-cost:
Because of misbehavior, a student loses access to classroom free time at the end
of the day.
A student is given 5 good-behavior points at the start of class--and then has one
deducted for each incident of misbehavior.
7.3.7. Behavior Conference
A behavior conference is a brief meeting between teacher and student to discuss
the student's problem behavior(s) (Fields, 2004). While the structure and content of a
behavior conference will vary based on circumstances, it will typically include some or
all of the following elements:

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 Description of the problem behavior. The teacher describes the student's behavior
and explains why it is presenting a problem in the classroom.
Open-ended questions and student input. The teacher asks open-ended questions
to fully understand what factors are contributing to the problem behavior.
Problem-solving. Teacher and student discuss solutions to the problem behavior
and agree to a plan.
Disciplinary reminder. If appropriate, the teacher concludes the conference by
informing the student of the disciplinary consequence that will occur if the problem
behavior continues.
When to Use: The behavior conference is a useful tool for the teacher who:
Wishes to better understand reasons of the student problem behavior before acting.
Wants to model that it is better for the student to communicate his or her needs to the
teacher through discussion than by engaging in acting-out behaviors.
Examples: Here are examples of a behavior conference:
A teacher approaches the desk of a student who appears upset to explore what
triggered that student's current emotional distress and to figure out how best to respond to
the situation.
A non-compliant student is taken aside by the teacher for a brief in-class
conference, in which the teacher establishes that the student is in control of her behavior,
states the behavioral expectations for the classroom, and informs the student that she will
be given a disciplinary referral if her behaviors do not improve immediately.
7.3.8. Defusing Techniques
Defusing techniques are any teacher actions taken to calm a student or otherwise
defuse a situation with the potential for confrontation or emotional escalation (Daly &
Sterba, 2011).
When to Use: When the teacher judges that the student's negative emotions are a
significant contributor to the problem behaviors, defusing techniques are appropriate to
stabilize the situation.
Examples: Here are examples of defusing techniques:
The teacher temporarily removes academic work from a student who is reacting
negatively to the assignment.
The teacher encourages a student to sit in a quiet corner of the room for a few
minutes to collect herself before conferencing with the teacher.
The teacher sends a student to the guidance counselor to discuss the issue(s)
causing him anger.

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 7.4 PUNISHMENT
An eye for an eye is one of the strongest human instincts, but reciprocating harm
is not always the best course of action. Punishment sometimes works to condition people
not to repeat misdeeds, and threats of negative consequences can act as disincentives, but
our ability to rise above our base instinct for revenge and judge each situation objectively
and with an eye toward rehabilitation is one of the highest achievements of humanity and
of civilization.
1. Impositions
Being assigned to write, “I will not talk in class”, 100 times, neatly, on lined
paper, is a punishment that really gets to your nerves! You just cannot get away with this
one by any means. It makes your hands go fatigued and also makes you suffer
humiliation at the hands of the class.
2. Taking away privileges
Whenever a fun trip or a movie is organized, the mischievous students are
singled out and not allowed to go along with the class missing out on all the fun and
excitement. This is a serious and effective punishment that can transform a student’s
naughty devil-like mind into an angelic one so that he/she does not miss out on the trip
and get bored at home the next time.
3. Physical Punishments
These are some of the best kinds of punishment given to the whole class together
making it a rather fun-filled experience than a punishment. I still miss these punishments
that we used to get in school and the way we enjoyed and laughed together while
standing in punishment. “United we stand, Divided we fall” used to be the class’s mantra.
Be it standing on the benches or hands in the air or even bags on our heads, we braved it
all together. Witnessing ear pulls as well as hair pulls was a common routine. The
teacher’s frustrated face used to make us giggle aggravating her anger and irritation.
4. Kneeling down on the floor
There are several types of corporal punishments that the students have to face in
school. Once the teacher’s wrath is earned, nobody is spared. Moreover, this one seems to
be the teacher’s personal favorite! My math teacher used to make us squat on the floor all
the while holding our ears. This particular punishment was better displayed on the school
ground for all the students to see and snigger on, with the crackling sun rays radiating
their warmth sucking out all the energy from our imbecile bodies. However, the sheer
fear of this punishment made us regular in doing our maths homework.

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5. Time Out from Class
Out of My Class! I do not want to see your face. Remember your Teacher’s
words? I cannot understand what a purpose getting out can serve, but it was a very good
punishment for most problems, especially for the students. I loved it! One can even roam
out of the class while in the punishment as the teacher hardly notices. I still wonder if this
seriously is a punishment!
6. Public Humiliation
Teachers are definitely the people who can devise plans to humiliate you in the
worst possible ways. Public humiliation can teach the students toughest lessons in the
easiest way. Imagine yourself standing in punishment in front of the class. Sitting on the
floor in front of the principal’s office from where the whole school passes can make you
numb with shame. Moreover, your friends pass comments and laugh at you. Their
laughter is often accompanied with comic remarks.
7. Detention
Making a student stay back after school or during lunch time to do extra work.
This was very common in my school. An entire day in the class doing nothing at all and
wondering how to get out. This one was similar to getting detained in a jail and
pondering over ways to get out just like a mischievous criminal. I never understood why
the teacher took the biggest problem makers and gave them a way to get out of class. This
punishment was my favorite way of getting rid of the teacher and studies and getting
away with any act of meanness.
8. Calling parents
Parents are not supposed to know of your antics in school. Facing your parents in
front of your teacher is a child’s nightmare. It is the most formidable thing that a student
can experience. We used to beg our teachers for not calling our parents and could do
anything in exchange. However, most of the times our pleas fell on deaf ears. We had to
face humiliation not only in school but also at home. Everything, right from our hangouts
to our telephonic conversations was snapped.
9. Principal’s Office
Another dreadful punishment that has the potential to leave you in tears. Walking
down the empty hallway to the big boss of the school is normally enough to calm down
most kids. Plus, Parents were usually called, making the trip to the office even more
foreboding. Who can forget the constant threats of suspension and expulsion? Your world
seems to come to an end once you are in the principal’s office. Heart seems to throb at a
faster rate and the brain keeps on churning new excuses in order to get rid of the
punishment and the scolding. Your breath becomes heavy and limbs become numb.

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Surely, the school principal is equivalent to a devil in a child’s dream. Fingers remain
crossed lest you should get that punishment.
10. SLAP
Undoubtedly, punishment remolds our character and shapes our lives but
excessive, harsh and cruel punishment can take away the essence of that very character
and make us meek, timid and docile. Punishments can result in stunted Psychological
growth at times.

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 7.5 CLASSROOM CLIMATE
Ambrose, Bridges, DiPietro, Lovett & Norman. (2010) define classroom climate
as “the intellectual, social, emotional, and physical environments in which our students
learn. Climate is determined by a constellation of interacting factors that include faculty-
student interaction, the tone instructors set, instances of stereotyping or tokenism, the
course demographics (for example, relative size of racial and other social groups enrolled
in the course), student-student interaction, and the range of perspectives represented in
the course content and materials.”
Why is classroom climate important?
Classroom climate is affected not only by blatant instances of inequality directed
towards a person or group of people, but also by smaller, more subtle "micro-inequities"
that can accumulate to have significant negative impacts on learning (Hall, 1982).
Incivilities that are not addressed properly not only negatively impact learning within the
course in which it is experienced, but may also negatively influence a student's success at
an institution (Hirschy & Braxton, 2004).
What factors influence classroom climate?
Stereotypes cause alienation and marginalization among those who are the target
of unfair generalizations. In fact, just the threat of stereotypes, what Steele & Aronson
(1995) tokened "stereotype threat," can impact learning negatively. Students who have
experienced stereotypes or expect to be viewed or judged in a certain way may encounter
tensions and cognitive disturbances that interfere with learning.
The tone of a class environment is influenced strongly by the instructor. Studies
show that students approach faculty who express encouragement more so than faculty
who come off as punitive. Tone can be set by instructors through their interactions with
students and through other modes of communication including syllabus.
Student-student interactions during and outside of class affect the overall climate.
However, the ways in which instructors and those in authority deal with negative
interactions has more of an impact on student learning.
Faculty-student interactions also play a role. Students who felt that their
instructor was approachable, had concern for minority student issues and treated students
as individuals and with respect reported a better course climate (Astin, 1993).
Content includes the course materials, examples and metaphors, case studies and project
assignments used to illustrate the ideas being taught. Content that includes a variety of
perspectives or is representative of multiple views is more conducive to a positive
climate.

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How can you know if the classroom climate is productive?
In addition to being reflective about the events that take place in your class on a
regular basis, there are techniques you can use to gauge your classroom's climate. Ask for
feedback directly from your students on their experiences in your course. This also serves
to heighten students' awareness of their own study practices.

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 7.6 ORGANIZATIONAL ASPECT OF MANAGEMENT
Organizational management is a common management style for modern small
businesses. The organizational method allows managers to break down the entire
operation of a department into several phases. Dividing operational functions into
sections allows management to obtain a clear picture of what the goals of a department
are and how to implement the goals most effectively. It also allows managers to respond
rapidly to factors that affect the internal or external expectations of company.
Planning
The planning process of the organizational management structure is the first step
for management. In the planning phase, a manager sets goals for his department and
defines the actions that must transpire to reach those goals. This phase may involve plans
for revenue and expense management, inventory control, labor and regular daily tasks for
the department. Managers use the plans created in this process as a foundation for all
other aspects of the organizational management system.
Organization
In the organization step, managers use the plans created in the planning phase to
organize the execution of goals. Managers allocate responsibilities to various team
members according to the skills, labor hours and job definition of each employee. Some
employees receive authority to delegate additional responsibilities to other team
members. This type of organization relieves undue burden from the primary management
team and allows each department within a company to work more efficiently.
Leadership
The leadership function of the organizational management structure may be
overlooked by some companies. However, this aspect is vitally important to successful
management. An ideal leader is a person who has the ability to connect with employees
and others who are instrumental in facilitating the goals of the organization. Leaders
serve a purpose other than simply creating and managing a plan. In addition to the ability
to relate positively to other employees, an ideal leader also possesses qualities of
integrity, drive and industry knowledge; and is confident in their leadership missions. A
manager must carefully consider these qualities when he selects leaders within the
organization.
Resource Control
The control process is the final stage of the organizational management system.
In this step, managers set controls to analyze the progress and effectiveness of each plan
made during the planning phase. A control is a system that uses data compilations to
determine if goals are met. If results are inefficient or show over-achievement based on
initial plans, adjustments can be made to the organization process to ensure resources are
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used in the most effective manner. Data for the control process may be delivered in
company financial statements, labor reports, internal and external complaint systems or
regulatory agencies.
Classroom Management
Effective teachers create focused and nurturing classrooms that result in
increased student learning (Marzano et al., 2003; Shellard & Protheroe, 2000). These
teachers teach and rehearse rules and procedures with students, anticipate students' needs,
possess a plan to orient new students, and offer clear instructions to students (McLeod et
al., 2003; Emmer et al., 1980). They use a minimum number of rules to ensure safety and
productive interaction in the classroom, and they rely on routines to maintain a smoothly
running classroom (McLeod et al. 2003). In fact, it has been noted that classroom
management skills are essential in a classroom for a teacher to get anything done (Brophy
& Evertson, 1976). In some ways, classroom management is like salt in a recipe; when it
is present it is not noticed, but when it is missing, diners will ask for it.
Rules
Virtually everything that involves interactions among people requires rules.
Webster's dictionary defines a rule as “a fixed principle that determines conduct”
(McKechnie, 1983, p. 1585). Let's deconstruct this definition: a rule is “fixed” meaning
that it does not change regardless of the situation. In reality, we know that rules have to
undergo occasional modifications in the everyday life of a classroom. Nonetheless, rules
establish the boundaries for behavior (Nakamura, 2000) and consistency in their
implementation is essential to effective classroom management.
Effective teachers have a minimum number of classroom rules, which tend to
focus on expectations of how to act toward one another, maintain a safe environment, and
participate in learning (Marzano, Marzano & Pickering., 2003, Thompson, 2002). These
teachers offer clear explanations of the rules, model the rules, rehearse the expectations
with students, and offer students opportunities to be successful in meeting the
expectations (Covino & Iwanicki, 1996). There is no magic number of rules that govern a
classroom; rather, it is the clear establishment of fair, reasonable, enforceable, and
consistently applied rules that makes a difference in classrooms.
Effective teachers have a sense of classroom tempo and student harmony such
that they are aware of when an intervention may be needed to prevent a problem
(Johnson, 1997). Often, teachers use nonverbal cues, proximity, and redirection to
prevent misbehavior. These techniques typically allow the momentum of the instruction
to continue and refocus the student; however, there are times when a stronger
intervention is necessary. When a rule is broken, an effective teacher is prepared to
address the problem. Effective teachers tend to react in several ways, including the
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following: positive reinforcement that points to the desired behavior, consequences that
punish the negative behavior, a combination of reinforcement and consequences, or
indirectly responding to the behavior such that the student is reminded of why a rule is
important. What an effective teacher does not do is react to an entire class for a rule
infraction by a single student.
Routines
While they are more flexible than rules, routines or procedures are specific ways
of doing things that, for the most part, vary little during the course of the day or the year.
Classrooms typically require many routines to operate efficiently and effectively
(McLeod et al., 2003). For example, routines commonly include how to enter and leave
the classroom, take attendance, indicate lunch selection, secure materials, dispose of
trash, label work, turn in assignments, make a transition during or between instructional
activities, get to safety during drills and actual emergencies, and change from one activity
or location to another. In essence, routines shape the classroom climate.
Effective teachers use routines for daily tasks more than their ineffective
counterparts (Stronge, Tucker, & Ward, 2003). They invest the time at the start of the
school year to teach the routines. By establishing and practicing routines that require little
monitoring, teachers ensure that the focus of the classroom is more squarely on
instruction (Covino & Iwanicki, 1996; McLeod et al., 2003; Shellard & Protheroe, 2000).
Effective teachers frequently provide students with cues to remind them of acceptable
behavior, and effective teachers are good at organizing and maintaining a positive
classroom environment (Education USA Special Report).
The establishment of routines allows for flexibility. For example, the teacher may
not rehearse with students what should occur if a new student joins the class, but might
adapt the routine used for greeting classroom guests (Emmer et al., 1980). Additionally,
routines empower students to be more responsible for their own behavior and learning in
the classroom (Covino & Iwanicki, 1996). When classroom management issues arise, the
teacher has procedures to address the concern in an efficient, fair, and consistent way
(Shellard & Protheroe, 2000, Thomas & Montgomery, 1998). Thus, the result of
established procedures is more time for teaching and learning.
Classroom Organization
Classroom management and organization are intertwined. While rules and
routines influence student behavior, classroom organization affects the physical elements
of the classroom, making it a more productive environment for its users. How the
classroom environment is organized influences the behavior in it. For example, actions as
simple as color-coding folders, establishing fixed locations for lab supplies, maintaining
folders for students to pick up missed work after being absent, keeping extra copies of
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“Back to School Night” items to share with new students, and designating specific places
for other classroom supplies can have a dramatic effect on classroom organization and,
consequently, on student learning. While these procedures and a multitude like them are
simple matters, they nonetheless can be essential components for a smoothly operating
classroom.
Classroom organization is evident in a room even if no one is present. Furniture
arrangements, location of materials, displays, and fixed elements are all part of
organization. Effective teachers decorate the room with student work, they arrange the
furniture to promote interaction as appropriate, and they have comfortable areas for
working (Kohn, 1996). They also consider student needs in arranging the room by
leaving space for wheelchairs to maneuver; having walkways so students can access
materials, pencil sharpeners, and the trashcan with minimal disturbance to others; and
organizing in such a way as to allow the teacher to freely move around the room to
monitor student progress (McLeod et al., 2003).
Teachers are observers of behavior and understand the rhythm of the classroom.
Placing materials near the pencil sharpener may seem like a good idea, until one
considers that at the start of a lesson this area may become congested with some students
retrieving materials for their group and others waiting to use the pencil sharpener.
However, the pencil sharpener and the trashcan may be a good pairing if the pencil
sharpener tends to break regularly, spilling its contents on the floor; this way shavings
fall into the trash instead. Effective teachers think about the little details that enhance the
use of available space in the classroom as well as the big issues.
Expectations for Student Behavior
Attending to issues of classroom management and organization provides the
foundation for having high expectations for student behavior. Effective teachers have
higher expectations for how students are to conduct themselves in the classroom than
their less effective colleagues (Stronge et al., 2003). They are better managers of student
behavior (Emmer et al., 1980). They establish relationships with their students in which
high levels of cooperation and dominance (i.e., giving students a sense of purpose and
guidance) are balanced, resulting in an optimal relationship (Marzano et al., 2003).
Effective teachers teach expectations to students and reinforce the desired behaviors with
their verbal and nonverbal cues. Another characteristic of effective teachers is that they
hold students individually accountable (Kohn, 1996) and, if necessary, use intervention
strategies to help students learn the desired behavior (McLeod et al., 2003). An
exploratory study of effective and ineffective third-grade teachers found that ineffective
teachers had five times as many disruptive events in an hour when compared with their
more effective counterparts (Stronge, 2003). Through fair and consistent discipline,
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teachers reinforce their expectations of students and create a classroom that is focused on
instruction.
The Physical Environment
Management was defined as the actions taken to create an environment where learning
and success are possible. One of the first aspects related to the learning environment is
the physical environment. Savage & Savage (2010) argue that, "Every activity is shaped
by the physical environment" (p. 66).
Dimensions of the Physical Environment

Source:http://classroommanagementdiscipline.weebly.com/the-physical-
enviornment.html

The Spatial Dimension

The spatial dimension of the classroom is important because it is the setting of
education. It dictates the types of activities that are possible, as well as the types of
behaviors that are possible. For example, if there are two doors in a kindergarten
classroom, the teacher must keep an eye on both doors during the first week of school
because that creates two ways that scared students can escape. Aspects of the spatial
dimension as according to Savage & Savage (2010) include:
Size of the room
Shape of the room
Location of doors
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Location of windows
Movement of individuals within the space
Although teachers cannot change the size of the room, or the location of doors
and windows, teachers must be aware of the spatial dimension and use it to their
advantage. Reason being, the spatial dimension creates behavior settings.
Behavioral Settings
Savage & Savage (2010) argue that, "The concept of a behavioral setting refers
to environments that are designed to influence the behaviors or actions of those who
occupy the setting" (p. 67). Environments communicate expectations to those who come
into it. For example, if you walk into a funeral, the dim lights, soft music, and rows of
seats indicate that you are expected to remain quiet, respectful, and have a seat.
However, when you walk into Disneyland, the loud upbeat music, wide open spaces
(depending on the day), and colorful decorations indicate to you that this a time to enjoy
yourself as much as possible. Therefore, teachers needs to set up their classroom in such
a way that it communicates to students what is expected of them. In a classroom, first
impressions are extremely important. Ways in which teachers can alter behavioral
settings, as according to Savage & Savage (2010), are displayed in the graphic organizer
below.
Arranging Student Desks
The arrangement depends on the type of interaction desired for instruction. For
example, if you want students to participate in a discussion or cooperative learning
groups, you would put students’ desks in tables. If you are focused on independent work,
you do not want to have students facing on another at their desks, and would therefore
create rows that all face the front of the classroom. On an individual level, teachers must
consider the self-control ability levels of the students as their seating is arranged. If a
student lacks self-control in socializing, it would be best not to place that student in the
back of the classroom next to a friend.
Student Density
Student density is the number of individuals that occupy a given space. If a
classroom is too crowded, students might feel threatened by an invasion of personal
space. It is suggested that this causes more deviant behavior because there is a decrease
in privacy and an increase in the ability socially interact (Savage & Savage, 2010). These
aspects are determined by the cultural context of the students. Therefore, teachers should
always keep an eye of caution out for students that may be signaling signs of anxiousness
or stress due to a high student density. If this occurs, teachers can rearrange classroom
furniture (filing cabinets, student and teacher desks) in order to help students not feel so
crowded.
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Action Zone
The action zone is the area closest to the teacher's position. It is unlikely that
students are goofing off in the action zone, which tends to be where the most students are
involved and attentive at any given time. Teachers can use this to their advantage by
assigning students who are struggling behaviorally and academically seats in the action
zone. Because the action zone is limited when a teacher does not move throughout a
lesson, Savage & Savage (2010) suggest teaching from different spots in the classroom
because it increases the number of students who occupy the action zone. Please see
Mobility and Proximity.
Teacher Proximity
As discussed in the action zone, teachers should stay as close to as many
students as possible. This allows for an increase in teacher monitoring of students and
keeps students on task. In order to remain close to the largest amount of students for the
greatest amount of time, teachers should utilize proximity. An example would be
rearranging the furniture to increase the number of students in the front row.
Traffic Patterns
When arranging classroom furniture, the traffic patterns of the students and
teacher need to be considered. Both students and teachers need to be able to enter and
exit the classroom quickly, have easy access to classroom materials, and move around
without disturbing other students. Isle ways should be large and free of obstructions.
Teachers should have easy access to all student desks so that all students can be
monitored.
The Teacher's Desk
All good teachers know that teaching should never occur from a seated position
at the teacher's desk. Therefore, in order to keep in accordance with this and previous
spatial dimensions, the teacher's desk should be placed in an unobtrusive spot. This
includes the back of or rear of the room. Because it will be out of the way, the teacher
will be able to utilize mobility, proximity, and student monitoring. It also creates a
private area of the classroom for one-on-one teacher-student conversations.
Teacher Movement
In order to keep as many students in the action zone for as long as possible,
teachers must develop the habit of constantly moving about the classroom. Furniture
should be arranged with the mindset of being at any desk within a matter of seconds.
That way, a teacher can quickly and effectively reach student desks should a problem
occur or a student need assistance. Please see Mobility and Proximity.

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Activity Boundaries
Different parts of the classroom are designated for different types of activities.
For example, students do not participate in learning centers at the back counter near the
kitchen sink. Rather, learning centers should take place in groups of desks. Space can
and should be arranged for different activities such as independent and group work.
Believe it or not, creating activity boundaries by clearly identifying the type of activity to
be performed in a given space increases student security, which helps them maintain self-
control. For example, teachers can create a reading corner for students to go to when
they have finished an assignment early. (Savage & Savage, 2010).

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 7.7 PERSONALITY DIMENSIONS OF MANAGEMENT
The concept of the "Big Five" personality traits is taken from psychology and
includes five broad domains that describe personality. The Big Five Personality Traits
model is based on findings from several independent researchers, and it dates back to the
late 1950s. But the model as we know it now began to take shape in the 1990s.
Lewis Goldberg, a researcher at the Oregon Research Institute, is credited with
naming the model "The Big Five." It is now considered to be an accurate and respected
personality scale, which is routinely used by businesses and in psychological research.
The Big Five Personality Traits Model measures five key dimensions of people's
personalities:
1. Openness: sometimes called "Intellect" or "Imagination," this measures your
level of creativity , and your desire for knowledge and new experiences.
2. Conscientiousness: this looks at the level of care that you take in your life
and work. If you score highly in conscientiousness , you'll likely be
organized and thorough, and know how to make plans and follow them
through. If you score low, you'll likely be lax and disorganized.
3. Extraversion/Introversion: this dimension measures your level of
sociability. Are you outgoing or quiet , for instance? Do you draw energy
from a crowd, or do you find it difficult to work and communicate with other
people?
4. Agreeableness: this dimension measures how well you get on with other
people. Are you considerate, helpful and willing to compromise? Or do you
tend to put your needs before others'?
5. Natural Reactions: sometimes called "Emotional Stability" or
"Neuroticism," this measures emotional reactions. Do you react negatively or
calmly to bad news? Do you worry obsessively about small details, or are
you relaxed in stressful situations?
These five factors are assumed to represent the basic structure behind all
personality traits. They were defined and described by several different researchers
during multiple periods of research.
Employees are sometimes tested on the Big Five personality traits in collaborative
situations to determine what strong personality traits they can add to a group dynamic.
Businesses need to understand their people as well as their operations and processes.
Understanding the personality components that drive the employee behavior is a very
useful informational data point for management.

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 7.8 CARE OF EQUIPMENT AND MATERIAL
High quality early learning and child care programs provide safe, stimulating
environments that are warm, comfortable and aesthetically pleasing. Children are active
learners who use the physical environment in a direct, hands-on manner. The physical
environment, as well as all the materials and equipment are part of a child’s learning
experience. The schedule, space, interaction with others and daily routines all provide
learning opportunities. The learning environment should provide a rich assortment of
materials and equipment for children to develop socially, cognitively and physically.
Children's appreciation for classroom objects will be heightened as they clean and care
for them.
1. Get Organized
Place pictures or written labels on low open shelves so that children know
exactly where things belong. Store loose manipulatives (wooden beads, laces, play dough
cutters) in see-through plastic bins.
2. Establish Rules
For instance: Four children at a table to prevent overcrowding; put the puzzles in
the rack when finished; keep sand in the sandbox.
3. Use Clever Containers
Use clean, flat pizza boxes to store felt board pieces and art paper. Try tall, clear,
plastic water bottles to hold paint and long brushes at the easel. Hang stretchy woven net
bags by the door to hold playground balls.
4. Rotate Materials
Keep shelves uncluttered by putting out a few selected materials at a time.
Regularly alternate puzzles, games, and other manipulatives.
5. Recycle It
Discuss with children how to reuse scraps and damaged materials. For example,
use construction paper snippets for collages and those loose puzzle pieces as templates
that children can trace with markers.
6. Make It Fun
Add a dose of fun and humor as children care for classroom materials by singing
a song about hanging up dramatic-play clothes or inventing simple chants and rhymes
that children can use while cleaning up.
7. Talk about It
Verbalize your actions as you care for materials so children can understand your
thinking behind them. For example, say, "I'm putting the lids on these paint cups so the
paint won't spill on the floor."

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8. Share Useful Hints
Discuss cleanup tips such as washing paintbrushes in cool water so as not to
loosen the glue holding the bristles to the handle.
9. Have Safety Checks
Take children on a "safety search" around the classroom. Invite them to help you
identify objects in need of repair, including wooden blocks or trucks with splinters,
cracks, or chips.
10. Plan a Cleanup Party
Give outdoor equipment some loving care-wash the trikes, inflate tired-looking
balls, and add new sand to the sandbox.
Some general tips for classroom control

1. Love the Students

Love them -- and stand firmly against behavior that doesn't meet your
expectations or reflect their inner greatness. Too many students have
internalized a profound sense of their own inadequacy, and it is incumbent
upon the teacher to remind them of their infinite value and counteract the
many messages that they receive to the contrary. By loving the students
unconditionally, we remind them of their true worth.
The students know how a teacher feels about them. If s/he doesn't like them -
- or if s/he sees them as a behavior problem -- they know it. Even if the
teacher don't say it, they will know it. And then that student is justified in
resenting the teacher, for s/he has failed to see the beauty that exists within
that child. Maya Angelou said, "I've learned that people will forget what you
said, people will forget what you did, but people will never forget how you
made them feel."
2. Assume the Best in the Students
If a student chose not to meet one of the classroom expectations, they needed
to know that the teacher loved them but not their misbehavior. They needed
to know that the teacher cared for them and would not accept their poor
choice because it would ultimately hurt them and didn't reflect how
wonderful they truly are.
3. Praise What and When You Can
Call attention to the things the students are doing that meet your
expectations. The power of this is stunning for a number of reasons. Here are
two:

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 It enables a teacher to restate and reinforce the expectations for student
behavior in a non-negative way. By narrating on-task behavior, the teacher
enables students who may have misheard the first time to hear exactly what
the teacher expect of them. It's easier for students to meet the teacher’s
expectations when it's amply clear what those expectations are.
It shows the students that the teacher is with it, that s/he is well aware of
what's happening in the classroom. When they see and hear that the teacher
sees and hears pretty much everything, they know that s/he means business
and that even their smallest actions matter.
4. Do Sweat the Small Stuff
In those first few minutes, hours and days in the classroom, the teacher is
essentially creating a world. And the teacher wants a world in which students
do things that will keep them or put them on a path to a life replete with
meaningful opportunities. Behaviors or actions that will detract from that
world should be nipped in the bud. If the teacher only "sweats" major
misbehaviors, students will get the sense that minor misbehaviors are OK. If,
on the other hand, s/he lovingly confronts even the smallest misbehaviors,
then it will be clear to students that, inside the four walls of the classroom,
things that detract from what the teacher is trying to achieve – even in small
ways – just don’t fly.
5. Identify Yourself
Tell your students about who you are and why you're there. A classroom
where each student deeply trusts the teacher has the potential to be a great
environment for learning. To build that trust, tell your students who you are
and why you chose to be a teacher. Tell them about your background, what
you did when you were their age, and why you want to be their teacher. The
more your students know about you and your intentions, the more they'll
trust you to lead them.
6. Forge a Class Identity
Begin the year by forging a positive, collective identity as a class. During the
first few days, the teacher may often compliment the classes as a collective.
For instance, s/he may say something like, "Period 3, everyone I’m looking
at is meeting expectations." In many instances, the teacher may praise the
entire class so that they began to feel they were part of something special in
that room. They began feeling a sense of pride at being members of Period 3.
On the other hand, the teacher may choose to redirect individual students
rather than the whole class. Instead of saying, “Period 3, I'm tired of hearing
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 you talking when you shouldn’t be" -- which would introduce an
oppositional tone, creating a divide between teacher and students – the
teacher will be more successful if correcting students individually.
7. Have a Plan
As a teacher your lesson plans need to be crystal clear. You need to begin
each day with clarity about what students should know and be able to do by
the end of the class period, and every second of your day should be
purposefully moving you toward that end.

ACTIVITY
Inquire about the classroom climate:
 Pass out index cards to all students
 Prompt students to respond anonymously to one or both of the following
questions:
 I feel comfortable participating in this course: a) always b) often c) sometimes d)
rarely e) never.
 One or two things that would make me feel more comfortable in this class would
be:
 Collect the responses and study them for common themes.
 Address your findings in the next session and explain to students what changes
you will make, if any.
1. Chain notes
 Pass out blank index cards to all students.
 Explain that you want to collect honest responses to a question regarding student
learning or attention in your class.
 Take a large envelope and write a question on it.
Questions can address their reactions to your teaching, such as:
 What are you focusing on right now?
 On a scale of 1-5 how would you rate your level of
(concentration/interest/engagement) right now (5 being the highest).
 Direct students to respond anonymously to the question only when the envelope
comes to them.
 Collect the responses to tally the results and report on your findings in the next
class.
 Electronic Feedback

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 SELF-ASSESSMENT
1. How classroom management includes the concept of control? Write the
difference between management and control in your own word with suitable
examples.
2. Explain the classroom management techniques. What is your point of view, how
these all are useful in your own classroom?
3. Punishment is a component of classroom management (Agree or disagree). State
your point of view with possible reasons.
4. Explain the concept of classroom climate and its importance for teachers.
5. What is the relationship between classroom management and classroom
organization?
6. How personality dimensions of teacher impact the classroom climate?

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works: Seven research-based principles for smart teaching. San Francisco, CA:
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Austin, D. A. (1993). What Matters in College: Four Critical Years Revisited. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Cashin, W. E. (2010). Effective lectures (Idea Paper No. 46). Manhattan, Kansas: Kansas
State University, Center for Faculty Development and Evaluation.
Daly, D. L., & Sterba, M. N. (2011). Working with aggressive youth: Positive strategies
to teach self-control and prevent violence. Boys Town, NE: Boys Town Press.
DuPaul & Stoner, 2002 DuPaul, G.J., & Stoner, G. (2002). Interventions for attention
problems. In M. Shinn, H.M. Walker, & G. Stoner (Eds.) Interventions for
academic and behavioral problems II: Preventive and remedial approaches (pp.
913-938). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.
Fields, B. (2004). Breaking the cycle of office referrals and suspensions: Defensive
management. Educational Psychology in Practice, 20, 103-115.
Hall, S. (1982). The classroom climate: A chilly one for women? Washington D.C.:
Association of American Colleges.
Hirschy, A.S. & Braxton, J.M. (2004). Effects of student classroom incivilities on
students. New Directions for Teaching and Learning (99), 67-76.
Kern, L., Bambara, L., & Fogt, J. (2002). Class-wide curricular modification to improve
the behavior of students with emotional or behavioral disorders. Behavioral
Disorders, 27,317-326.
Kern, L, & Clemens, N.(2007). Antecedent strategies to promote appropriate classroom
behavior. Psychology in theSchools, 44(1), 65-75.
Marzano, R. J., Marzano, J. S., & Pickering, D. J. (2003). Classroom management that
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(Eds.) To Improve the Academy. (pp. 208-226). Jossey-Bass.

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practices in classroom management: Considerations for research to practice.
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behavior problems in secondary schools. In M. A. Shinn, H. M. Walker & G.
Stoner (Eds.), Interventions for academic and behavior problems II: Preventive and
remedial approaches (pp.373-401). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School
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Education and Treatment of Children, 17, 293-301

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UNIT - 8

MEASUREMENT AND
EVALUATION

Written by: Ms. Tooba Saleem

Reviewed by: Dr. Sidra Rizwan

305
 CONTENTS

Introduction 308
Objectives 308
8.1 Concept of Measurement and Evaluation 309
8.1.1 Measurement 309
8.1.2 Evaluation 310
8.2 Types of Tests 312
8.2.1 Standardized Achievement Tests 312
I Characteristic of standardized achievement tests 313
II Standardized achievement tests batteries 319
8.2.2 Teacher Made Test 320
I Difference between standardized and teacher made tests 322
8.3 Planning, Constructing the Teacher Made Test 323
8.3.1 General Guideline for Writing Test Items 323
8.4 Characteristics of Good Tests 326
8.4.1 Validity 326
8.4.2 Reliability 327
I Factor Influencing Reliability Measures 328
8.5 Measuring Achievement in Elementary Level 330
8.6 Grading and Reporting 333
8.6.1 Grading 333
8.6.2 Reporting 334
8.7 Statistical Computation 341
8.8 Frequency Distribution 341
8.9 Measure of Central Tendency 342
8.9.1 Mean 342
8.9.2 Median 342
8.9.3 Mode 342
8.10 Measure of Variability 342
8.10.1 Range 342
8.10.2 Semi-Inter-Quartile Range 342
8.10.3 Standard Deviation 343

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 8.11 Percentile and Percentile Rank 343
8.12 Measure of Relationship or Correlation 343
8.12.1 Rank Difference Correlation 344
8.12.2 Product Moment Correlation 344
Activities 345
Self-Assessment 345
References 346

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 INTRODUCTION
Assessment and evaluation plays important role in the classroom instructional
planning, execution and the final instructional decision making process. It does not only
provide evidence about the student performance but also the concrete basis for providing
feedback and decision about the future prospects of teaching learning process.
The different types of tests, their formats, nature of items, procedure and
guidelines for developing items are discussed. This unit also highlights the important
issues of validity and reliability with their types and evidence to ensure them.
In addition to these concepts, different levels of learning outcomes for measuring
the performance of students at various levels of achievement at elementary level are
focused. To address the relevance of assessment in case it is not communicated to the
relevant stakeholders, the unit includes methods of grading and reporting that are
internationally as well as locally used by the schools at elementary education level.
Various statistical techniques important for presenting the scores of students in a
meaningful way are also elaborated.

OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit the prospective teachers will be able to:
1. differentiate between the concepts of measurement and evaluation
2. understand the different formats of test
3. construct test items of different achievement levels
4. apply different grading and reporting methods for elementary level students
5. use different statistical techniques for communicating the student performance
and progress

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 8.1 CONCEPT OF MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION
In educational assessment the concept of assessment, measurement and
evaluation are interrelated and at the same time very different things, yet most of the
times students are unable to adequately explain the differences. So, explaining things in
straightforward and meaningful way as possible, here are some useful descriptions of
these fundamental terms given further in this unit.
8.1.1 Measurement
Educational Measurement is the process of assigning numbers to individuals or
their characteristics according to specified rules. Measurement requires the use of
numbers but does not require the value judgments be made about the numbers obtained
from the process. Achievement is measured with a test by counting the number of test
items a student answers correctly, and use exactly the same rule to assign a number to the
achievement of each, student in the class. Measurements are useful for describing the
amount of certain abilities that individuals have (Farooq, 2013).
It refers to the process by which the attributes or dimensions of some physical
object are determined. One exception seems to be in the use of the word measure in
determining the IQ of a person. The phrase, "this test measures IQ" is commonly used.
Measuring such things as attitudes or preferences also applies. However, to measure the
performance of students there are some standard instruments. Standard instruments refer
to instruments such as rulers, scales, thermometers, pressure gauges, etc. Measurement is
done to obtain such information that may or may not be useful, depending on the
accuracy of the instruments that are used, and the skills of use those (Bob, 2012).
There are few such instruments in the social sciences that approach the validity
and reliability of say a 12" ruler. For example measurement about how big a classroom is
done in terms of square feet, the temperature of a room is measured by using a
thermometer, and Ohm meters are used to determine the voltage, amperage, and
resistance in a circuit etc. In all of these examples, nothing is being assessed anything and
it is simply about collecting information relative to some established rule or standard.
Assessment is therefore quite different from measurement, and has uses that suggest very
different purposes.
Hence, the process of measurement as it implies involves carrying out actual
measurement in order to assign a quantitative meaning to a quality i.e. what is the length
of the chalkboard? Determining this must be physically done. Measurement is therefore a
process of assigning numerals to objects, quantities or events in order to give quantitative
meaning to such qualities. In the classroom, to determine a child’s performance, one
needs to obtain quantitative measures on the individual scores of the child. If the child
scores 80 in Mathematics, there is no other interpretation one should give it and it cannot
be said he/she has passed or failed.
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8.1.2 Evaluation
Evaluation on the other hand adds the ingredient of value judgment to
assessment. It is concerned with the application of its findings and implies some
judgment of the effectiveness, social utility or desirability of a product, process or
progress in terms of carefully defined and agreed upon objectives or values. Evaluation
often includes recommendations for constructive action. Thus, evaluation is a qualitative
measure of the prevailing situation. It calls for evidence of effectiveness, suitability, or
goodness of the programme.
The purpose of evaluation is to determine the merit and worth of the object under
investigation.
Evaluation is perhaps the most complex and least understood of the terms.
Inherent in the idea of evaluation is "value." When we evaluate, what we are doing is
engaging in some process that is designed to provide information that will help us make a
judgment about a given situation. Generally, any evaluation process requires information
about the situation in question. A situation is an umbrella term that takes into account
such ideas as objectives, goals, standards, procedures, and so on. When we evaluate, we
are saying that the process will yield information regarding the worthiness,
appropriateness, goodness, validity, legality, etc., of something for which a reliable
measurement or assessment has been made. For example, if the students want to
determine the temperature of the classroom they would need to get a thermometer and
take several readings at different spots, and perhaps average the readings. That is simple
measuring. The average temperature tells us nothing about whether or not it is
appropriate for learning. In order to do that, students would have to be polled in some
reliable and valid way. That polling process is what evaluation is all about. A classroom
average temperature of 75 degrees is simply information. It is the context of the
temperature for a particular purpose that provides the criteria for evaluation. A
temperature of 75 degrees may not be very good for some students, while for others, it is
ideal for learning.

Good Evaluation Achieves Several Goals:

• Describe: it will describe the characteristics of the object of study, its strengths and
weaknesses, the intended and unintended effects, and the critical issues that have to be
understood to place the object in the correct context.
• Appraise: this is the section where the evaluator addresses the focus questions. It is not
enough to describe the object – the evaluator has to make judgments about the object and
provide the hard answers. There can be no shirking here. Is the object working? Does it
do what it is supposed to do? How well? Is it suitable for and sufficient to do the job it is

310
intended for? In each case, the evaluator has to say whether this is the case or not, and
provide the evidence to support that judgment.
• Advice: again, evaluation is no place for those who are risk avoiders. Evaluators put
their reputation on the line because they must not only address the questions, but also
provide advice on whether to cease with a teacher’s favorite programme, or amend it in
some quite specific ways taking into account what is known in the field. There is also
nothing wrong with recommending that the programme continues in its present form if it
is doing its job well and cannot be improved. A good evaluation assembles and carefully
details the evidence that will support this decision (Brown, Irving & Keegan, 2008).

Activity: Read an evaluation report of a school and an assessment report of the student
and point-out some of the major differences between these two concepts.

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 8.2 TYPES OF TESTS
8.2.1 Standardized Achievement Tests
A standardized test is any form of test that:
 requires all test takers to answer the same questions, or a selection of questions
from common bank of questions, in the same way, and that
 is scored in a “standard” or consistent manner, which makes it possible to
compare the relative performance of individual students or groups of students.
While different types of tests and assessments may be “standardized” in this way,
the term is primarily associated with large-scale tests administered to large
populations of students, such as a multiple-choice test given to all the eighth-
grade public-school students in a particular state or province.
In addition to the familiar multiple-choice format, standardized tests can include
true-false questions, short-answer questions, essay questions, or a mix of question types.
While standardized tests were traditionally presented on paper and completed using
pencils, and many still are, they are increasingly being administered on computers
connected to online programs (for a related discussion, see computer-adaptive test).
While standardized tests may come in a variety of forms, multiple-choice and true-false
formats are widely used for large-scale testing situations because computers can score
them quickly, consistently, and inexpensively.
In contrast, open-ended essay questions need to be scored by humans using a
common set of guidelines or rubrics to promote consistent evaluations from essay to
essay—a less efficient and more time-intensive and costly option that is also considered
to be more subjective. (Computerized systems designed to replace human scoring are
currently being developed by a variety of companies; while these systems are still in their
infancy, they are nevertheless becoming the object of growing national debate.)
While standardized tests are still debatable among many test experts and
educators who consider standardized tests as a fair and objective method of assessing the
academic achievement of students, mainly because the standardized format, coupled with
computerized scoring, reduces the potential for favoritism, bias, or subjective evaluations.
On the other hand, subjective human judgment enters into the testing process at various
stages—e.g., in the selection and presentation of questions, or in the subject matter and
phrasing of both questions and answers. Subjectivity also enters into the process when
test developers set passing scores—a decision that can affect how many students pass or
fail, or how many achieve a level of performance considered to be “proficient.”
Standardized tests may be used for a wide variety of educational purposes. For
example, they may be used to determine a young child’s readiness for kindergarten,
identify students who need special-education services or specialized academic support,
place students in different academic programs or course levels, or award diplomas and
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other educational certificates. The following are a few representative examples of the
most common forms of standardized test:
Achievement tests are designed to measure the knowledge and skills students learned in
school or to determine the academic progress they have made over a period of time. The
tests may also be used to evaluate the effectiveness of schools and teachers, or identify
the appropriate academic placement for a student—i.e., what courses or programs may be
deemed most suitable, or what forms of academic support they may need. Achievement
tests are “backward-looking” in that they measure how well students have learned what
they were expected to learn.
Aptitude tests attempt to predict a student’s ability to succeed in an intellectual or
physical endeavor by, for example, evaluating mathematical ability, language
proficiency, abstract reasoning, motor coordination, or musical talent. Aptitude tests are
“forward-looking” in that they typically attempt to forecast or predict how well students
will do in a future educational or career setting. Aptitude tests are often a source of
debate, since many question their predictive accuracy and value.
College-admissions/ Entry tests are used in the process of deciding which students will
be admitted to a collegiate program. While there is a great deal of debate about the
accuracy and utility of college-admissions tests, and many institutions of higher
education no longer require applicants to take them, the tests are used as indicators of
intellectual and academic potential, and some may consider them predictive of how well
an applicant will do in postsecondary program.
International-comparison tests are administered periodically to representative samples
of students in a number of countries, for the purposes of monitoring achievement trends
in individual countries and comparing educational performance across countries. A few
widely used examples of international-comparison tests include the Programme for
International Student Assessment (PISA), the Progress in International Reading Literacy
Study (PIRLS), and the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS).
Psychological tests, including IQ tests, are used to measure a person’s cognitive abilities
and mental, emotional, developmental, and social characteristics. Trained professionals,
such as school psychologists, typically administer the tests, which may require students to
perform a series of tasks or solve a set of problems. Psychological tests are often used to
identify students with learning disabilities or other special needs that would qualify them
for specialized services (The Glossary of Education Reform, 2015). .

I Characteristic of standardized achievement tests

Unlike teacher-made tests that are regularly administered to students often on a
weekly basis, standardized tests are scheduled in advance. But the schedule is not the
primary reason why such tests are described as standardized. Such tests meet the
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technical qualities established by the American Psychological Association (APA). That
is, the APA investigates four aspects of a test to determine if it meets the criteria for
validity and reliability and if it can establish comparable norms. These four aspects are:
Test Construction and Evaluation – The test should be constructed in a way that
eliminates the influence of guessing as well as misunderstandings of the item’s question.
This is where a well-structured format is crucial in test construction. At the same time,
the items should be based on observation and experience rather than theory.
Test Use – The method of utilizing the test should meet professional and ethical
considerations. For example, some tests are inappropriate for children who are younger
than two years and some tests cannot be used for students who are suffering from
particular disabilities.
Particular Applications - The use of scores obtained from the standardized test should
be clearly specified. One standardized test that measure intelligence and achievement
should not be used to measure social skills.
Administrative Procedures – Each standardized test should have a systematic procedure
in administration, scoring, and interpretation.
Criteria
Based on the above, the criteria to be met are the following:
Validity – This refers to the appropriateness and meaningfulness of the test. The test
should measure what it is supposed to measure. Simplistically, if a test is given to
measure a learner’s ability to use the four fundamental operations, the test should consist
of items that ask the students to add, subtract, multiply, and divide. If the test items are
problems that require analysis and reasoning before using the said mathematical
operations, then the test is not valid. A learner who is proficient in the operations but has
weak problem solving skills will have a low score. That low score should not be
interpreted as the inability to compute.
Reliability – This refers to the consistency of the scores that can be obtained from the
test. For example, the score obtained by a student from a particular test should be roughly
the same as the score that the same student will get when he/she takes the test again.
Factors that are not related to the test, such as emotional state and environment, should
not significantly change the score.
Norms – This refers to the comparison of a student’s score in a test to the scores of a
reference group of students. A norm that can be followed with confidence results in a
good comparison. On the other hand, if the norms of a verbal ability test were based on a
reference group composed of native English speakers and if the examinee’s English is his
second language, his score could not be compared to the norms established by the test
(Gromisch, 2012).

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Technical Characteristics of Standardized Tests
Once the items have met whatever criteria are set, the test is assembled and the
question of the quality of the test is raised. The question of quality among measurement
specialists is usually answered by examining the reliability and validity of the measure.
Following are some technical characteristics of standardized tests discussed by Kennedy
(n.d.).
Reliability
In popular use, reliability refers to the extent to which one obtains consistent
results with some thing or process. For example, a reliable automobile is one that
consistently starts when the ignition is turned, a reliable employee consistently shows up
for work when scheduled, and a reliable performer consistently yields good (or bad)
performances. The point is that the question of quality, for most people, is intricately
linked to the notion of consistency. Few people, for instance, would be satisfied with an
automobile that could only be expected to start 50% of the time. Similarly, when it comes
to measurements of human attributes, a quality measure should yield consistent scores
when an individual’s standing on the attribute has not changed.
For example, standing on a scale to record the weight, step off the scale, and a
moment later repeat the process, by all accounts, the numbers recorded should be the
same. If they are not, then there is something problematic about this measurement
procedure.
In either event, the lack of consistency in results is clearly a problem, one which
would threaten the confidence in the quality of the resulting scores and the usefulness of
the procedure.
In the context of educational achievement, the notion of consistency is still
intricately linked to assessments of the quality of an examination. In fact, estimates of the
reliability of a test can be thought of as indexes of the extent to which the test yields
consistent scores for examinees. There are many different ways of estimating the
reliability of a test. These techniques differ largely with respect to the types of
inconsistency they detect.

Test–Retest Estimates of Reliability.

The test–retest technique for estimating reliability entails administering the same
test to a group of examinees on two distinct occasions. Of course, this is only reasonable
if the attribute measured by the exam is expected to be stable over time. As such, these
indexes are typically only reported for measures of intelligence, aptitude, and other
characteristics expected to remain stable or change very slowly. If the scores of
examinees are not similar on the two occasions, then the inference is that scores on the
exam are subject to random errors.
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Reliability Estimates Based on Equivalent Forms.
It is not uncommon for test developers to have multiple forms of the same test.
This is necessary for purposes of makeup exams, educational research using a pre–post
design, and so on. Because the two forms of the exam will not consist of the same items,
administering both forms to the same examinees provides valuable information. One
interpretation is that the scores should be the same unless the responses of examinees are
affected by extraneous factors.
Internal Consistency Estimates of Reliability.
Among the most commonly reported forms of reliability are measures of internal
consistency. These indexes reflect the extent to which the items in a test yield consistent
outcomes for examinees. If the items measure dramatically different constructs, this type
of evidence could be misleading. However, most tests have multiple items designed to
measure the same or very similar skills. Comparing examinee performance across the
items yields valuable information about consistency. Some of the more popular measures
of internal consistency are the split half estimates, Kuder–Richardson formulas, and
Cronbach’s alpha.
Inter-rater Estimates of Reliability.
Because many of the current commercially developed tests have open-ended
items or give respondents latitude in constructing a response, judges must be used to
evaluate the appropriateness of a given response. If the system of scoring responses is
operating as one would hope, the scores assigned by different judges to a given examinee
should be consistent. Inter-rater estimates of reliability reflect this aspect of consistency.
Reliability Estimates for Classifications of Examinees.
The minimum- competency and Criterion Referenced Tests (CRT) movements of
the early 1970s emerged in response to the widespread use of standardized tests designed
to facilitate comparisons among students. These latter tests were not particularly
informative about what examinees could or could not do. CRT was designed to
accomplish this end. Accordingly, based on performance on CRT, examinees are
typically classified into one of two categories: those who demonstrated mastery of the
content of the test and those who did not. In this instance, reliability is primarily focused
on the consistency of these classifications. A popular measure of the extent to which
examinees are consistently classified is the kappa index.
Standard Error of Measurement
The reliability statistics mentioned above are group-based statistics. A measure
of the amount of error associated with a specific examinee is given by the standard error
of measurement. This index can be interpreted as the typical amount of error associated
with the scores of individuals. It is typically used to construct a range or interval for the
scores of individual examinees.
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Validity
The issue of validity is the most basic of all measurement concepts. It poses the
question of whether the instrument measures that which the user intends. This concept is
so fundamental that it precedes the question of reliability in importance. If a test is not
valid, then its reliability is of no importance to the user. On the other hand, a test cannot
be valid if it reflects only random error. Reliability is a necessary, but not sufficient,
condition for validity.
Validity is a question of test use. Any given test can be expected to be
differentially valid, given the various uses to which it is put. A test designed to measure
arithmetic achievement for third graders may do an excellent job for this group, but when
given to students who speak a language different from that assumed by the developers of
the test, it may provide little information about arithmetic achievement. The issue of
validating a test is really a matter of gathering evidence to justify the use of a test for a
given purpose with a particular population. This is perhaps one of the most critical issues
for educational administrators.
There are several ways in which developers attempt to provide evidence of the
validity of their measures. These include evidence related to (a) the content of the test, (b)
the accuracy with which a test measures some underlying construct, and (c) the
relationship of test scores to an external criterion measure.
Construct Validity.
There are many psychological constructs which are of concern to educators.
These include intelligence, motivation, self-concept, and anxiety. Commercially
developed measures of these constructs are not as common in schools as achievement
tests, yet they are important. Measures of psychological constructs are usually based on
specific theories. Intelligence, for example, may be thought of as a global or multifaceted
entity. Intelligence tests based on these two distinctly different theoretical perspectives
can be expected to differ considerably.
Evidence of construct validity, as usually reported in test manuals, includes a
focus on the internal structure of the measure, studies of the relationship of the measure
with others, and studies of groups with known characteristics.
Content Validity.
Evidence that a test has content validity is based, as one might expect, on the
items in the test. The question of content validity concerns the extent to which the items
on a test reflect the type of content and cognitive skills expected by the user. Within the
context of content validity, the term instructional validity is often used. This is a key idea
that poses the question of consistency between what was taught and what is represented
in a given test. To the extent that there is a mismatch, a test has limited utility for drawing
inferences about student achievement.
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Predictive Validity.
This type of validity is usually reported for tests designed to predict some future
event. Many college admissions tests, for example, report validity coefficients related to
their ability to predict freshman grade point averages. Similarly, many aptitude and
intelligence tests report validity coefficients, which are indexes of the extent to which the
measure can predict valued outcomes such as grade point averages and class rank.
Consequential Validity.
A final issue discussed in the context of validity is the notion of consequential
validity. Again, building on the dependence of validity on test use, this type of validity is
concerned with the consequences of test use. For example, if a student was administered
an interest inventory and interpreted the results in terms of what he could or could not do,
the results could be said to have a negative impact on the student’s aspirations. The
general idea is that the use of any measure should be evaluated in terms of its potential
impact on those involved.
Test Scores and Norms
In the definition of a standardized test presented above, it was noted that not only
was test administration standardized, but the interpretation of results was also
standardized. This observation is based on the fact that a point of reference is needed to
give a test score meaning, and a uniform point of reference is needed to ensure
standardization. For example, it is true that a score of 5 has no meaning in and of itself.
To give this score meaning, we could say either that it represented a perfect performance
on a test or that it was higher than the score received by, say, 90% of the other
examinees. This distinction is between an absolute and a relative interpretation of test
performance.
Criterion, Domain, and Standards-Based Interpretations of Test Scores.
A true criterion-referenced interpretation of a test score would involve
comparing the score to some fixed performance standard. If passing an exam meant that a
student should answer 75% of the items correctly, then the criterion would be 75%. Using
this criterion, students could be classified as either “masters” or “non-masters.” During
the minimum competency testing movement, most states reported mastery classifications
for examinees.
A domain-referenced interpretation of a test score is focused on interpreting the scores
relative to the proportion of the domain a student has mastered. If the domain of interest
were simple addition, a domain-referenced interpretation of a test score would involve
estimating the percentage of items in the domain the student could answer correctly. For
example, if a domain was narrowly defined as all the sets of two single digit numbers
(e.g., 1 + 1 =??), then a sample of items drawn from this domain could be used as a test

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and the percentage of the items a student could answer correctly on the test could be used
to estimate the percentage he or she could answer correctly in the domain.
A standards-based interpretation of a test score is a type of criterion-referenced
interpretation, but instead of focusing on, say, the percentage of items in a domain an
examinee can answer correctly, the focus is on the level of proficiency examinees are
able to demonstrate.
Typically, several levels of proficiency are established and, based on examination
results, examinees are classified accordingly.
Norm-Referenced Interpretations of Test Scores.
Relative comparisons or interpretations of test scores are based on a direct
comparison of an individual’s performance with some norm group. Test users must
consider the age and appropriateness of the norms before informed use can occur.
Outdated norms have been the basis of severe criticisms of standardized achievement
tests (Cannell, 1988). Similarly, inappropriate norms have been used as a basis for
charges of discrimination or test bias. Norms can be based on the scores of individuals or
groups such as schools. Group norms should be the basis for interpreting group-level
statistics (e.g., school means), and individual norms should be the basis for interpreting
the performance of individuals. Relative comparisons are usually accomplished with
three broad categories of scores: percentiles, normalized scores, and expectancy scores. A
percentile expresses an individual’s score relative to the position of other scores in a
group. The question answered with a percentile rank is the following: What percentage of
the persons in the norm group had this score or lower? The higher the percentile rank of a
score, the better the performance.
Normalized scores come under a variety of names: norm-curve equivalents,
stanines, T scores, and so on. All share the characteristic that the raw score or number
correct is transformed to a score with a given mean and standard deviation. For example,
stanines have a mean of 5.0 and a standard deviation of 2.0. They facilitate comparison of
an individual’s performance across content areas, assuming the norm group is the same.
The final type of scores considered is expectancy scores. Broadly speaking, these
scores summarize performance relative to the expected standard. Age- and grade
equivalent scores are expectancy scores. A grade equivalent provides information about
an examinee’s performance compared to others in neighboring grades and provides
answers to questions such as whether a student is reading at grade level.
II Standardized achievement tests batteries
The first standardized test came into existence around 1900. These tests were
tests of a single achievement area such as spelling. Single-subject achievement tests are
still used today. Three different Achievement test are discussed below by Harwell (2011):

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 1. Achievement Test batteries, or Survey Batteries
2. Single- Subject Achievement Test
3. Diagnostic Achievement Tests
1. The Survey battery is the type of achievement test most frequently used today.
The main advantages of a survey battery over several single subjects are the following:
a. Coordinated subtests are provided.
b. Saving in time and expense are realized.
c. A common norm group is used.
The disadvantages of a survey battery over single-subject test are the
following:
a. Content validity may vary across subtests.
b. Depth of coverage may be less than that obtained with a single-subject
test. Mainly used in the secondary grades usually administered only to
selected students those who have already exhibited difficulties in
achievement.
2. Standardized Academic Aptitude Tests Academic aptitude or IQ tests are used
to predict future learning: achievement tests measure past learning. Academic aptitude
tests were initially developed over 100 years ago to predict school performance but came
to be known as intelligence tests. Today, they still do a good job of predicting school
performance and have moderate ability to predict a variety of other variables. After about
the age of 6, IQ scores tend to be fairly stable for the remainder of an individual's life.
Prior to age 6, and especially during the first years of life, they tend to be unstable.
3. Standardized Personality Assessment Instruments Two types of personality
test
a) Objective Personality Test
b) Projective Personality Test
The objective approach to personality assessment relies on self-report
questionnaires that are economical but suffer from questionable validity, test-takers'
perception of the social desirability of answers, and faking.
Projective personality assessment is based on the theory that when individuals
are presented with suggestive or ambiguous stimuli, these stimuli will elicit responses
that are fairly rigid and reflective of conscious or unconscious motives, beliefs, or wishes.
8.2.2. Teacher Made Test
There are generally two types of tests used to evaluate education programs:
standardized tests (prepared by publishing companies, formal testing agencies, and
universities), and classroom tests (prepared by the teacher).
Standardized tests are formal tests that allow to compare students with other
students in the region or country. These tests are usually valid and reliable because they
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have been tested on large sample populations and have been revised to eliminate
unreliable or invalid questions. They are useful to compare your students with other
students or to rank students against the "norm." The norms for standardized tests depend
on where the tests were developed.
One serious drawback to standardized tests is that they are not effective with
students that have abilities, needs, or problems that differ from those of the "normal"
student population. In addition, the content of standardized tests does not always match
what is taught in a certain school or classroom. As Therese found out, many students in
less developed countries do poorly on standardized tests--especially on tests that are
developed in other countries. One reason for this is that these tests are usually given in
English, which is a second language for many students. Another reason is that the content
and culture of the test usually does not match the classroom content and culture in a
particular school.
Standardized tests are often not appropriate measures of environmental education
learning. Not only do the questions often not deal with environmental issues or ecological
content, but the types of questions mainly test for knowledge and facts--not skills and
attitudes, two important components of an environmental education program. Although
standardized tests are changing to include more variety and to encourage higher-level
thinking, they are still very limiting and should not be used as the sole measure of a
student's performance.
Standardized tests definitely have their drawbacks. Yet, in many school systems,
scores on standardized tests determine a student's academic future. If a student passes, he
or she can move ahead. If a student fails, he or she will not have the same opportunities.
The number of students that pass and fail is also seen as a reflection of the quality of
teaching and the success of the school system itself.
Unlike standardized tests, teacher developed tests have not been tested on sample
populations of students and do not allow to compare students to a standard. Instead, these
tests (also called criterion-reference tests), help to test a student’s understanding of a
particular (and often limited) body of knowledge. For example, while a teacher is
teaching a unit on ecology and want to determine whether the students have learned about
predator-prey relationships in Pakistan, he/she would include test questions about
predator-prey relationships in Pakistan that related to the specific objectives (Corps,
1993).
Some other differences are also discussed by Erienkoma (2011) which are given in the
table below:

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Table 8.1: Differences between Standardized Test and Teacher Made Test
Standardized Test Teacher-Made Test
1. generally prepared by specialists 1. made by teachers who may not know very
who know very well the principles of well the principles of test construction;
test construction; 2. Often prepared hurriedly and haphazardly
2. prepared very carefully following to be able to meet the deadline for
principles of test construction; administration;
3. given to a large proportion of the 3. Usually given only to a class or classes for
population for which they are intended which the tests are intended; usually, no
for the computation of norms; norms are computed;
4. generally correlated with other tests 4. Teacher-made tests are not subjected to any
of known validity and reliability or statistical procedures to determine their
with measures such as school marks to validity and reliability;
determine their validity and reliability; 5. May be objective and may be essay type in
5. generally are high objective; which case scoring is subjective;
6. have their norms computed for 6. Have no norms unless the teacher computes
purposes of comparison and the median, mean, and other measures for
interpretation; comparison and interpretation;
7. measure innate capacities and 7. Generally measure subject achievement
characteristics as achievement; only;
8. Intended to be used for a long period 8. Intended to be used only once or twice to
of time and for all people of the same measure achievement of students in a subject
class in the culture where they are matter studied during a certain period;
validated. 9. Do not have manuals of instructions, only
9. accompanied by manuals of the directions for the different types of tests
instructions on how to administer and which may be given orally or in writing.
score the tests and how to interpret the 10. Not copyrighted.
results;
10. Generally copyrighted.
Source: https://erienkoma.wordpress.com/2011/06/25/standardized-and-non-
standardized-tests/

Activity: Take a teacher made test and download an international standardized test of
elementary level and compare the differences between them.

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 8.3 PLANNING, CONSTRUCTING THE TEACHER
MADE TEST
8.3.1 General Guideline for Writing Test Items
The following are some guidelines that you should use for preparing test items
(Cohen & Wollack, (n.d.)
Writing Multiple-Choice Test Items
The general rules used for writing multiple-choice items are described below.
Recognize that these are general rules; not all rules will be applicable to all types of
testing.
1. The stem should contain the problem and any qualifications. The entire stem
must always precede the alternatives.
2. Each item should be as short and verbally uncomplicated as possible. Give as
much context as is necessary to answer the question, but do not include
superfluous information. Be careful not to make understanding the purpose of the
item a test of reading ability.
3. Avoid negatively stated items. If you have to use this kind of item, emphasize the
fact by underlining the negative part, putting it in capital letters or using italics.
(For test construction purposes, if possible, put all such items together in a single
section and indicate this with separate directions.)
4. Keep each item independent from other items. Don't give the answer away to
another item.
If items require computation, avoid items that are dependent on one another.
5. If one or more alternatives are partially correct, ask for the "best" answer.
6. Try to test a different point in each question. If creating item clones (i.e., items
designed to measure the exact same aspect of the objective), be certain to
sufficiently change the context, vocabulary, and order of alternatives, so that
students cannot recognize the two items as clones.
7. If an omission occurs in the stem, it should appear near the end of the stem and
not at the beginning.
8. Use a logical sequence for alternatives (e.g., temporal sequence, length of the
choice). If two alternatives are very similar (cognitively or visually), they should
be placed next to one another to allow students to compare them more easily.
9. Make all incorrect alternatives (i.e., distracters) plausible and attractive. It is
often useful to use popular misconceptions and frequent mistakes as distractors.
In the foreign languages, item distractors should include only correct forms and
vocabulary that actually exists in the language.
10. All alternatives should be homogeneous in content, form and grammatical
structure.
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11. Use only correct grammar in the stem and alternatives.
12. Make all alternatives grammatically consistent with the stem.
13. The length, explicitness and technical information in each alternatives should be
parallel so as not to give away the correct answer.
14. Use 4 or 5 alternatives in each item.
15. Avoid repeating words between the stem and key. It can be done, however, to
make distractors more attractive.
16. Avoid wording directly from a reading passage or use of stereotyped phrasing in
the key.
17. Alternatives should not overlap in meaning or be synonymous with one another.
18. Avoid terms such as "always" or "never," as they generally signal incorrect
choices.
19. To test understanding of a term or concept, present the term in the stem followed
by definitions or descriptions in the alternatives.
20. Avoid items based on personal opinions unless the opinion is qualified by
evidence or a reference to the source of the opinion (e.g., According to the author
of this passage, . . .).
21. Do not use "none of the above" as a last option when the correct answer is simply
the best answer among the choices offered.
22. Try to avoid "all of the above" as a last option. If an examinee can eliminate any
of the other choices, this choice can be automatically eliminated as well.
Writing Essay Test Items
Essay items are useful when examinees have to show how they arrived at an
answer. A test of writing ability is a good example of the kind of test that should be given
in an essay response format. This type of item, however, is difficult to score reliably and
can require a significant amount of time to be graded. Grading is often affected by the
verbal fluency in the answer, handwriting, presence or lack of spelling errors, grammar
used and the subjective judgments of the grader. Training of graders can require a
substantial amount of time and needs to be repeated at frequent intervals throughout the
grading.
The following rules may be useful in developing and grading essay questions:
1. The shorter the answer required for a given essay item, generally the better. More
objectives can be tested in the same period of time, and factors such as verbal
fluency, spelling, etc., have less of an opportunity to influence the grader. Help
the examinees focus their answers by giving them a starting sentence for their
essay.

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2. Make sure questions are sharply focused on a single issue. Do not give either the
examinee or the grader too much freedom in determining what the answer should
be.
Guidelines for Writing All Types of Items
Some additional guidelines to consider when writing items are described below:
1. Avoid humorous items. Classroom testing is very important and humorous items
may cause students to either not take the exam seriously or become confused or
anxious.
2. Items should measure only the construct of interest, not one-knowledge of the
item context.
3. Write items to measure what students know, not what they do not know.

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 8.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD TESTS
8.4.1 Validity
Validity refers to the evidence base that can be provided about appropriateness of
the inferences, uses, and consequences that come from assessment (McMillan, 2001).
Appropriateness has to do with the soundness, trustworthiness, or legitimacy of the
claims or inferences that you or I would like to make on the basis of obtained scores.
Certainly, we have to evaluate the whole assessment process and its constituent parts by
how soundly we can defend the consequences that arise from the inferences and decisions
we make. Samuel Messick (1989, p. 13), the person most responsible for this approach to
validity, said it is ‘an integrated evaluative judgment of the degree to which empirical
evidence and theoretical rationales support the adequacy and appropriateness of
inferences and actions based on test scores or other modes of assessment’.
Validity, thus, is not a characteristic of a test or assessment; but rather a
judgement which can have varying degrees of strength. We do not say a ‘test has validity’
but we may be able to defend the claim that the ‘decisions we make as a consequence of
using the test’ have validity.
The big change from the early days when validity related to the test is that now
validity involves a set of claims to defend the interpretations we wish to make from using
a test. Kane (2006) has argued that valid assessment now requires teachers to make a
series of valid qualitative interpretations about student performances and that these
interpretations occur as teachers interact with students in the classroom. To defend such
claims involves a chain of reasoning and the provision of evidence that must be
scrutinized. The reasons and evidence in the head of the teacher during the process of
classroom activity is properly considered to be part of teaching, in our view. Assessment
takes place when those reasons and related evidence are made public (at least through
reporting or feedback) for confirmation or disconfirmation.
What we need to do as interpreters of assessment is examine the appropriate evidence
needed to judge that the inferences and decisions are appropriate. The simplest way to
approach this is to consider a metal chain – a metaphor given to us by Crooks, Kane, and
Cohen (1996). The chain is strong and flexible in ensuring that two objects stay linked
together. Each link takes a share in the strain of connection; no one link is more
important than any other. However, a weak link undermines the whole chain – all it takes
is for one link to give way for the chain to fail in its purpose. Similarly, the decisions and
interpretations we make based on assessments can be severely weakened if one small step
is ‘invalid’ or inappropriate. No wonder validity is at the core of classroom assessment.
The validity chain is a kind of checklist of assessment processes that have to be
evaluated. The assessor has to assemble evidence that each link has been done
appropriately. Only then can the interpretations be defended. Just intending or trying to
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improve student learning does not absolve assessors of the need to check that all the
things that might go wrong have been addressed.
8.4.2 Reliability
The second-most important word in assessment would have to be ‘reliability’, a
concept which is easily misunderstood (Feldt, & Brennan, 1989). Fundamentally,
reliability refers to the “consistency, stability, dependability, and accuracy of assessment
results” (McMillan, 2001, p. 65). As mentioned in the validity chain that one needs to be
sure that the scoring performance was carried out properly. If scores used by the teacher
do not reflect accurately what the student actually did, would not be awarded by another
marker, or would not be received on a similar assessment, then the scores lack reliability.
Errors occur in scoring in many ways – for example, giving Level 2 when another rater
would give Level 4, adding up marks wrongly, transcribing scores from test paper to
database inaccurately, students performing really well on the first half of an assessment
and poorly on the second half through fatigue, and so on. Thus, lack of reliability in the
scores students receive is a threat to validity.
The assessment may look like it reflects the content we want them to learn, but if
the scores have high degrees of error in them, then it is better to go back to the drawing
board and seriously question where on the validity chain things have gone wrong.
Because one has to have confidence that the scores are not error-prone and that they are
consistent, evidence of the accuracy and consistency is needed before the actions and
interpretations can be implemented.
Since the reliability of scoring and the validity of assessment processes are not
identical it is possible for something to be highly reliable but invalid (e.g. a multiple-
choice test of haircutting knowledge may be very consistent in its scoring, but be an
irrelevant measure of how well a person cuts actual hair). However, a perfectly valid
measure (e.g. a performance observation of a person cutting actual hair) may be highly
inconsistent if the scoring by the panel of judges is very inconsistent and influenced by
external factors such as the relationship one judge might have with the candidate – think
about all the scandals in the scoring of ice figure skating at the Olympics. So, validity
does not guarantee reliability, nor does reliability guarantee validity. Both need to be
evaluated and judged systematically and professionally. Perhaps this is a reason so many
courses in educational assessment spend so much time on reliability and validity.
Now, it is important to realize that reliability is an attribute of the scores
generated by an assessment – either the scores are consistent and accurate or they are not.
Reliability is not a property of the assessment itself – like validity, it too is a judgment
based on a statistical analysis of the numbers generated by the scoring process. What this
means is that scores for a group of students are reliable if the scores have very low levels
of error (i.e. close to the truth) and if the processes used to create the scores would
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consistently give the same performance the same score. For example, if we tested the
same students many times and if there were no practice or memory effects a reliable test
should generate the same results every time. So every time we run an assessment we need
to inspect the scores for indications of reliability, rather than simply assume that because
it was reliable before it will be reliable again. As long as humans are doing the scoring
there is always the chance for error or noise to creep in. Now, the point of education is to
ensure that students do not perform the same on the next administration of an assessment
– so we have to weigh up reliability against learning.
I Factor Influencing Reliability Measures
Test reliability
A test that yields similar scores for a person who repeats the test is said to
measure a characteristic reliably. How do we account for an individual who does not get
exactly the same test score every time he or she takes the test? Some possible reasons are
the following (Employment and Training Administration, 1999):
Test taker's temporary psychological or physical state. Test performance can be
influenced by a person's psychological or physical state at the time of testing. For
example, differing levels of anxiety, fatigue, or motivation may affect the applicant's test
results.
Environmental factors. Differences in the testing environment, such as room
temperature, lighting, noise, or even the test administrator, can influence an individual's
test performance.
Test form. Many tests have more than one version or form. Items differ on each form, but
each form is supposed to measure the same thing.
Different forms of a test are known as parallel forms or alternate forms. These forms are
designed to have similar measurement characteristics, but they contain different items.
Because the forms are not exactly the same, a test taker might do better on one form than
on another.
Multiple raters. In certain tests, scoring is determined by a rater's judgments of the test
taker's performance or responses. Differences in training, experience, and frame of
reference among raters can produce different test scores for the test taker.
 Test Length
Longer tests and assessment procedures improve the reliability of classroom
assessments. Greater number of items put greater confidence in estimating the children’
performance by providing more adequate sample of attributes being measured. There is
also tendency of minimizing the chance factors like guessing from the assessment. This
factor is related to the length and sufficiency of number of items specially in case of
establishing reliability through split-half method.

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 Item difficulty and spread of scores
When the test items are very easy for the children and every child can score
100% then there will be no variation in test scores due to which calculating coefficient of
reliability will not be meaningful. The same result will be obtained if the test items will
be very difficult.
 Group homogeneity
Children with different ability levels tend to assess with different accuracy levels.
The standard error of measurement presents average amount of inconsistency while the
consistency of scores varies by the different children’ ability levels. So, the homogeneous
groups may also produce inconsistent reliability measures.
 Objectivity
Objectively scored test items can produce more reliable estimates of students’
performance. As compared to objective type test items the extended response or
performance test items are difficult to establish the estimates of reliability. The reason is
the subjective evaluation of the items. Whenever two or more than two raters are
involved in the scoring of items it increases the tendency of inconsistency in the
reliability estimates.
 Test-retest interval
The longer time intervals between the two tests in case of establishing test-retest
reliability estimates, there is more tendency of lower reliability coefficient. On the other
hand administering the same test twice can have more similar scores of students on the
tests.

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 8.5 MEASURING ACHIEVEMENT IN
ELEMENTARY LEVEL
Teacher-made tests are indispensable in evaluation as they are handy in assessing
the degree of mastery of the specific units taught by the teacher. The principles behind
the construction of the different categories of assessment mentioned above are essentially
the same. These shall now be discussed.
Planning for the Test
Many teacher-made tests often suffer from inadequate and improper planning.
Many teachers often jump into the classroom to announce to the class that they are
having a test or construct the test haphazardly.
It is at the planning stage that such questions as the ones listed below are
resolved:
(i) What is the intended function of this test? Is it to test the effectiveness of the
method, level of competence of the pupils, or diagnose area of weakness before
other topics are taught?
(ii) What are the specific objectives of the content area a teacher has to achieve?
(iii) What content area has been taught? How much emphasis has been given to each
topic?
(iv) What type of test will be most suitable (in terms of effectiveness, cost and
practicality) to achieve the intended objectives of the contents?
Defining Objectives
As a competent teacher, one should be able to develop instructional objectives
that are behavioural, precise, realistic and at an appropriate level of generality that will
serve as a useful guide to teaching and evaluation.
It is important to state objectives in behavioural terms so as to determine the
terminal behaviour of a student after having completed a learning task. Martin Haberman
(1964) says that the teacher receives the following benefits by using behavioural
objectives:
1. Teacher and students get clear purposes.
2. Broad content is broken down to manageable and meaningful pieces.
3. Organizing content into sequences and hierarchies is facilitated.
4. Evaluation is simplified and becomes self-evident.
5. Selecting of materials is clarified (The result of knowing precisely what
youngsters are to do leads to control in the selection of materials,
equipment and the management of resources generally).

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Specifying the Content to be covered
Determine the area of the content to test. It is through the content that teacher
will know whether the objectives have been achieved or not.
Preparation of the Test Blueprint
Test blueprint is a table showing the number of items that will be asked under
each topic of the content and the process objective. This is why it is often called
“Specification Table”. Thus, there are two dimensions to the test blueprint, the content
and the process objectives. The content consists of the series of topics from which the
competence of the pupils is to be tested. These are usually listed on the left hand side of
the table.
Table 8.2
Table of Specification
Test items
Content areas
Knowledge Application Problem
(Counting)
Solving
1. addition
2. subtraction
Total (Marks) Total (items)

The process objectives or mental processes are usually listed on the top-row of
the table.
The process objectives are derived from the behavioural objectives stated for the course
initially. They are the various mental processes involved in achieving each objective.
Usually, there are about six of these as listed under the cognitive domain i.e. Knowledge,
Comprehension, Analysis, Synthesis, Application and Evaluation.
i) Knowledge or Remembering
This involves the ability of the pupils to recall specific facts, terms, vocabulary,
principles, concepts and generalizations from memory. This may involve the teacher
asking pupils to give the date of a particular event, capital of a state or recite
multiplication tables.

Examples:
Behavioural objectives: To determine whether students are able to define
technical terms by giving their properties, relations or attributes.

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Question:
Volt is a unit of:
(a) weight (b) force (c) distance (d) work (e) volume
(ii) Comprehension and Understanding
This is testing the ability of the pupils to translate, infer, compare, explain,
interpret or extrapolate what is taught. The pupils should be able to identify similarities
and differences among objects or concepts; predict or draw conclusions from given
information; describe or define a given set of data i.e. what is democracy? Explain the
role of chloroplast in photosynthesis.
(iii) Application
The ability of the students to use principles; rule and generalizations in solving
problems in novel situations (e.g. how would you recover table salt from water?) is tested
under this domain
(iv) Analysis
This is to analyze or break an idea into its parts and show that the student
understands their relationships.
(v) Synthesis
The student is expected to synthesize or put elements together to form a new
matter and produce a unique communication, plan or set of abstract relations.
(vi) Evaluation
The student is expected to make judgments based upon evidence.
Activity: Construct an achievement test for elementary level students with the help of
table of specification using different levels of learning outcomes.

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 8.6 GRADING AND REPORTING
Grading and reporting are foundational elements in nearly every educational
system. Grading represents teachers' evaluations — formative or summative — of
students' performance. Reporting is how the results of those evaluations are
communicated to students, parents, or others.
8.6.1 Grading
Grading deals with the process of summarizing the information and assigning a
letter or percentage grade on student performance. The purpose of grading is to describe
how well students have achieved the learning objectives or goals established for a class or
course of study. Grades should reflect students’ performance on specific learning criteria.
Establishing clearly articulated criteria for grades makes the grading process more fair
and equitable. Unfortunately, different teachers often use widely varying criteria in
determining students’ grades, and students often aren’t well-informed about those
criteria.
Recognizing that merging diverse sources of evidence distorts the meaning of
any grade, educators in many parts of the world assign multiple grades. This idea
provides the foundation for standards-based approaches to grading. In particular,
educators distinguish among the product, process, and progress learning criteria (Guskey
& Bailey, 2010).
Product criteria are favored by educators who believe that the primary purpose of
grading is to communicate summative evaluations of students’ achievement and
performance (O’Connor, 2002). They focus on what students know and are able to do at a
particular point in time. Teachers who use product criteria typically base grades
exclusively on final examination scores, final products (e.g. reports, projects, or exhibits),
overall assessments, and other culminating demonstrations of learning.
Process criteria are emphasized by educators who believe product criteria don’t
provide a complete picture of student learning. From this perspective, grades should
reflect not only the final results but also how students got there. Teachers who consider
responsibility, effort, or work habits when assigning grades use process criteria. The
same happens when teachers count classroom quizzes, formative assessments,
homework, punctuality of assignments, class participation, or attendance.
Progress criteria are used by educators who believe the most important aspect of
grading is how much students gain from their learning experiences. Other names for
progress criteria include learning gain, improvement scoring, value-added learning, and
educational growth. Teachers who use progress criteria look at students’ improvement
over a period of time, rather than just where they are at a given moment. Scoring criteria
may be highly individualized among students. For example, grades might be based on the
number of skills or standards in a learning continuum that students mastered and on the
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adequacy of that level of progress for each student. Most of the research evidence on
progress criteria comes from studies of individualized instruction (Esty & Teppo, 1992)
and special education programs (Gersten, Vaughn, & Brengelman, 1996; Jung & Guskey,
2010).
After establishing explicit indicators of product, process, and progress learning,
teachers then assign separate grades to each indicator. In this way, they keep grades for
responsibility, learning skills, effort, work habits, or learning progress distinct from
grades that represent students’ level of achievement or performance (Guskey, 2002;
Stiggins, 2008). The intent is to provide a more accurate and comprehensive picture of
what students accomplish in school.
Typically, the “achievement grade” is expressed as a letter grade or percentage
that represents the teacher’s best judgment of the student’s level of performance relative
to the explicit learning objectives for the class or course. Computations of grade point
averages (GPA) and class ranks are exclusively based on these achievement or product
grades.
For nonacademic factors such as homework, class participation, effort, and
learning progress, teachers typically record numerical marks (e.g., 4 = consistently, 3 =
usually, 2 = sometimes, and 1 = rarely). The development of rubrics helps make this
process explicit for students and parents. For example, in the case of homework, teachers
may use categories such as: 4 = all completed and turned in on time; 3 = only one or two
missing or incomplete; 2 = three to five missing or incomplete; 1 = more than five
missing or incomplete. The key is to ensure that students understand the various
performance levels so they know exactly what the mark signifies and what must be done
to improve the mark (Guskey, 2006).
Teachers who report multiple grades for these different criteria don’t have to
worry about how to weight or combine the grading evidence. This avoids difficult
arguments about the appropriateness of various weighting strategies. Reporting multiple
grades also increases the validity, reliability, and fairness of the grading process.
Furthermore, to the degree that classroom assessments of student learning are aligned
with student learning outcomes addressed in large-scale state assessments, the
relationship between product or achievement grades and the accountability assessment
results will be much stronger (Guskey & Bailey, 2010).

8.6.2 Reporting
Reporting is the process of communicating comprehensive information about
student achievement and learning at a point in time. Reporting will be in different forms,
will be tailored to meet the needs of a range of audiences and will be used for a variety of

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purposes. Reporting to students, parents, teachers and the system helps decision making
for future student learning.
Reporting the performance of students on assessments is not an easy task. There
are many ways of reporting children’s performance based on the functions or uses of
different grading and reporting systems. These different systems can be used for
reporting children’s performance for instructional uses, administrative uses and guidance
etc. Students’ learning and development is the main objective of grading and reporting
system but there are some other purposes of reporting children’s performance as
described below:
1. Providing feedback on students’ performance
2. Communicating the growth of children to their parents
3. Documenting children’s progress
4. Assessing the effectiveness of instructional strategies for achieving
instructional objectives
5. Highlighting the weaknesses and strengths of the children
6. Motivating children
7. Giving information related to the children’s personal-social development
There are different purposes of reporting can only be attained when a report
explicitly describes the above mentioned functions comprehensively
Functions of Grading and Reporting
There are many functions or uses of different grading and reporting systems in schools
such as; instructional uses, administrative and guidance uses etc.
Instructional Uses
Students’ learning and development is the main objective of grading and
reporting system. It can only be achieved when the report; (i) explicitly describes
instructional objectives, (ii) shows the weaknesses and strengths of the students, (iii)
motivates the students, and (iv) gives information relating to the students’ personal-social
development. The single letter grade cannot do all the above mentioned functions
therefore, a much more detailed and comprehensive report is required.

Reports to Parents
One of the basic functions of grading and reporting is to inform the parents about
the progress of their children. In this way the parents know about the educational
objectives and to what extent they have been achieved by the students. By knowing what
the school is trying to do, parent can help the teachers and school to achieve these
objectives. In this way they cooperate with school in rapid development and learning of
the students. Parents can encourage their children properly when they know the strengths,
weaknesses, successes, failures and special problems. Here the parents not only provide
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emotional support to their children but also help them in making sound educational and
vocational plans for their future.
Administrative and Guidance Uses
Grades and reports are also used for many administrative purposes such as
promotion to the next class, awarding honours, determining athletic ability and reporting
to other schools. Single letter grades are suitable for administrative purpose because they
are compact and easy to record.
However, students’ counselors require a comprehensive grading and reporting
system in order to help students in making realistic educational and vocational plans. The
reports of students’ achievements and development as well as other information gathered
through grading and reporting system plays a pivotal role in the guidance and counseling
of the students.
Different Types of Grading and Reporting Systems
Different types of grading and reporting systems being used for the evaluation
and assessment of students’ performance in various educational institutions of the world,
are as under:-
1- Traditional Letter-Grade System.
2- Pass –fail system.
3- Checklists of Objectives.
4- Letters to Parents / Guardians.
5- Portfolios of Student Work.
6- Parents – Teacher Conferences.
7- Multiple Grading and Reporting Systems.

1. Traditional Letter-Grade System

Letter – grade system is the traditional method of reporting students’
progress in the schools (Linn, Miller & Gronlund, 2010, p. 369).
Various studies have indicated that approximately 50% to 90% of all
schools use letter grades. In this traditional letter – grade system a single
letter or number grade ( e.g, A,B,C,D,F or 5,4,3,2,1 or 100, 90, 80 ) in
assigned for each subject. This system is easy to understand, compact
and convenient but it has some shortcomings as well, such as:
1- These grades do not indicate specific strengths and weaknesses of students.
2- These grades are mostly a combination of students’ achievement, effort,
work habits, and good behavior.
3- The proportion of students assigned each letter grade varies from teacher to
teacher. (Linn, Miller and Gronlund, 2010)

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2. Pass-Fail System
In some elementary and even high schools of the world, a two–category system
(e.g., Pass-fail, satisfactory unsatisfactory) has been used for indicating students’
performance. Although it is easy to use but it provides less information as compared to
traditional (A,B,C,D, F) grading system. If allows students to take some courses (mostly
elective courses), under a pass – fail option that is not included in their grade – point
average. The objective is to encourage students to explore new areas with greater
freedom to select their learning experiences by removing the fear of lower grades. The
students have to attain mastery of the course objectives.
3. Checklists of Objectives
Few schools have replaced or supplemented the traditional grading system with
checklists. These are lists of objectives to be checked or rated: The progress of students
toward the objectives in each subject is rated through these check lists of objective. For
instance the statements of objectives with regard to reading and arithmetic may be as
follows:
Reading
1- Reads with understanding.
2- Works out meaning and use of new words.
3- Reads well to others.
4- Reads independently for pleasure.

Arithmetic
1- Uses fundamental processes.
2- Solves problems involving reasoning.
3- Is accurate in work.
4- Works at a satisfactory rate.
(Linn, Miller and Gronlund, 2010).
In some schools the above statements are rated traditionally with A,B,C,D,F but
in most of the schools there is a shift towards fewer symbols, such as; O (outstanding), S
(satisfactory), and N (needs Improvement).
The cheek lists show the strengths and weaknesses of the students. So that some
remedial measures may be taken to improve their learning. Check lists also remind
parents, students and teachers about the educational objectives. Keeping theses objective
statements down to a workable number is a difficult task.
4. Letters to Parents
Some school use letters for reporting students’ progress to parents. Through this
method the strengths, weaknesses and learning needs of the students can be
communicated to parents and remedial plan can be made for improvement. This system is
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very flexible in nature but has some weaknesses such as: (a) it requires excessive time
and skill, (b) parents can misunderstand the weaknesses of the students, and (d) letters do
not provide a systematic record of students’ progress.
5. Portfolios of Student Work
A properly constructed portfolio can be very helpful in illustrating students’
needs, weakness and strengths. It makes grades and other summary reports more effective
and also explains both progress and current levels of students’ achievements. Portfolio is
not just a file of student’s work but a purposefully selected collection of work that often
contains commentary by both students and teachers.
6. Parent – Teacher Conferences
Some elementary and most of the primary schools use parent – teacher
conferences on regular basis. It supplements the limited information provided by
traditional report cards and develops better cooperation between parents and teacher. The
parent – teacher conference is a flexible two-way communication between parents and
teacher. In this way parents and teachers can discourse with each-other and collectively
plan for the better learning and development of the student. Conference should be
structured around students portfolio and can also be three-way in nature i.e. Student,
teacher and parents. This system has some drawbacks that it requires a lot of time and
does not provide proper record of students’ progress. Furthermore some parents are
unwilling to come and participate.
7. Multiple Grading and Reporting Systems
The traditional letter grade (A, B,C,D,F) systems are being used in educational
institutions for a very long time because they are simple and compact. They are used for
administrative function as well as for maintaining permanent school records. Therefore,
instead of replacing letter grade system, it would be an intelligent strategy to improve old
letter grade system and supplement it with detailed and meaningful reports of students’
educational development. According to Linn, Miller and Gronlund (2010):
The Typical multiple reporting system retains the use of traditional grading
(letter grades or numbers) and supplements the grades with checklists of objectives. In
some cases, two grades are assigned to each subject: One for achievement and the other
for effort, improvement, or growth.
No grading system is perfect for all schools. Every school should develop a
grading system according to its specific needs and requirements. The following principles
or guidelines may be kept in mind while developing a multiple grading and reporting
system:-
1. The grading and reporting system should be developed according to the
functions to be performed.

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 2. The system should be developed with the mutual cooperation of students,
teachers and parents.
3. This system should be based on clear cut statements of educational
objectives.
4. It should be in consistence with content and performance standards of the
school.
5. The grading and reporting system should be based on reliable and
adequate assessment of students’ performance.
6. It should be detailed enough to be diagnostic and at the same time
compact enough to be practical.
7. There must be a provision for parent–teacher conferences in grading and
reporting system.
In short a multiple grading and reporting system is based on varied needs
of students, parents, teachers and other school personnel. In multiple grading and
reporting systems the traditional letter grades are supplemented by other methods
of reporting such as; checklist of objectives, students’ portfolio, letters to parents
and students-teacher conferences etc., than the grades become more meaningful
and comprehensive.
Assigning Letter Grades
The traditional letter grade system is used in most of the schools and the teachers
may face the problems of assigning letter grades.

These are few guidelines for effective grading:-

1. Describe your grading procedures to students at the beginning of
instruction.
2. Make clear to students that the course grade will be based on achievement
only.
3. Explain how other elements (effort, work habits, and personal-social
characteristics) will be reported.
4. Relate the grading procedure to the intended leaning outcomes (i.e.
instructional goals and objectives).
5. Obtain valid evidence (e.g., tests, assessments, reports, or ratings) as a
basis for assigning grades.
6. Take precautions to prevent cheating on tests and assessments.
7. Return and review all test and assessment results as soon as possible.
8. Properly weight various types of achievement included in the grade.

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 9. Do not lower an achievement grade for tardiness, weak effort, or
misbehavior.
10. Be fair, Avoid bias, and when in doubt (as with a borderline score), review
the evidence. If still in doubt, assign the higher grade. (Linn, Miller and
Gronlund, 2010, p. 384).
Record-Keeping and Grading Software
In 21st century electronic grade-books have replaced the old note-book style
paper grade-book. Although a spread sheet of Excel can be used as a grade-book but
there are lot of specialized software available which are specially designed for this
purpose.
Conducting Parent-Teacher Conferences
The parent-teacher conference can be an impotent supplement along-with the
written progress report of the student. Due to face-to-face conversation parents and
teachers can collectively devise a plan for the better learning and development of the
student. These conferences are inevitable at elementary level. Parent-teacher conferences
can be helpful in solving the students’ problems at secondary level. Parent-teacher
conferences can be very useful if properly planned and the teacher has the necessary skill
to conduct these conferences. The following guidelines can be very helpful in conducting
these conferences:-
1. Conferences should be properly planned. Portfolios of the students’ should
be reviewed and list of questions and important points for discussion
should be carefully prepared.
2. Conference should start with a positive note and this positivity must
prevail during the whole meeting.
3. Strengths of the students should be presented first and before coming to
their weaknesses.
4. The teacher must encourage parents to speak and share information. They
should listen to them very carefully.
5. Teacher and parents should mutually plan a course of action for home and
school.
6. The conference should end at a positive note.
7. Good human relation skills play a very important role in conduction of the
conference.

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 8.7 STATISTICAL COMPUTATION
Statistics algorithms were one of the first uses of modern computers.
Computational statistics, or statistical computing, is the interface between statistics and
computer science. It is the area of computational science (or scientific computing)
specific to the mathematical science of statistics.

8.8 FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

In statistics, a frequency distribution is a table that displays the frequency of
various outcomes in a sample. Each entry in the table contains the frequency or count of
the occurrences of values within a particular group or interval, and in this way, the table
summarizes the distribution of values in the sample.
Example:
Mr. Ali wants to examine the general performance trends among his eighth grade
language arts students in order to evaluate student learning and his own instruction. He
gives a mid-term language arts exam and obtains the following scores for his students:
95 91 100 96 92 91 87 84 70 65 96
65 56 86 43 65 22 40 93
To evaluate those scores, he creates a frequency distribution table to organize the test
data. The obtained scores are listed in order from highest to lowest.

Scores Tallies Frequency

100 | 1
96 || 2
95 | 1
93 | 1
92 | 1
91 || 2
87 | 1
86 | 1
84 | 1
70 | 1
65 ||| 3
56 | 1
43 | 1
40 | 1
22 | 1

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 8.9 MEASURE OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
8.9.1 Mean
The measures of central tendency help to summarize a bunch of scores with a
single number. This is the average of all the scores and it is obtained by adding the scores
together and dividing the sum by the number of scores.
Sum of all Scores
M or X =
Number of Scores
Though, the mean is influenced by deviant scores, it is very important in that it
takes into cognizance the relative size of each score in the distribution and it is also useful
for other statistical calculations.
8.9.2 Median
This is the middle score after all the scores have been arranged in order of
magnitude i.e. 50% of the score are on either side of it. Median is very good where there
are deviant or extreme scores in a distribution, however, it does not take the relative size
of all the scores into consideration. Also, it cannot be used for further statistical
computations.
8.9.3 Mode
Mode is the most frequent or popular score in the population. This is usually
evident during the drawing of frequency tables. It is not frequently used as the median
and mean in the classroom because it can fall anywhere along the distribution of scores
(top, middle or bottom) and a distribution may have more than one mode.

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 8.10 MEASURE OF VARIABILITY
Measure of variability indicates the spread of the scores. The usual measures of
variability are Range, Quartile Deviation and Standard Deviation. Their computations are
as illustrated below.
8.10.1 Range
The range is usually taken as the difference between the highest and the lowest
scores in a set of distribution. It is completely dependent on the extreme scores and may
give a wrong picture of the variability in the distribution. It is the simplest measure of
variability.
Example:
7, 2, 5, 4, 6, 3, 1, 2, 4, 7, 9, 8, 10.
Lowest score = 1, Highest = 10. Range = 10 -1 = 9
8.10.2 Semi-Inter-Quartile Range
Quartile Deviation
Note that Quartiles are points on the distribution which divide it into “quartiles”,
thus, we have 1st, 2nd and 3rd quartiles.
Inter-quartile range is the difference between Q3 and Q1 i.e. Q3 = Q1. This is often used
than the range as it cuts off the extreme score. Semi inter-quartile range is thus half of inter-
quartile range. This is also known as the semi-inter quartile range. It is half the difference
between the upper quartile (Q3) and the lower quartile (Q1) of the set of scores.
= Q3 - Q1
2
8.10.3 Standard Deviation
This is the square root of the mean of the squared deviations. The mean of the
squared deviations is called the variance (S2). The deviation is the difference between
each score and the mean.
SD (M) = √Σ x2
N
x = X - X - deviation of each score from the mean
N = number of scores.
The SD is the most reliable of all measures of variability and lend itself for use in
other statistical calculations. Deviation is the difference between each score (X) and the
mean (M). To calculate the standard deviation:
(i) find the mean (m)
(ii) find the deviation (x-m) and square each.
(iii) sum up the squares and divide by the number of the population (N)
(iv) find the positive square root.
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 8.11 PERCENTILE AND PERCENTILE RANK
This expresses a given score in terms of the percentage scores below it i.e. in a
class of 30,
Ibrahim scored 60 and there are 24 pupils scoring below him. The percentage of
score below
60 is therefore:
24 X 100 = 80%
30 1
Ibrahim therefore has a percentile of 80 written P 80. This means Ibrahim
surpassed 80% of his colleagues while only 20% were better than him.

8.12 MEASURE OF RELATIONSHIP OR CORRELATION

The Pearson correlation evaluates the linear relationship between two continuous
variables. The Spearman correlation coefficient is based on the ranked values for each
variable rather than the raw data. Spearman correlation is often used to evaluate
relationships involving ordinal variables.
8.12.1 Rank Difference Correlation
The rank difference correlation is also known as Spearman correlation that
evaluates the monotonic relationship between two continuous or ordinal variables. In a
monotonic relationship, the variables tend to change together, but not necessarily at a
constant rate. The Spearman correlation coefficient is based on the ranked values for each
variable rather than the raw data.
Spearman correlation is often used to evaluate relationships involving ordinal
variables. For example, you might use a Spearman correlation to evaluate whether the
order in which employees complete a test exercise is related to the number of months
they have been employed.
It is always a good idea to examine the relationship between variables with a
scatterplot. Correlation coefficients only measure linear (Pearson) or monotonic
(Spearman) relationships. Other relationships are possible.
8.12.2 Product Moment Correlation
The Pearson correlation evaluates the linear relationship between two continuous
variables. A relationship is linear when a change in one variable is associated with a
proportional change in the other variable.

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 ACTIVITY

Keeping the importance of reporting and grading in mind take a report card of elementary
level student and point out some of the major flaws in grading and reporting mechanism
in our traditional assessment system.

SELF-ASSESSMENT
1. Differentiate between the concept of measurement and evaluation in educational
assessment.
2. What are some of the common formats used for classroom test in our context?
What is the utility of the attitude test at elementary school level?
3. Write down the guidelines for developing test items; also develop test items of
different achievement level (knowledge, Application and Synthesis).
4. Develop a report card for using multiple grading and reporting methods for
elementary level students.
5. What are some most important statistical techniques which can be used on report
cards for communicating the students’ annual performance to their parents?

345
 REFERENCES
Brown, G. Irving, E. & Keegan, P. (2008). An introduction to educational assessment,
measurement, and evaluation: Improving the quality of teacher-based
assessment. New Zealand: Pearson Education.
Corps, P. (1993).Environmental Education in the Schools: Creating a Program that
Works. Retrieved from: http://www.nzdl.org/gsdlmod?e=d-00000-00---off-0cdl--
00-0----0-10-0---0---0direct-10---4-------0-1l--11-en-50---20-about---00-0-1-00-
0--4----0-0-11-10-0utfZz-8-
00&cl=CL2.5&d=HASHfd983b97814440891d192c.12.6&gt=1
Cohen, A. S. & Wollack, J. A. (n.d.). Handbook on Test Development: Helpful Tips for
Creating Reliable and Valid Classroom Tests. Retrieved from:
https://testing.wisc.edu/Handbook%20on%20Test%20Construction.pdf
Erienkoma, (2011). Standardized and Non-Standardized Tests. Retrieved From:
https://erienkoma.wordpress.com/2011/06/25/standardized-and-non-
standardized-tests/
Employment and Training Administration (1999). Understanding Test Quality-Concepts
of Reliability and Validity. Retrieved from: http://www.hr-
guide.com/data/G362.htm
Farooq, U. (2013). Educational Measurement, Definition & Concept of Educational
Measurement. Retrieved from:
http://www.studylecturenotes.com/socialsciences/
education/417educationalmeasurementdefinitionaconceptofeducationalmeasurem
ent
Gromisch, E. S. (2012). Standardized Tests as a Quality Benchmark for Student
Appraisal. Retrieved from:
http://www.brighthubeducation.com/student-assessment-tools/13492-qualities-
of-standardized-tests-when-and-how-to-use-them-effectively/
Harwell, T. (2011). Standardized Achievement Tests. Retrieved from:
https://prezi.com/ckyhk7tmlpcw/chapter-20-standardized-achievement-tests/
Kennedy. (n.d.). A Review of the Nature of Standardized Tests. Retrieved from:
https://us.corwin.com/sites/default/files/upm-binaries/7284_kennedy_ch_1.pdf
Kizlik, B. (2012). Measurement, Assessment, and Evaluation in Education. Retrieved
from:
http://www.adprima.com/measurement.htm
Kizlik, B. (2017). Measurement, Assessment, and Evaluation in Education. Retrieved
from:
http://www.adprima.com/measurement.htm
The Glossary of Education Reform (2015). Standardized tests. Retrieved from:
346
 http://edglossary.org/standardized-test/
Nitko, A.J. (1996). Educational assessment of students. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
O’Connor, K. (2002). How to grade for learning: Linking grades to standards. Arlington
Heights, IL: SkyLight.
Sattler. J.M. (2001) Assessment of children cognitive applications. USA: Publisher Inc.

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UNIT - 9

PROBLEMS AND ISSUES OF

ELEMENTARY EDUCATION

Written by: Dr. Sidra Rizwan

Reviewed by: Ms. Tooba Saleem

349
 CONTENTS
Introduction 351
Objectives 351
9.1 Female Education 352
9.1.1 Gender roles in Pakistan 352
9.1.2 Importance of female education 352
9.1.3 Rural vs. Urban 353
9.1.4 Role of government in female education 354
9.2 Dropout 355
9.2.1 Dropout rate increases dramatically after primary schooling 355
9.3 Curriculum 357
9.3.1 Factor Effecting Curriculum Development in Pakistan 357
9.4 Health and Family Education 359
9.4.1 Family Life Education during Childhood 359
9.4.2 The Challenges of Teaching HFLE 360
9.5 Examination System 362
9.5.1 Exam Analysis Report 363
9.6 Private Schools 364
9.6.1 Medium of Instruction 366
9.7 Teacher Training 368
9.7.1 Teacher Training Through Distance Education 370
9.7.2 In-service Training Programme 371
Activity 373
Self-Assessment 373
References 374

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 INTRODUCTION
Elementary education is typically the first stage of compulsory education,
coming between early childhood education and secondary education.
According to the Constitution of Pakistan it is mandatory for the government to
provide free and compulsory education to all children between the ages of 5-16 years and
enhance adult literacy. With the 18th constitutional amendment the concurrent list which
comprised of 47 subjects was abolished and these subjects, including education, were
transferred to federating units as a move towards provincial autonomy.
The year 2015 was important in the context that it marked the deadline for the
participants of Dakar declaration (Education for All [EFA] commitment) including
Pakistan. Education related statistics coupled with Pakistan’s progress regarding
education targets set in Vision 2030. Pakistan is lagging behind in achieving EFA targets
and the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). This calls for an analysis of the
education system of Pakistan for the investigation of the issues and problems being faced
so that workable solutions could be recommended.

OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit the prospective teachers will be able to:
1. understand the importance of female education and reasons for dropout at
elementary level.
2. identify the factors which affect the development of curriculum in Pakistan.
3. describe the significance of health and family life education at different levels of
schooling and challenges faced by the teachers.
4. analyze the examination system in Pakistan and suggest measures for its
improvement.
5. discuss the role of public and private sector in imparting elementary education in
the country.
6. acknowledge the role of distance education system in providing teacher training
facilities all over Pakistan.

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 9.1 FEMALE EDUCATION
Having an education is a fundamental right of every citizen, but gender
discrepancies still exist in the educational sector. According to the 2011 Human
Development Report of the United Nations Development Program, approximately twice
as many males as females receive a secondary education in Pakistan, and public
expenditures on education amount to only 2.7% of the GDP of the country.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%27s_education_in_Pakistan)
9.1.1 Gender roles in Pakistan
Patriarchal values heavily govern the social structure in Pakistani society.
Specifically, a woman is expected to take care of the home as wife and mother, whereas
the male dominates outside the home as a breadwinner. Men and women are conceptually
segregated into two distinct worlds. The household resources are allocated in the favor of
sons due to their role in society outside the home. Therefore, education for boys is
prioritized over girls, because it is perceived that boys must be equipped with educational
skills to compete for resources in the public arena; while girls have to specialize in
domestic skills to be good mothers and wives. Hence, education is not perceived as being
important for girls.
This gender division of labor has been internalized by the society, and girls do
not have many choices for themselves that could change these patriarchal realities of their
lives. Society does not allow girls to develop their human capabilities by precluding them
from acquiring education. Lack of emphasis on the importance of women's education is
one of the cardinal features of gender inequality in Pakistan. The Human Development
Report (HDR) listed Pakistan in the category of "low human development" countries with
a female literacy rate of thirty percent, and Pakistan has ranked 145 in the world in terms
of human development.
9.1.2 Importance of female education
Education has been of central significance to the development of human society.
It can be the beginning, not only of individual knowledge, information and awareness,
but also a holistic strategy for development and change. Education is very much
connected to women's ability to form social relationships on the basis of equality with
others and to achieve the important social good of self-respect. It is important, as well,
to mobility (through access to jobs and the political process) and to health and life
(through the connection to bodily integrity). Education can allow women to participate in
politics so they can ensure that their voices and concerns are heard and addressed in the
public policy. It is also crucial for women's access to the legal system. Although it must
be considered that religion and traditions of the Pakistani affect women's education.
Some women may choose to keep the traditional roles because that is what they have
always known and are used to. It would be a great opportunity if women were able to
make their choice on their own, though. They should at least have the knowledge of both
sides to be educated or to stay with the traditional ways.
Education is a critical input in human resource development and essential for the
country's economic growth. It increases the productivity and efficiency of individuals,
and it produces a skilled labor force that is capable of leading the economy towards
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sustainable growth and prosperity. The progress and wellbeing of a country largely
depends on the education choices made available to its people. It can be one of the most
powerful instruments of change. It can help a country to achieve its national goals via
producing minds imbued with knowledge, skills, and competencies to shape its future
destiny. The widespread recognition of this fact has created awareness on the need to
focus upon literacy and elementary education, not simply as a matter of social justice but
more to foster economic growth, social well-being, and social stability. Women's
education is so inextricably linked with the other facets of human development that to
make it a priority is to also make change on a range of other fronts; from the health and
status of women to early childhood care; from nutrition, water and sanitation to
community empowerment; from the reduction of child labor and other forms of
exploitation to the peaceful resolution of conflicts.
9.1.3 Rural vs. Urban
In year 2006, the literacy rate in urban areas was recorded 58.3% while in rural
areas it was 28.3%, and only 12% among rural women. An interesting factor in this
context is that female enrollment was recorded highest at the primary level, but it
progressively decreases at the secondary, college and tertiary levels. It was estimated that
less than 3% of the 17–23 age group of girls have access to higher education.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%27s_education_in_Pakistan)
The number of women who attend school in urban areas vs. rural areas differs
drastically. In urban areas women education is increasing every day. The parents of girls
in urban areas have more acceptance for their education and even encourage girls to
pursue a career they are also a lot more aware of their rights. This makes them a lot more
motivated to stand up for their education. These urban parents acknowledge the
importance of education. Women who live in urban areas are often enrolled in private
schools getting a better education there as they have a lot more educational
accessibilities. Women in urban areas are also surrounded by people who are educated
and are not put down or beaten for going to school. Unlike in urban areas, women in rural
areas are discouraged to attend school. Most of them are brought up in conservative
families with little to no education. They have to work harder than women in urban areas
because they have little support system. If their parents are accepting of education they
still cannot go since most of them are very poor and cannot afford the expense. Majority
of women also don’t attend school in rural areas of Pakistan because it is not culturally
accepted. These conservative families tend to be more traditional expecting women to
stay at home and attend the house while men go out to work. They’re also restricted in
rural areas because their town may not even have a school having them travel a long
distance to get there.
Statistically the gender disparity in education is much lower in urban places in
comparison to rural areas. One of the possible explanations of this pattern is relatively
stronger dominance of tribal, feudal and patriarchal traditions in rural areas. Moreover,
there are very few employment opportunities for women in rural areas, and thus, there is
very little financial incentive for families to send their girls to schools. However, it is
interesting that, despite the meagre representation of females in the education sector, the
353
level of achievement of female students is consistently far higher than that of their
counterpart male students. Girls generally outclass boys in examination, and they are also
higher achievers in universities. Unfortunately, the majority of the girls never get an
opportunity to develop their educational capabilities.
9.1.4 Role of government in female education
Officially the government of Pakistan is committed to provide every citizen an
access to education, but critics say that its budget allocation towards education does not
correspond with its former commitment. The expenditure on education as a percentage
of GDP was 1.82% in 2000–2001, while it has been raised slightly in 2006–2007 to
2.42%, and it is still relatively lower than most neighboring countries. Feminist
economists argue that the government of Pakistan needs to fully address and resolve the
gender concerns that exist in the educational sector. They suggest that one of the ways to
improve this situation is by increasing funding for women's education, encourage and
financially incentivize people in the rural areas to send their girls to schools. In the
apprentice of gender studies, the gender division of labor is considered patriarchal, and
feminists argue that it can be consciously neutralized by the public policies, i.e.
encouraging girls to study mathematics, science, computers, and business administration
etc. This way, girls will specialize in higher paying fields (jobs) instead of solely focusing
on care work.

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 9.2 DROPOUT
A dropout is defined as “any student who leaves school for any reason before
graduation or completion of a program of studies without transferring to another
elementary or secondary school.” (https://www.purdue.edu/hhs/hdfs/fii/wp-
content/uploads/2015/07/s_ncfis04c03.pdf)
While the number of out-of-school children (OOSC) in Pakistan has decreased by 1
million ─ from 25 million to 24 million ─ and dropout rates have decreased over last
year, almost half of all children between the ages of five and 16 are out of school and
more than 18 million have never seen the inside of a classroom. Gender disparity is also
evident in school enrolment rates, with over half of all girls out of school compared to
43% of boys.
9.2.1 Dropout rate increases dramatically after primary schooling
Of all the children enrolled in primary school in Pakistan, 69% are retained until
class 5 and only 28% until class 10.

Source: https://www.dawn.com/news/1241630

Enrolment and dropout vary by province. Balochistan and Fata’s dropout rates
till class five are the lowest at 34% and 32% respectively, while Gilgit-Baltistan (GB)
and Islamabad have the highest rates at 93% and 92% respectively, with a national
overall of 69%. (https://www.dawn.com/news/1241630)
Enrolment drops drastically after the primary level, but more steeply so for girls than
boys.
Boys continue to outnumber girls at every stage of education. Nearly 10 million
boys and 8.1 million girls are enrolled at the primary level; this drops to 1.9 million boys
and 1.4 million girls at the higher level, and just 1 million boys and 700,000 girls at the
higher secondary level. 62% students go to government schools, but only 20% provide
higher education

355
Source: https://www.dawn.com/news/1241630
Although 87% of primary schools are public schools, there is a greater proportion
of private schools providing middle and higher education, at 62% and 60% respectively.
This may be because 80% of government schools are primary schools, while only 11%
are middle schools, 8% high schools and 1% higher secondary schools.
The shortage of public schools at higher levels of education appears problematic
as 62% of the student population attends government schools, while about 38% attends
private schools.
Enrolment remains the greatest challenge
Nearly 24 million ─ 47% ─ of Pakistan’s estimated 51 million children between
the ages of five and 16 are out of school. While the dropout rate is a serious concern,
enrolment remains the major challenge.

356
 9.3 CURRICULUM
Word curriculum is derived from Latin word which is the combination of two
words:
• Curricula……………race
• Um……………..……place
Curriculum means “place for race”
Curriculum development or transformation is one of the critical challenges of any
successful institution. Innovative and demand-driven curriculum enables a school or
college to remain relevant and to be one step ahead of its rivals (competitors), set trends
and lead change in order to survive. Curriculum development is a rational and responsible
process. It must be planned carefully and consciously.
Following fundamental questions are focused in curriculum development:
• What educational purposes should the institution seek to attain through the
curriculum?
• What educational experiences can be provided which are likely to attain
these purposes?
• How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?
• How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?
9.3.1 Factor Effecting Curriculum Development in Pakistan
1. Lack of Alignment
There is a little coordination among the committees working for curriculum
development at various stages. When a student completes his studies at a particular stage
enters the next stage, he finds himself helpless. The concepts being taught at this stage
are quite strange. It needed that learning experiences selected and organized for every
stage should follow the previous one and should be sequential in form.
2. Economic Problems
• Change in curriculum, needs financial support.
• New teaching materials are required.
• Teachers are needed to be provided with in-services training and equipped
with new teaching materials textbooks are to be revised to fulfill the
changing needs of the society.
• Supportive personal are required to assist the teachers for effective
implementation of new curriculum designs.
3. Political Interference
It would be tempting, to argue that education should be taken out of politics. An
educational will expect political parties to clarify their general educational aims and
policies, which concern broad social issues. Every person coming into power brings with
him his vested interests and few educational plans for the nation, in such atmosphere
educationist is likely to suffer from frustration.
4. Inadequate Evaluation
If evaluation is to be of any education worth, it cannot be regarded, as it is in
Pakistani schools, evaluation must become an integral part of the total learning process
and not an appendage to it. The general practice in Pakistanis that curriculum reshaped
357
but the evaluation system helps the teacher to concentrate on teaching the student, the
examination tricks rather than on bringing a desirable change in student’s behavior.
5. Disapproval of society
The school curriculum according to Lawton is essentially a selection from the
culture of society. Certain aspect of our ways of life, certain kinds of “knowledge”,
certain values and attitude are regarded as so important that their transmission to the next
generation is very necessary. Pakistan inherited its curriculum patterns from the colonial
rulers. The same pattern is being social need is often disapproved by the society. The
school to public members of the society should have much to say about the curriculum.
6. Curriculum more Urbanized
Uniformity has always been misinterpreted in Pakistan. About seventy percent of
the total population is settled in rural areas. But the same courses are being offered in
rural and urban schools, when urban children come with a certain background of
language, particularly Urdu with either subject such as social studies, general science etc.
The need is to design a separate curriculum for rural areas.
7. Lack of In-services Training
When new curriculum was design or brought into practice the teachers are not
properly introduced to new learning actives and teaching strategies. If teachers are to be
mobilized in support of curriculum change, both initial and in-service teacher education
must convince them for their crucial role in promoting innovation. It provide a place
where teachers could find solutions to practice they have encountered in the classroom.
8. Teacher Reluctant to Accept Change
It is a universal phenomenon that teachers are considered to be conservative.
They have reasons for beings unwilling to change their approaches, not least because they
have an investment in knowledge and skills, which lend to be devalued by the passage of
time; they face the natural human temptation to resist any change which may render their
stock in trade obstacle. Secondary always opposed new curriculum as they are supposed
to pay more attention to new concepts and ideas.

9. Lack of commitment of National Philosophy

When Pakistan came into being it was stressed that our educational system will
be reshaped according to the teaching of Islam. Islamic way of life will be the focus of
our political, social and economic thinking. But soon after the death of Quaid-e-Azam,
this motto was set aside. A workable educational policy is always based on a philosophy.
Every nation has a philosophical way of life. Pakistan due to lack of philosophy is unable
to derive consistent educational objectives.

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 9.4 HEALTH AND FAMILY LIFE EDUCATION (HFLE)
Everyone who works with children and young people would perhaps
unanimously agree that they have a difficult and seemingly an almost impossible task of
getting this sector of our population to "do the right thing". Parents complain about their
children, teachers complain about their students and both groups tend to agree that the
children of today are more difficult to manage than those of the past. In fact society in
general seems to agree on this. It is easy to blame the parents for the unwholesome
behaviour of their children and sometimes they indeed are to blame but we have to
contextualize the behaviour of these children and young people. While it is true that some
parents abrogate their parental responsibilities and allow their children to be involved in
detrimental behaviour, this author contends that most parents, while they themselves may
be involved in such behaviour, the vast majority do not wish this for their children. Some
of them do not know how to engage their children in appropriate behaviour as they were
not taught themselves and some seem embarrassed to talk to their children on topics such
as sex, hoping that the child would automatically know the appropriate behaviour. Some
indeed teach their s the appropriate behaviour, but their own behaviour reflects the
opposite. We can look at the other influences and indeed at times more powerful
socialising agents like entertainers to whom the children look up, whose songs and
actions and indeed for some, their actual lifestyles, reflect behaviour that to say the least,
is quite inappropriate. Some of them make lawlessness, mediocrity and promiscuity
appear glamorous to youngsters and that if they are not engaged in such activities they
are "not with it". Even in the seemingly most innocent television shows, we see children
fooling their parents about their true behaviour and getting away with it. One can liken
what children face today to some dangerous enemy that we need to engage in combat.
Like any dangerous enemy, there needs to be an appropriate and comprehensive plan of
action to tackle the enemy. Everyone engaged in the fight must be clear on the goals and
objectives. They need to know what they are up against. We need to prepare our young
people for the future and the survival of our society, since they are the future and the
survival of our society depends on them. A good part of that preparation is contingent
upon the life skills that we give them and this can be found in Health and Family Life
Education (HFLE) programmes.
9.4.1 Family Life Education during Childhood
Basic family life concepts, attitudes, and skills that need to be learned during
childhood include developing a sense of self, learning right from wrong, learning about
family roles and responsibilities, making and keeping friends, respecting similarities and
differences in individuals and families, and learning to make choices (Bredehoft 1997).
Although these may be learned within the family, they also receive attention in family
life programs because some families may be unable or unwilling to educate their children
about these concepts or their efforts may be unsuccessful or may not happen at the right
time.
Family life education programs for children are typically organized around
individual rather than family development, that is, children of the same age or
developmental stage are taught the same things regardless of their particular family
359
situations. This approach may be appropriate for many children, but it also may fail to
address the important family life education needs of children in non-normative family
situations, such as being raised by a grandparent or dealing with the premature death of a
parent.
Sex education is a controversial area in family life education, especially at the
elementary or primary level, with many adults believing that sex education is a family
rather than a school responsibility. One area of sexuality education that does receive
attention in elementary or primary schools is that of child sexual abuse. Concerns about
sexual abuse have resulted in the development of sexual-abuse prevention programs for
young children that teach concepts of personal safety such as good and bad touch, saying
no, and telling someone you trust about the abuse.
9.4.2 The Challenges of Teaching HFLE
Sometimes one can believe that what they are doing to help youngsters by
enabling them with life skills such as conflict resolution, problem solving, decision
making etc., seem to be a waste of time because they seem not to be utilising these skills.
It appears at times that one is fighting and unfortunately losing an ongoing battle.
Nothing can be more disheartening than seeing youngsters do counter to what we have
taught them, especially when that behaviour is life threatening. It is not easy to remain
detached totally, especially when that person has such a love for these children. You get
to see their mistakes constantly and you wonder what more you can do. Most of us want
the best for these children and they want this too.
There are problems that facilitators face in implementing HFLE programmes in
schools.
1. Many people believe that such programmes focus primarily, if not solely on sex
and that as long as sex is a topic being discussed with youngsters, you are
encouraging them in sexual activities. Parents and educators need to understand
that HFLE is more than sex. It is about learning responsibility generally.
2. Not enough time is allocated to HFLE. Administrators need to understand the
importance of HFLE and the benefits it has in relation to academic endeavours.
Life skills programmes occupy a small part of the school timetable and in the
senior year groups, they become even smaller. There needs to be the recognition
that children can make better academic decisions and can engage in more
beneficial problem-solving if they are taught about these generally and HFLE can
help in this regard. The focus should not only be on academics.
3. HFLE is not only for specialists. If we are to effectively fight the enemy
everyone has to be involved. We cannot afford not to have "all hands on deck".
All adults within the school system need to know about HFLE. At different times
of the day, various groups of adults come into contact with children more often
than others, who may be more influential. We need to recognize everyone’s value
in bringing his or her particular perspective to HFLE.
4. Some HFLE practitioners need to be more in tuned with the youngsters. One
cannot be surprised with what they bring to the sessions. They need to know
young people better and the pressures that they face. They need to be "real" to
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 them and not appear too far removed. They cannot seem to know everything and
be persons incapable of making mistakes in life. The key is to show the children
that one can learn from consequences of their mistakes and grow. There is the
need therefore to be able to really empathize with young people. Without this we
cannot get through to them.
5. Collaboration is the key. HFLE has to be a collaborative effort. People need to
know what they are up against and the goals and objective need to be clear.
Persons can bring their particular methodologies and perspectives to any HFLE
programme as people have different life experiences, some which might reflect
the challenges that the children face.

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 9.5 EXAMINATION SYSTEM
Punjab
The Government of the Punjab has established Punjab Examination Commission
(PEC) so that it may improve the examination process at elementary level. The objectives
of the whole process for improving the examination system are as under:
 Improvement in teaching and learning with respect to each of the examination
subject
 Making clear that at different class level, the students have grasped a
comprehension of the concepts Monitoring the efficiency and effectiveness of
service delivery.
 Facilitating the bench marking of students’ achievement Monitoring equity of
student outcomes with reference to rural/urban and male/females
 Evaluating the existing curricula and textbooks
 Monitoring the whole education programme
 Providing information regarding the selection of the students to proceed to the
next class Providing ability to monitor students’ progress over time
 Facilitating judgments about the quality of examination papers and examination
process (UNICEF, 2005).
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
The Khyber Pakhtunkhwa elementary and secondary education department has
decided in principle to introduce a new examination system for fifth and eighth grades in
the province. The system applicable to government and private educational institutions
will take effect in the next academic session and in phases. The exam papers would be
based on ‘student learning outcomes’ technique and thus, doing away with rote learning.
The seven boards of intermediate and secondary education functioning in the province
would take the fifth and eighth grade examinations to check whether SLOs mentioned in
the curricula were achieved or not.
The new exam pattern would be formally introduced for fifth graders in the next
session who would sit the annual examinations in 2018, while it would be introduced for
eighth graders on trial basis in the next two years and that they would go through the new
system thereafter for promotion to the next grade.
The education department had already initiated work on the shift from the
existing examination system based on rote learning to the new one based on SLOs. The
students of government schools sat for the examinations of new pattern previous year on
trial basis.
The students of government schools would sit for the fifth grade examinations to
be held in March on trial basis but this time around, the education department had made
the students of private schools, too, part of it.
In the new exam pattern, the education department could do assessment of many
aspects of the education system with a single click of the computer. This new system
would help the department identify flaws in the education system including the students’
failure in different subjects, teachers’ and schools’ performance, and problems in
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curricula. The new pattern of examination could easily assess whether the SLOs
mentioned in the curricula were achieved or not.
9.5.1 Exam Analysis Report
Punjab Examination Commission’s Exam Analysis Report for 2016 highlights
the trends in performance of Grade 5 and Grade 8 students. The exam was conducted
across Punjab for students of public schools, private schools, as well as private registered
candidates. The successful conduct of exam was followed by marking, compilation and
communication of results. A uniform and structured monitoring system in all districts
ensured the quality and reliability of the exam. In Grade 5, the performance of students
was better in Islamiat and Urdu than that in the subjects of Science, Mathematics, English
and Ethics. There was a minor difference in mean scores between girls and boys in
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs). However, this difference was significant in the
Constructed Response Questions (CRQs). Overall, girls performed better than boys in all
subjects except Mathematics. Students from private schools performed better than those
from public schools, while private registered candidates scored the lowest. The language
of exam affected the performance of students in the subjects of Science and Islamiat. In
Grade 8, the students performed best in subjects of Islamiat and Urdu scoring 73% and
68% respectively, whereas their average scores were below 60% in the remaining
subjects. Science and Mathematics were the lowest performing subjects. Students
performed better on MCQs, scoring above 60% for all subjects as compared to their
respective CRQ scores. A gender based analysis showed that girls performed better than
boys in all subjects except Mathematics. There was a slight difference in performance
between public school students and private school students and both performed
significantly better than private registered candidates. On average, Grade 8 students
performed better than Grade 5 students. A Student Learning Outcome (SLO) based
analysis showed that students in both grades performed well on questions involving
reading skills and struggled on those involving writing skills. In Science, students
performed better on topics of biological sciences as compared to those of chemical
sciences. In Mathematics, topics requiring computation skills were better attempted as
compared to those requiring application of concepts. Across cognitive levels, students
performed best on questions that tested Knowledge and Understanding and were
challenged by questions based on Application, Analysis, Synthesis and Evaluation.

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 9.6 PRIVATE SCHOOLS
The private education sector in Pakistan—which now accounts for almost 50
percent of enrolment in Punjab alone—has arisen from a complex set of reasons, and has
more ramifications than those captured by research and policy responses. The sector
needs to be taken more seriously for both the risks it poses and the opportunities it
provides. At present, a parallel amorphous private sector continues to mushroom without
an adequate harness and clarity on its eventual direction. The state will have to take
charge as laissez faire in education, like any other fundamental right, cannot exist. To be
successful, it will first have to reform itself, view the private sector as a medium for
education proliferation and comprehend the sector thoroughly, before applying any
policy.
The poor quality of education in public schools is often quoted as the primary
cause of growth in the private education sector. However, the picture has more to it than
simple, real or perceived, quality differentials. Parents value their children's security
above all else and will send them to the nearest school if they know a teacher will be
present. Perceptions of quality differentials, provided parents have a clear understanding
of the term, play a smaller role than purported. The distance to the nearest government
school provides as much of an incentive, if not more, to parents to send their children to a
private school.
The growth of low-cost private schools is becoming an urban trend in large cities.
The demonstration effect led to the spread to smaller towns and even rural areas, across
Pakistan. Contrary to prevailing perceptions, long distances and difficult commutes are
not just rural phenomena. Urban sprawl, through rural-urban migration, has shifted
population centers away from the nearest government school. Transportation costs
exceed fees at the nearest school as a result, and security is an added concern, especially
for girls. These facts apply to both large cities and the small towns that serve as pit stops
for migrating populations.
Public school planning has failed to adjust to the needs of new and evolving
demographics of both rural and urban areas in the more densely populated provinces. The
last schools developed in urban centers are 40–60 years old, primarily due to prohibitive
land prices, which prevent free-of cost land donations to the government and piecemeal
planning approaches in the public sector.
Perceived quality differentials—especially the needs to learn English—form
another subset of the demand factor. The Learning and Educational Achievement in
Punjab Schools (LEAPS) study showed relatively better learning achievements from
private schools in rural Punjab, and considered the higher demand for private schools to
be a rational choice for parents. Significantly, the study highlighted the differences in
learning as only relative, due to an extremely low benchmark set by government schools.
By extension, the outcomes in life for low-cost private school students may not be
significantly different from their government school-going peers. (Some) parents' desire
to break the elite barrier cannot be fulfilled through current quality.

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 The relative difference—and size of the sector—led to the formation of public-
private partnerships (PPPs) in provinces, often supported by a development partner.
These partnerships viewed the 'better quality' of private schools as an opportunity. There
was also an implicit notion of 'giving up' on the irredeemable public sector. However, the
structures' failure to recognize the scale of the problem and the need to revert to the state
—irrespective of the models used and their limitations—have begun to manifest. The
largest effort, in Punjab, has failed to cover more than five to six percent of the scale
achieved by the regular government sector, despite some good results and capacity. The
cycle has begun to shift back towards the public schools, but not necessarily in the best
fashion.
Over time, the PPP and the traditional public sector have become parallel, often
antagonistic, structures and concepts. Rivalry and distrust between the government and
private sector also continue to grow, as do opportunities and challenges in the form of the
private sector as a parallel, unregulated system.
The need for regulation cannot be overstated. As a fundamental right, education
has to be provided to all children within the bounds of a state-determined set of standards.
The public sector's failure to develop and implement quality standards for its own schools
diminishes its legitimacy and authority to impose any regulation on private schools. State
proposals on regulation often target private-school teacher salaries and qualifications -
the public school's two comparative advantages (physical infrastructure being the third).
Given the history of state intervention, the private sector fears intrusion into its affairs,
resisting any suggestions of regulation.
The prolongation of the status quo carries a number of risks. First, parental
dissatisfaction with the outcomes of low-cost private school education may begin to
increase over time, as the social divide supposedly covered by the 'English' taught in
these schools, widens. Second, the government has no control over the content and ideas
taught in private schools. This ignorance carries serious potential risks, especially in a
country with a risk of extremism. Finally, the state cannot abandon its responsibility of
providing quality education to all children of the private sector, as only the former can
define the ethos of quality education in a country.
The state has to make a call. It cannot—and may not need to—invest in
infrastructure in the presence of private entrepreneurship in the sector. This will be
especially true of urban centers. It has to look inwards, improving its own quality and
comprehension of education, and ensure, within a broader policy framework, that a
regulated private sector provides education as per state-prescribed standards. The
objective seems elusive with current state capacity, but room for optimism does exist.
The devolution of education to the provinces after the 18th Amendment and the
continuity of the democratic process have made education a higher priority for all
provincial governments. Greater interest and seriousness can now be expected of these
governments, than at any point in recent history. One hopes for a more informed and
education-friendly response, and the inclusion of the private sector in a student focused
policy. The targets of Article 25-A of the Constitution, which calls for compulsory and

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free education for all children aged 5–16, may become even more distant without such an
approach.
9.6.1 Medium of Instruction
Children must initially begin their schooling in their own tongue, with which
they are familiar. This will help their cognitive development and inculcate critical
thinking. It will also enable them to be articulate participants in the construction of
knowledge in the classroom and discourage the culture of rote learning. English should
be introduced at a later stage and taught as a second language.
With the exception of a small minority of children who are bilingual even before
they begin school, teaching children in a language other than their mother tongue in the
early years does harm them, no matter how good their teachers would be. This approach
robs the child of the natural advantage s/he has in her/his home language.
A child begins “acquiring” language from her environment soon after she is born.
Children have already gained three or four years of language experience in their mother
tongue when they start school. If English is to be the school language, these children lose
this advantage. The benefit goes to a small minority that is bilingual from the start by
virtue of their parents being the products of exclusive English-medium education.
In Pakistan public demand has been created for English. People believe that English is
the magic wand that can open the door to prosperity. Policymakers, the wielders of
economic power and the social elites have also perpetuated this myth to their own
advantage. The door of prosperity has been opened but only for a small elite.
In a multilingual country such as Pakistan where at least eight major languages
compete for supremacy, English occupies a special position by virtue of its “neutrality”.
But the status of English as the language of international communication exerts additional
pressure. This importance is reinforced by Pakistan’s employment market, which
discriminates in favour of the fluent English speaker even though not every job requires
an English language expert.
This language paradox has undermined our education standards. With no well-
defined language as a medium of instruction policy, we have a fractured system that
divides society. There is an excellent English-based system in the private sector that is
expensive and caters for a small wealthy elite. Children from the middle and lower-
middle classes go to second-tier private schools charging relatively modest fees.
They adopt a strange mix of languages while pretending to be English-medium. The
teachers explain in their mother tongue while teaching from English language textbooks
from which the students plagiarise and memorise passages.
It is left to public-sector schools, patronised by the children of the poor, to adopt
indigenous languages as the medium of instruction – rather apologetically. With the
government rapidly disengaging itself from the education sector, these institutions
perform dismally.
As a result, the country is in a state of linguistic confusion. On the one hand
people are desperate to be seen as being proficient in English when they are actually not.
At the same time they are ashamed of their own language though that is the only
language they can communicate in. The ambiguity of the language of instruction policy
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allows schools to make their own choices, which has contributed to the present crisis in
education in Pakistan.
The demand for English – a trend set by the privileged elite – has put schools
under pressure. Not many teachers who can teach English or teach in English are
available. That is why it would be feasible to get all schools to teach initially in the
child’s mother tongue while concentrating on improving standards.
This would require the production of good textbooks and the training of teachers.
Both of these can be done effectively in our own languages. The main challenge would
be to decide judiciously which language is to be used as the medium in which region and
at what stage other languages, including English, should be introduced.
Training English-as-a-second-language teachers should pose no difficulty. Such
teachers can impart basic communication skills in English to their students who would be
learning other subjects in their own language. Those going on to higher studies or
needing greater competency in English could take up language courses that should be
made widely available.

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 9.7 TEACHER TRAINING
Teachers play a crucial role in the establishment of an effective system of
education. It is important that these teachers are equipped with proper knowledge, skills
and attitudes in carrying out the goals of education and fulfilling their obligations.
Teachers training have certain levels which correspond with the general education ability
of the teachers. There are three levels of teachers training.
i) Pre- service
Teachers for the primary schools after passing Secondary School examination are
provided one year training. After completion of this training they are awarded a
certificate called Primary Teacher’s certificate (PTC). Those who possess FA/F.Sc
certificate are given one year training and awarded a certificate called Certificate in
Education (CT). PTC and CT training is provided by the Government Colleges of
Elementary Education (GCEE). There are separate Elementary Colleges of Education for
girls and boys who have been established at all the district headquarters within the
country.
Those who possess BA/.Sc degrees are provided one year training called
“Bachelor of Education” (B.Ed) at the Government Colleges of Education. These
colleges are at a few selected places in each province of the country. Those who further
want to specialize in the subject of education undergo one year course called Master in
Education (M.Ed). This course is conducted by the Colleges of Education and in the
Institutes of Education in the Universities. Teachers also do M.Phil and Ph.D in
Education from the universities. Those who possess M.Ed or M.Phil teach in the Colleges
of Education. At the University level Ph.Ds are employed to train teachers.
Allama Iqbal Open University has started teacher training courses through its
distance education system for those students who cannot afford to attend formal regular
courses in the teacher training institutions. National Education policy (1998-2011)
provides for modernizing the courses in teachers training. Accordingly, the duration and
period of training at all levels of training is being increased, including better salaries for
the teachers.
There are few problems in the teacher-training programme which include non -
availability of qualified teaching faculty for the Colleges of Education, quality training
programmes, financial problems of the Training Institutions, lack of quality material for
training and lack of effective system of management and supervision. But the most
serious problem is that the teachers do not use those teaching skills and methods in their
classes which were taught to them in the training institutions.

ii) In-service
In-service education and training of teachers has its own historical roots. Its
journey from pre-independence to post independence period is characterized by
numerous policy statements recommendations of different commissions regarding its
content and strategies for implementation it has grown from a concept to a process and
gained its importance for preparing teachers towards professional growth and
development.
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In our country, the trend is that once a teacher has joined service as a teacher, s/he
continues to be so, though he may or may not study. In-service education is badly needed
for all types of teachers in Pakistan.
Programmes of In-Service Teacher Education
 Seminar- In a seminar some problems of education are taken up and there is
collective thinking. Discussions are held and conclusions are arrived at all under
the guidance of some experts.
 Refresher Courses: - A refresher course means an educational programme
organized for refreshing the knowledge of in-service teacher. Generally they
acquire the teachers with the new development in the field of education. With the
coming up of new education policy, refresher courses were arranged all around for
teachers of different categories.
 Workshops: - Workshops are organized for giving in-service education to teachers.
They involve more of practical work and less theoretical discussion. These types of
programmes are more useful for the teachers. The teachers have to work practically
and come out with final materials to be seen by others. Organization of workshops
consumes more time than a seminar or conference.
 Conference: - In a conference, there is a broad discussion of subjects of practical
interest. Generally there is a central theme around which several sub topics are
given. Teachers as per their interest, present paper at the time of conference. The
session ends with the concluding remarks of the president
 Study Groups: - Forming study groups and using them as a technique for in-service
education for teachers can work wonders. A group of teachers of the same subject
and a subject expert in the college of education are combined and start working.
They choose some topics of common interest (or) it may be a problem related to
their teaching subject. Discussion is started under guidance and they continue
thinking, studying and discussing that subject. If need arises, someone may be
invited for extension lecture. The study groups may be meeting once in a week or
even once in a month.
 Correspondence Courses: Correspondence courses can be designed for giving in-
service education to teachers. A few universities have already started working in
the area of in-service teacher education programmes.
 Other Programmes: - A few programmes for in-service education of teachers are
suggested below:-
· Educational tours
· Radio broadcast
· Film shows
· T.V programmes
· Extension lecture for teachers
· Exhibitions
· Exchange of teachers

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 “Good education requires good teachers” that it becomes essential that the most
capable and appropriate be recruited into the teaching profession, provided with high
quality pre-service programme of teacher education, and them offered opportunities to
upgrade their knowledge and skills over the full length of their career. It is, therefore,
essential that there is major reorientation of teacher education to ensure that teachers are
furnished with the necessary knowledge and skills to cope with the new demands placed
on them.
With the increased capacity of communication technology, language will become
a very powerful instrument. The teacher-education programme should be strengthened to
develop language competency among our teacher-taught. The modern time demands
multi lingual competence including the new computer languages that are bound to
emerge with expansion of computer-technology.
9.7.1 Teacher Training Through Distance Education
Is distance education a viable solution to attain the kind of high quality teachers
students need?
Evidences from Pakistan reveal mix opinion about the quality of distance
education in general and for professional degrees including teacher education in
particular. On one hand the oldest distance teacher education program in Asia was started
in Pakistan through Allama Iqbal Open University in 1974. Till late eighties, the
university had international students in this program. Even today everyone in Pakistan
acknowledges the quality of the material produced by the University Teacher Education
Programs and access to these programs. It has provided access not only to urban
communities but also to the people live in remote areas.
Nevertheless, quality of the graduates produced by the university is big question
mark due to the management of the delivery of these courses. This experience from
Pakistan guide us that this is a viable solution for meeting rapidly increasing demands of
professional teachers but to maintain quality we need especially measures including
supervision, monitoring and mentoring of prospective teachers during the practicum
component of the programs. This is same as we cannot have risk for human lives as we
do for medical students.
How can we develop, deploy, and measure distance education for teachers and how
do we define and measure impact?
Another example from Pakistan that offers distance education programs is the
Virtual University of Pakistan that delivers education through a judicious combination of
broadcast television and the Internet. Its courses are hand-crafted in meticulous detail by
acknowledged experts in the field. In addition to the prescribed texts, comprehensive
reading material / lecture notes in the form of web-enabled content are provided through
a comprehensive Learning Management System (LMS) hosted on the VU Web Servers
and accessible over the Internet. The full power of hyperlinks is utilized for making the
on-line experience a truly powerful one.
The LMS also provides an e-mail facility to each and every student as well as
discussion boards for interaction within the university faculty and students. Assignments
are handed out through the LMS and also submitted by the students through the same
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mechanism. Pop-quizzes and practice tests are also conducted through the LMS. Midterm
and Final Examinations for every semester are conducted in a formal proctored
environment at exam centers designated for the purpose throughout the country. The
university believes that the formal examination atmosphere assists in critical quality
assurance of the student assessment system. May be these kind of measures could ensure
quality.
Can distance education achieve both quality and scale or are they mutually
exclusive?
Like rest of the world, Pakistan, still needs more and better teachers. In the
world, despite progress made since the Dakar conference on education for all in 2000
“denying children an opportunity to put even a first step on the education ladder puts
them on a course for a lifetime of disadvantage” (UNESCO 2010).
In a programme for in-service teachers that ran for more than twenty years the
federal ministry of education in Pakistan used the Allama Iqbal Open University to
provide in-service education on a new curriculum for primary-school teachers. The
university’s Primary Teachers Orientation Course was launched in 1976 and, in its initial
ten-year phase, reached nearly 84,000 teachers; 56 percent of these completed the course
and 38 per cent qualified for a university certificate. By 1999 a further 50,000 teachers
had been recruited on to a revised course which had a higher completion and pass rate
(Perraton, 2007; AIOU, 1999).
In assessing how far open and distance learning can raise educational quality, the
evidence on effectiveness is thinner than we would like, but so it is for many
conventional programmes of teaching education. The evidence is particularly thin on the
use of the newer information and communication technologies where, despite grand
claims, we have little hard evidence. The above two examples from Pakistan inform us
that quality AND scale are not mutually exclusive for both pre and in-service teacher
education programs. There is need to make delivery of the distance education more
systematic and processes led with clear and well define assessment protocols.
9.7.2 In-service Training Programme
When teachers join teaching profession, they just have a degree of
completion of their pre-service training. They do not know anything about the
actual classrooms. Sometimes they have no idea about the problems which they
are going to meet in future while teaching the class. In the training institutions,
they just learn the curriculum handed to them and try their best to rote it
and get through the examination. The system of training institutions does not
equip them with those techniques or methods which help them while facing
the classrooms. In service teacher training is provided so that the teachers can
be made more competent and their professional development can be enhanced.
A planned training activity is launched for people who are usually already trained
for and employed in the job. It is also called Training for Employees (Zahra,
2008).
Zahra, (2008) describes the needs of in-service training as:

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 • A gap has been recognized in the worker’s knowledge or skills,
either by the supervisor or the worker himself.
• The worker's job description or responsibilities have changed
for which he/she does not have previous training.
• New information techniques and equipment have arrived or new
systems are introduced in a work situation for which
new knowledge and skills are required.
Niazi & Awan, (2005) describe in-service training as under: "In
service training is mainly concerned with the improvement of
the teacher’s performance. This training may be provided in the
form of on the job-training, or refresher courses. It may also be
provided through orientation, workshops, seminars and
conferences."
Reasons for ineffectiveness of in-service training programmes
In- service training programmes are design to refresh the knowledge of
the teachers. One of the aim is to introduce the teachers with new trends and
techniques in the field of education. The in-service programmes which
are implemented for the improvement of the quality of education and to enable
the teachers with new techniques, do not produce the desired results. This
happens due to some reasons.
1. Trainers
The most important reason is the appointment of the trainers. Teachers
who have some approach to the appointing authorities or have links with
the concerned department get themselves appointed as trainer and even
they themselves do not have proper training.
Siddique (2007) narrates in his book Rethinking Education in
Pakistan
Perceptions, Practices, and Possibilities as:
"Unfortunately there have been no serious attempts at
government level for Teacher Training or to improve the quality of education
in our country. A myriad of so called "Crash Courses" are launched in which
thousands of teachers are forcibly ‘trained’ in one go. The ultimate aim of
such courses seems to produce the inflated number of "trained teachers"
to higher ups and get the letter of appreciation."
2. Trainees
When the schedule of the training courses is sent to schools and heads of
the schools, they are asked to send their teachers for workshop. The heads
should send those teachers who have no relation with the subject for which they are
going to take training. Behind this there are many reasons. Sometimes, heads give
no importance to the workshops and send irrelevant teachers. If workshops are held
out of the station, some teachers want to join workshop just to visit the other cities
and will enjoy the trip with attractive earning. When these teachers come back
after training, they do not seem to have anything valuable in their hands. Their
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training proves useless and futile not only for them but also for the institution
because these teachers do not know the basic roots of the subjects.

3. Training methods
In the workshops, arranged for in-service teachers to enhance their
knowledge in their respective subjects, no modern techniques or material is
used. The trainers teach them those articles which can be found in the books of
different classes. No new advance things are added. Even in science subjects, like
mathematics or physics, only chalk and board are used. At Federal level some
training workshops produce much better results which are arranged in
collaboration with other countries or with the help of international organization.
At provincial level, the situation is graver.

ACTIVITY
1. Analyze the role of distance education in training the teachers for a better
tomorrow.
2. Critically analyze the elementary examination system in Pakistan. Suggest a way
forward.
3. Conduct a lesson on health and family life education at elementary level. Write a
report on your experience.

SELF- ASSESSMENT
1. Discuss the contemporary issues of elementary education in Pakistan. Suggest
ways for resolving the issue of gender disparity.
2. Elucidate the major factors which affect curriculum development in Pakistan.
3. Compare the performance of public and private sector at elementary level in
Pakistan.
4. Elaborate the role of distance education in providing teacher training
opportunities to the masses. Highlight the performance of AIOU in this context.
5. Discuss the need and importance of in-service training with a focus on
continuous professional development.

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 REFERENCES
Human Development Report 2014 “Sustaining Human Progress: Reducing
Vulnerabilities and Building Resilience,” United Nations Development Programme
(UNDP) (New York: UNDP, 2014).
Mehnaz Aziz et al, “Education System Reform in Pakistan: Why, When, and How?” IZA
Policy Paper No. 76, January 2014 (Institute for the Study of Labor, 2014), P 4.
Annual Report: Pakistan Education Statistics 2011-12, National Education Management
Information System Academy of Educational Planning and Management, Ministry
of Education, Trainings & Standards in Higher Education, Government of Pakistan,
(Islamabad, AEPAM, 2013).
Economic Survey of Pakistan 2014, Ministry of Finance, Government of Pakistan.
Pakistan: Education for All 2015 National Review, Ministry of Education, Trainings and
Standards in Higher Education Academy of Educational Planning and Management
Islamabad, Pakistan June, 2014 (available at :
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Maliha Naveed, Reasons of Low Levels of Education in Pakistan, Pakistan Herald,
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low-levels-of-education-in-pakistan-3065).
“Pakistan may miss EFA goals by 2015-16: Report,” Daily Nation, October, 3, 2014.
Useful Websites
Curriculum Development http://crunchysana.blogspot.com/2010/12/chapter-6-
development-of-elementary.html Retrieved 14th March 2017
Distance Education in Pakistan http://edutechdebate.org/distance-education-for-
teachers/open-and-distance-learning-for-teacher-training-evidence-from-pakistan/
Retrieved 20th March 2017
Dropout rate in Pakistan https://www.dawn.com/news/1241630 Retrieved 14th March
2017
Elementary Education http://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2015/06/29/elementary-
education/ Retrieved 6th March 2017
Examination System in KPK https://www.dawn.com/news/1289613 Retrieved 22nd
March 2017
Examination System in Punjab https://www.slideshare.net/laraibasif/laraib-59005855
Retrieved 14th March 2017
Family life education http://www.encyclopedia.com/reference/encyclopedias-almanacs-
transcripts-and-maps/family-life-education Retrieved 14th March 2017
Health and family life education
https://www.unicef.org/easterncaribbean/cao_publications_cifhfle2.pdf Retrieved 14th
March 2017
In-service Teacher Education https://educational-system.blogspot.com/2012/07/pre-
service-and-in-service-training-for.html Retrieved 22nd March 2017
Medium of Instruction https://wondersofpakistan.wordpress.com/tag/mother-tongue-as-a-
medium-of-instruction-in-elementary-schools/ Retrieved 20th March 2017
Private Schools
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http://www.pk.undp.org/content/pakistan/en/home/library/hiv_aids/development-
advocate-pakistan--volume-1-issue-2/opinion.html Retrieved 20th March 2017
Punjab Examination Commission’s Exam Analysis Report 2016
http://www.pec.edu.pk/system/files/PEC_Exam_Analysis_Report_2016.pdf
Retrieved 14th March 2017
Teacher Training http://www.awamipolitics.com/primary-middle-secondary-school-
teacher-training-in-pakistan-3414.html Retrieved 20th March 2017
Women Education in Pakistan
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%27s_education_in_Pakistan Retrieved 14th March
2017

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