Unit-3

1. Define Coupling and Cohesion

Coupling and cohesion are fundamental concepts in software engineering related to the
relationships between different parts of a software system. They are crucial for
understanding the overall design and maintainability of the system.
Coupling:
• Represents the degree of interdependence between modules or components in a
system.
• High coupling indicates that modules are tightly linked and rely heavily on each other,
making them difficult to modify or reuse independently.
• Low coupling signifies modules are loosely connected and have minimal
dependencies, leading to improved modularity and maintainability.
• Aiming for low coupling is generally considered a good practice in software design.
Types of Coupling:
• Data coupling: Modules share data structures or primitive data types.
• Stamp coupling: Modules communicate through complex data structures containing
unrelated information.
• Control coupling: Modules control each other's execution flow.
• Common coupling: Modules share access to global data or resources.
• Content coupling: Modules share implementation details and algorithms. Cohesion:
• Represents the degree to which the elements within a module are related and
focused on a single purpose.
• High cohesion indicates that elements within a module are tightly related and
contribute to a single, well-defined function.
• Low cohesion suggests that elements within a module are loosely related and serve
multiple purposes, making the module less focused and more difficult to understand.
• Aiming for high cohesion is generally considered a good practice for creating
reusable and maintainable modules.
Types of Cohesion:
• Functional cohesion: All elements within a module contribute to a single, well-defined
function.
• Sequential cohesion: Elements within a module are related in a sequential order,
where the output of one element is the input for the next.
• Communicational cohesion: All elements within a module operate on the same data
structure.
• Procedural cohesion: Elements within a module follow a specific procedural flow.
• Temporal cohesion: Elements within a module are related by timing constraints or
events.
 • Logical cohesion: Elements within a module are related by a general logical
relationship.

2. Define Façade Design Pattern

The Facade Design Pattern is a structural design pattern that simplifies the access to a
complex system by providing a single, unified interface. It acts as a gateway to the
underlying system, hiding its internal complexity and providing a more user-friendly interface
for clients.
It is used to hide the complexities of a system and present a unified and simplified interface
to the client or calling code. The Facade pattern is part of the Gang of Four design patterns
and promotes the principle of encapsulation.
Here are the key points about the Facade Design Pattern:
Intent:
• Provide a simplified interface to a complex system.
• Decouple the client from the internal implementation of the system.
• Make the system easier to use and maintain.
Structure:
• Facade: This is the single interface that clients use to interact with the system. It
delegates calls to the appropriate subsystem components.
• Subsystems: These are the individual components that make up the complex
system. They are hidden from the client by the facade.
Benefits:
• Simplified interface: Clients only need to interact with a single interface, which makes
the system easier to use.
• Reduced complexity: The facade hides the internal complexity of the system, making
it easier to understand and maintain.
• Decoupling: The client is decoupled from the implementation details of the system,
which makes it more flexible and adaptable.
• Improved maintainability: Changes to the internal implementation of the system can
be made without affecting the client code.
When to use the Facade Design Pattern:
• When you have a complex system with a large number of interfaces or classes.
• When you want to simplify the use of a system for clients.
• When you want to decouple the client from the implementation details of a system.
• When you want to create a layer of abstraction that can be used to control access to
the system.

3. List the main roles in System Design

System design involves the process of defining the architecture, components, modules,
interfaces, and data for a system to satisfy specified requirements. In this process, various
roles contribute to designing a system. The specific roles and their responsibilities may vary
depending on the organization and the methodology used, but commonly recognized roles
include:

1. **System Architect:**

- Responsible for designing the overall architecture of the system.

- Defines the structure and organization of the components and their relationships.

- Balances functional and non-functional requirements.

2. **System Analyst:**

- Analyzes the requirements provided by stakeholders to understand the system's needs.

- Translates user requirements into system requirements.

- Collaborates with stakeholders to ensure the design meets their expectations.

3. **Database Designer:**

- Designs the structure and organization of the database(s) within the system.

- Defines data models, tables, relationships, and constraints.

- Ensures data integrity, security, and performance.

4. **Network Architect:**

- Designs the network infrastructure that supports system communication.

- Defines the layout, protocols, and security measures for data transmission.

- Ensures scalability, reliability, and performance of the network.

5. **UI/UX Designer:**

- Designs the user interface and user experience of the system.

- Creates wireframes, prototypes, and visual designs.

- Ensures a user-friendly and efficient interaction with the system.

6. **Software Architect:**
- Focuses on the software aspects of the system.

- Defines the structure of software components, modules, and their interactions.

- Considers software patterns, frameworks, and technologies.

7. **Security Architect:**

- Designs the security measures for the system to protect against threats.

- Defines access controls, encryption, and authentication mechanisms.

- Ensures compliance with security standards and policies.

8. **Quality Assurance (QA) Engineer:**

- Defines testing strategies and plans to ensure the quality of the system.

- Identifies and manages testing activities throughout the development life cycle.

- Collaborates with other roles to address and resolve issues.

9. **Project Manager:**

- Manages the overall planning, coordination, and execution of the system design project.

- Ensures that the project stays on schedule and within budget.

- Facilitates communication and collaboration among team members.

10. **Technical Writer:**

- Creates documentation for the system design, including specifications, manuals,
and guidelines.

- Ensures that technical information is accurately documented and accessible.

11. **Integration Specialist:**

- Focuses on integrating different components, subsystems, and third-party services
into the overall system.

- Ensures that the integrated system functions as a cohesive whole.

4. List the control flow mechanisms

Control flow mechanisms refer to the ways in which the flow of execution is managed in a
program. These mechanisms dictate the order in which instructions are executed. Common
control flow mechanisms include:

1. **Sequential Execution:**

- Instructions are executed in a linear, sequential order.

- One instruction is executed after the other, top to bottom.

2. **Selection (Conditional Statements):**

- Decisions are made based on conditions.

- If a condition is true, one set of instructions is executed; otherwise, another set is executed.

- Examples include `if`, `else if`, `else` statements.

3. **Repetition (Loops):**

- A set of instructions is repeated multiple times based on a condition.

- Examples include `for`, `while`, `do-while` loops.

4. **Jump Statements:**

- Alter the normal flow of execution by jumping to a different part of the program.

- Examples include `goto` (though its use is generally discouraged), `break`, `continue`.

5. **Exception Handling:**
- Enables the program to respond to exceptional situations (e.g., errors) in a structured way.

- Examples include `try`, `catch`, `finally` blocks in exception handling.

6. **Subroutines (Functions/Procedures/Methods):**
- Encapsulate a set of instructions into a single unit, which can be called from various parts
of the program.

- Control flow transfers to the subroutine when it is called and returns after execution.

7. **Concurrency and Parallelism:**

- Allows multiple parts of a program to execute simultaneously or concurrently.

- Mechanisms include multithreading, multiprocessing, and parallel programming constructs.

8. **State Machines:**
- Represent the system's behavior as a set of states and transitions between those states.

- Used for modeling systems with distinct operational modes.

9. **Event-Driven Programming:**

- Control flow is determined by events or messages.

- Handlers or callbacks respond to specific events triggered by user actions or other parts of
the system.

10. **Coroutines:**
- Generalization of subroutines that allows multiple entry points for suspending and resuming
execution.

- Useful for cooperative multitasking and asynchronous programming.

5. Illustrate Analysis Model for a Route Planning System

Creating an analysis model for a Route Planning System involves identifying and organizing
the key elements and processes involved in the system. The analysis model typically
includes entities, relationships, and key functionalities. Here's a simplified illustration of an
analysis model for a Route Planning System:

1. **Entities:**

- **User:** Represents individuals interacting with the system.

- **Location:** Represents a point on the map, which could be a city, landmark, or
any address.

- **Route:** Represents a planned path from one location to another.

- **Vehicle:** Represents the mode of transportation (car, bike, walking, etc.).

- **Traffic Information:** Represents real-time data about road conditions and traffic.

2. **Relationships:**
 - **User-Route:** Many-to-Many relationship indicating that a user can have multiple
saved routes, and a route can be used by multiple users.
- **Route-Location:** One-to-Many relationship indicating that a route consists of
multiple locations, and each location can be part of multiple routes.
- **Route-Vehicle:** One-to-One relationship indicating the specific vehicle
associated with a particular route.
- **Route-Traffic Information:** One-to-One relationship indicating the real-time traffic
information associated with a route.

3. **Key Functionalities:**

- **Route Planning:** The system should allow users to plan a route by selecting
starting and destination locations.
- **Optimization:** The system should optimize routes based on factors such as
shortest distance, fastest time, or avoiding traffic.

- **User Authentication:** Secure user accounts to save and retrieve personalized

routes.
- **Real-time Traffic Updates:** Integrate with external APIs to provide real-time traffic
information for better route planning.
- **Vehicle Selection:** Allow users to choose the mode of transportation (car, bike,
walking) for route planning.

- **Saved Routes:** Enable users to save and manage their frequently used routes.

4. **Use Case Scenario:**

a) *User A wants to plan a route from their home to the office.*

- User A logs in.

- Selects the starting point (home) and destination (office).

- Chooses the preferred mode of transportation (car).

- The system optimizes the route based on real-time traffic information.

- User A saves the route for future reference.

b) *User B needs to find the shortest walking route to a nearby park.*

 - User B logs in.

- Enters the current location and the park as the destination.

- Chooses the walking mode.

- The system calculates and displays the shortest walking route.

This illustration provides a high-level overview of the analysis model for a Route Planning
System, capturing the main entities, relationships, functionalities, and a couple of use case
scenarios. The actual model might be more detailed based on specific requirements and
system complexities.

6. Explain about Layers and Partitions

Layers and partitions are concepts commonly used in system architecture and design. They
help in organizing and structuring a system to enhance modularity, maintainability, and
scalability.

Layers:

**Definition:**
Layers in system architecture refer to the logical separation of components or modules
based on their functionality. Each layer is responsible for a specific set of tasks and interacts
with adjacent layers in a well-defined manner. This separation promotes a modular design,
making it easier to understand, maintain, and update the system.

**Key Points:**

1. **Abstraction:** Each layer abstracts the complexity of the underlying layers, providing a
clear and distinct interface.

2. **Responsibilities:** Layers typically have specific responsibilities, such as presentation,

business logic, and data storage.

3. **Communication:** Communication between layers is often hierarchical, with higher

layers invoking services or functions provided by lower layers.

4. **Independence:** Layers should be as independent as possible, allowing changes in one

layer without affecting others.

5. **Examples:**
- **Presentation Layer:** Handles user interface and interaction.

- **Business Logic Layer:** Implements the core functionality and rules.

- **Data Access Layer:** Manages data storage and retrieval.

Partitions:

**Definition:**
Partitions, in the context of system architecture, refer to the physical or logical division of the
system into segments or partitions. Partitions help manage complexity by grouping related
components together, providing a clear boundary for different aspects of the system.

**Key Points:**

1. **Isolation:** Partitions isolate components or services from each other, reducing

dependencies and potential conflicts.

2. **Scalability:** Systems can be designed to scale horizontally by adding partitions,

distributing the load across multiple instances.

3. **Security:** Partitions can enhance security by restricting access and communication

between different segments of the system.

4. **Resource Allocation:** Resources such as databases, servers, or networks can be

allocated to specific partitions, optimizing performance.

5. **Examples:**

- **Database Partitioning:** Data is divided into partitions based on certain criteria.

- **Network Partitioning:** Separation of network segments for security or performance
reasons.

- **Application Partitioning:** Dividing a large application into smaller, manageable parts.

### Relationship between Layers and Partitions:

Layers and partitions are often used together to create a comprehensive system
architecture. Each layer may span multiple partitions, and each partition may involve multiple
layers. The key is to strike a balance that optimizes the organization, maintainability, and
performance of the system.

In summary, layers define the functional aspects of a system, while partitions define the
physical or logical segmentation. Both concepts contribute to the overall design and
structure of a system, making it more scalable, maintainable, and adaptable to changes.

7. Explain about Deployment Diagrams

A Deployment Diagram in UML (Unified Modeling Language) is a type of diagram that
illustrates the physical hardware and software components within a system, as well as the
relationships between them. Deployment diagrams are particularly useful for visualizing the
distribution of components across different nodes (physical or virtual) and understanding
how the software and hardware interact in a real-world environment.

Here are key components and concepts associated with Deployment Diagrams:

Components:

1. **Node:**
- A node represents a physical or virtual device in the deployment diagram, such as a
server, desktop computer, laptop, or even a networked device.
- Nodes can be used to represent both hardware (e.g., servers) and software (e.g.,
runtime environments).

2. **Artifact:**
 - An artifact represents a tangible piece of the system, such as a file, library, or executable.
It can be associated with a node, indicating where the specific artifact is deployed.

3. **Deployment Specification:**
- A deployment specification is a set of properties that can be assigned to an artifact,
specifying how it will be deployed on a node (e.g., configuration details, installation
instructions).

4. **Association:**
- Associations between nodes and artifacts indicate the relationships between them. For
example, an association line between a node and an artifact shows that the artifact is
deployed on that particular node.

5. **Dependency:**
- A dependency relationship between nodes or artifacts indicates that changes in one may
affect the other. For example, a dependency between a software component and a database
server indicates that changes in the software may affect the database.

Concepts:

1. **Node Instances:**
- Nodes can have instances, representing multiple instances of the same node. This is
particularly useful when dealing with distributed systems and multiple instances of a server
or a runtime environment.

2. **Communication Paths:**
- Communication paths between nodes represent the connections and communication
channels between physical or virtual devices. These paths show how nodes interact with
each other.

3. **Deployment Environment:**
- Deployment diagrams can also include information about the deployment environment,
such as development, testing, or production environments. This helps in visualizing how
the system transitions across different stages.

Example:

Consider a simple example of a web application deployment:

- Nodes: Web Server, Application Server, Database Server

- Artifacts: Web Application (WAR file), Database Schema
- Associations: The Web Application is deployed on the Web Server, and the Database
Schema is deployed on the Database Server.
- Communication Paths: Arrows representing the communication paths between the Web
Server, Application Server, and Database Server.

Benefits of using Deployment Diagrams:

• Improve communication: Clearly communicate the system's architecture to

stakeholders like developers, testers, and system administrators.
• Identify deployment issues: Help identify potential deployment problems such as
hardware limitations or software dependencies.
• Plan for scaling: Assist in planning for future scaling by visualizing how the system
can be expanded to accommodate increased loads.
• Document system architecture: Provide a lasting record of the system's architecture
for future reference and maintenance.

Deployment diagrams are valuable for system architects, developers, and other stakeholders
to understand the physical deployment of software components and their interactions in a
real-world environment. They provide insights into the distribution of hardware and software
resources, helping in planning, optimization, and troubleshooting.

8. Demonstrate System Design Document

A System Design Document (SDD) is a comprehensive document that provides detailed
information about the design and architecture of a system. It typically includes information
about the system's components, their interactions, data flow, database design, security
features, and more. Below is a simplified example of a System Design Document for an
Online Shopping System:
# System Design Document

Online Shopping System

1. Introduction

Purpose
The purpose of the Online Shopping System is to provide a convenient and user-friendly
platform for customers to browse, select, and purchase products online.

Scope
The system will include user registration, product catalog, shopping cart functionality, order
processing, and user account management.

2. System Architecture

Overview

The system will follow a three-tier architecture:

- **Presentation Layer:** Web-based user interface for customers.

- **Application Layer:** Business logic and processing.

- **Data Layer:** Database for storing product information, user data, and orders.

Technologies
- Frontend: HTML5, CSS3, JavaScript, React.js

- Backend: Node.js, Express.js

- Database: MySQL

3. Database Design

Entity-Relationship Diagram (ERD)

Include an ERD detailing the relationships between entities such as User, Product, Order,
etc.

Database Schema
- **Users Table:**

- UserID (Primary Key)

- Username

- Password

- Email

- **Products Table:**

- ProductID (Primary Key)

- ProductName

- Price

- StockQuantity

- **Orders Table:**

- OrderID (Primary Key)

- UserID (Foreign Key)

- ProductID (Foreign Key)

- Quantity

- TotalAmount

4. System Modules

User Management
- User registration and authentication.

- User profile management.

Product Catalog - Displaying

products with details.

- Search and filter options.

Shopping Cart

- Adding/removing products to/from the cart.

- Updating quantities and calculating total.

Order Processing
- Confirming orders.

- Updating stock quantities.

- Generating order confirmation emails.

5. Security

Authentication

- Password hashing for user security.

- Session management to handle user sessions.

Authorization

- Role-based access control for admin and regular users.

6. Data Flow

Include diagrams illustrating the flow of data between system components.

7. System Interfaces
User Interface

- Screenshots and descriptions of the user interface.

API Interfaces

- Description of API endpoints for frontend-backend communication.

8. Testing Strategy

Unit Testing

- Testing individual modules.

Integration Testing

- Testing interactions between modules.

User Acceptance Testing

- Involving end-users to validate system functionality.

9. Deployment

Deployment Environment

- Details of the deployment environment (e.g., servers, hosting provider).

Deployment Procedure

- Step-by-step instructions for deploying the system.

10. Maintenance and Support

Bug Tracking

- Procedures for reporting and tracking bugs.

System Updates

- Process for releasing updates and patches.

9. Examine the following System design Activities

a)Identifying Services
b)Reviewing the System Design Model

a) Identifying Services:

**Definition:**
Identifying services is a crucial system design activity that involves determining the functional
components or units of work that the system provides. Services represent distinct
functionalities or operations that the system offers to its users or other systems.

**Key Activities:**

1. **Requirement Analysis:**
- Understand and analyze the system requirements to identify the core functionalities
expected by the users.

2. **Decomposition:**
- Break down the overall system into smaller, manageable units or services. These could
be features, processes, or operations.

3. **Use-Case Analysis:**
- Consider use cases and scenarios to identify the services required to fulfill specific user
interactions or business processes.

4. **Stakeholder Collaboration:**
- Collaborate with stakeholders, including end-users and domain experts, to gather insights
and validate the identified services.

5. **Prioritization:**
- Prioritize services based on their importance to the overall system and the value they
provide to users or stakeholders.
6. **Service Definition:**
- Clearly define each service, outlining its inputs, outputs, dependencies, and any specific
requirements.

There are several methods for identifying services:

• Functional decomposition: This method involves analyzing the system's functionality

and identifying discrete units of work that can be completed independently.
• Data-driven approach: This method focuses on the data used by the system and
identifies services responsible for managing and accessing that data.
• Event-driven approach: This method analyzes the events that occur within the
system and identifies services responsible for handling those events.

Benefits of identifying services:

• Improved modularity: Breaking down the system into smaller services makes it easier
to understand, develop, and maintain.
• Increased scalability: Services can be scaled independently to meet changing needs.
• Enhanced fault tolerance: Failures in one service are less likely to impact other
services.
• Promotes loose coupling: Services communicate through well-defined interfaces,
reducing dependencies between them.

Outcome: The outcome of identifying services is a clear understanding of the distinct

functionalities or operations that the system will provide. This sets the foundation for further
design and development activities, helping in creating a modular and well-organized system.

b) Reviewing the System Design Model:

**Definition:**
Reviewing the system design model involves a comprehensive assessment of the design
documentation, diagrams, and other artifacts created during the system design phase. The
goal is to ensure that the design aligns with the requirements, follows best practices, and is
suitable for implementation.

**Key Activities:**

1. **Document Inspection:**
- Review design documents, including architecture diagrams, data models, and interface
specifications, to ensure clarity, completeness, and accuracy.
2. **Consistency Check:**
- Verify that the system design is consistent with the requirements specified in earlier
phases, addressing any inconsistencies or discrepancies.

3. **Compliance with Standards:**

- Check if the design adheres to industry standards, coding conventions, and best
practices. This includes architectural patterns, design principles, and coding guidelines.

4. **Feasibility Assessment:**
- Assess the feasibility of implementing the design, considering factors such as technology
constraints, resource availability, and project timelines.

5. **Risk Identification:**
- Identify and evaluate potential risks associated with the design, including dependencies,
integration points, and potential points of failure.

6. **Performance Considerations:**
- Evaluate the design from a performance perspective, considering factors such as
scalability, response times, and resource utilization.

Benefits of reviewing the system design model:

• Reduces risks: Identifying and addressing potential problems early in the design
process can save time and money in the long run.
• Improves quality: A well-reviewed design is more likely to be reliable, secure, and
maintainable.
• Increases stakeholder confidence: Reviewing the design with stakeholders can help
to build trust and ensure everyone is on the same page.
Outcome: The outcome of reviewing the system design model is a set of insights and
recommendations for improving the design before moving to the implementation phase. It
helps in ensuring the quality and effectiveness of the design, reducing the likelihood of
issues during development and deployment.

10. Classify and Explain the various architectural styles in detail

Architectural Styles in Software Engineering

Architectural styles are established patterns for structuring software systems. They provide a
set of guidelines and constraints that help developers create well-organized, maintainable,
and scalable systems. There are several different architectural styles, each with its own
strengths and weaknesses. Here's a classification and explanation of various architectural
styles:
1. Layered Style:
• Description: This is a hierarchical style where the system is divided into layers, each
with its own distinct responsibility. Each layer builds upon the functionalities of the
layer below it.
• Benefits: Simplifies development and maintenance by promoting modularity,
separation of concerns, and reduced coupling. Improves maintainability and
reusability of code.
• Drawbacks: Performance can be impacted due to inter-layer communication
overhead. Not suitable for systems with complex interactions between layers.
• Example: Traditional web applications with separate layers for presentation, business
logic, and data access.

2. Client-Server Style:
• Description: This style involves two types of components: clients and servers. Clients
initiate requests for services from servers, which process the requests and return
responses.
• Benefits: Promotes scalability and resource sharing. Clients can be easily distributed
across different locations. Improves fault tolerance as server failures affect only
specific clients.
• Drawbacks: Requires careful design of communication protocols between clients and
servers. Centralized servers can become bottlenecks if overloaded.
• Example: Web applications with web browsers as clients and web servers as servers.
3. Event-Driven Style:
• Description: This style focuses on communication through events. Components
communicate by subscribing to events and publishing events to notify other
components of changes.
• Benefits: Highly responsive and efficient for systems with dynamic interactions and
complex event flows. Decouples components, making them more resilient to
changes.
• Drawbacks: Requires careful design to avoid race conditions and ensure proper
event handling. Debugging event-driven systems can be challenging.
• Example: Real-time chat applications where users publish messages as events and
other users subscribe to receive those messages.

4. Microservices Style:
• Description: This style decomposes the system into small, independent services that
are deployed and managed individually. Services communicate through well-defined
APIs.
• Benefits: Highly scalable and flexible, allowing for independent development and
deployment of services. Promotes loose coupling and facilitates technology diversity.
• Drawbacks: Increased complexity due to distributed nature and potential for
communication overhead. Requires robust service management and monitoring
practices.
• Example: E-commerce platforms where separate services handle product
management, shopping cart, payment processing, and order fulfillment.
5. Data-Centric Style:
• Description: This style focuses on data as the central element of the system. The
architecture revolves around managing and accessing data efficiently.
• Benefits: Simplifies data management and access, making it suitable for
dataintensive applications. Provides a clear understanding of data flow and
relationships.
• Drawbacks: Requires careful data modeling and normalization to avoid performance
bottlenecks. Can lead to complex data access logic if not designed correctly.
• Example: Data warehouse systems where the focus is on storing, processing, and
analyzing large amounts of data.

6. Monolithic Architecture Style

• Description: Monolithic architecture is a traditional software development style where

the entire application is built as a single unit.

• Benefits: Easier to maintain and debug as all code resides in a single location,
simplifying troubleshooting and updates.

• Drawbacks: Failure in any part of the application can bring down the entire system,
leading to significant downtime.

• Example: Traditional web applications built with a single programming language and
framework.

Choosing the Right Style:

The choice of architectural style depends on the specific requirements of the system.
Factors to consider include:
 • System size and complexity: Larger and more complex systems may benefit from
layered or microservices styles, while smaller systems may be well-suited for
clientserver or data-centric styles.
• Performance requirements: Event-driven and data-centric styles can be highly
performant for specific scenarios, while layered and client-server styles may be more
suitable for general-purpose applications.
• Scalability needs: Microservices and event-driven styles are highly scalable, making
them suitable for systems that need to grow over time.
• Development and maintenance considerations: Layered and data-centric styles can
be easier to develop and maintain due to their modularity and well-defined interfaces.
By understanding the strengths and weaknesses of each architectural style, developers can
choose the most appropriate style for their specific needs and create a system that is
reliable, maintainable, and scalable.

11. List and Identify the Design Goals

Design goals in the context of software and system design refer to the desired outcomes and
attributes that a well-designed system should exhibit. These goals guide the decision-making
process during the design phase and help ensure that the resulting system meets specific
criteria. Here is a list of common design goals:

1. **Scalability:**
- **Goal:** The ability of the system to handle growing amounts of work by adding resources
or distributing the load.
- **Importance:** Crucial for systems expecting an increase in users, data, or transactions.

2. **Reliability:**
- **Goal:** The system should consistently perform its intended functions without
failures or errors.
- **Importance:** Essential for systems where downtime or errors could have
significant consequences.

3. **Maintainability:**
- **Goal:** The ease with which the system can be modified, updated, and enhanced
over time.
- **Importance:** Reduces the cost and effort required for ongoing development and
support.
4. **Flexibility:**
- **Goal:** The system's ability to adapt to changes in requirements without major redesign.
- **Importance:** Supports evolving business needs and technology advancements.

5. **Usability:**
- **Goal:** The system should be easy to understand, learn, and use by its intended users.
- **Importance:** Enhances user satisfaction, productivity, and reduces the learning curve.

6. **Performance:**
- **Goal:** The system should respond promptly and efficiently to user interactions and
requests.
- **Importance:** Critical for delivering a positive user experience and meeting service
level agreements.

7. **Security:**
- **Goal:** Protecting the system from unauthorized access, data breaches, and ensuring
data integrity.
- **Importance:** Crucial for safeguarding sensitive information and maintaining user trust.

8. **Interoperability:**
- **Goal:** The ability of the system to interact and operate seamlessly with other
external systems or components.
- **Importance:** Necessary for integration with third-party services and achieving a
connected ecosystem.

9. **Portability:**
- **Goal:** The ease with which the system can be transferred or adapted to different
environments or platforms.
- **Importance:** Enables deployment across various hardware and software
configurations.

10. **Efficiency:**
- **Goal:** Optimizing resource utilization (CPU, memory, network) to ensure efficient system
operation.
- **Importance:** Reduces operational costs and ensures optimal performance.

11. **Maintainability:**
- **Goal:** The system should be designed in a way that facilitates easy maintenance,
troubleshooting, and debugging.
- **Importance:** Reduces downtime and makes it easier for development teams to
address issues.

12. **Testability:**
- **Goal:** Design the system in a way that facilitates effective testing of its
components and features.
- **Importance:** Simplifies the identification and resolution of defects during
development and maintenance.

13. **Cost-Effectiveness:**
- **Goal:** Optimize the design to achieve the desired functionality while minimizing
development and operational costs.
- **Importance:** Ensures that the benefits of the system outweigh its costs.

14. **Adaptability:**
- **Goal:** The ability of the system to evolve and adapt to changes in technology, business
processes, and user requirements.
- **Importance:** Supports long-term sustainability and relevance.

15. **Simplicity:**
- **Goal:** Design the system in a simple and straightforward manner, avoiding
unnecessary complexity.
- **Importance:** Enhances understandability, reduces development time, and
minimizes the potential for errors.

These design goals are often interconnected, and achieving a balance among them is crucial
for creating a well-rounded, effective system. The specific emphasis on each goal may vary
depending on the nature of the project, its requirements, and the priorities of stakeholders.

12. Identify the Boundary conditions in System Design activities

Boundary conditions in system design refer to the limitations, constraints, or external factors
that define the boundaries within which the system must operate. Identifying and
understanding these boundary conditions is crucial for designing a system that meets its
intended goals and functions effectively. Here are some common types of boundary
conditions in system design activities:

1. **Performance Limits:**
- **Description:** Constraints on system performance, such as response time,
throughput, and resource utilization.
- **Example:** The system must respond to user requests within two seconds under
peak load conditions.

2. **Scalability Limits:**
- **Description:** Constraints related to the system's ability to scale in terms of users,
transactions, or data volume.
- **Example:** The system should support a 20% annual increase in user base without
significant degradation in performance.

3. **Security Requirements:**
- **Description:** Conditions related to the protection of sensitive data and prevention
of unauthorized access.
- **Example:** The system must comply with industry standards for data encryption,
and access to certain features is restricted based on user roles.

4. **Regulatory Compliance:**
- **Description:** Conditions imposed by legal or regulatory standards that the system
must adhere to.
- **Example:** The system must comply with data protection regulations such as
GDPR or HIPAA.

5. **Technology Constraints:**
- **Description:** Limitations imposed by the technology stack, tools, or platforms used
in the system.
- **Example:** The system must be compatible with browsers X, Y, and Z, and the
database must be MySQL version 8.0.

6. **Data Integrity:**
- **Description:** Conditions ensuring the accuracy, consistency, and reliability of data
stored and processed by the system.
- **Example:** The system must implement data validation checks to prevent the entry
of inconsistent or erroneous data.

7. **Availability Requirements:**
 - **Description:** Constraints related to the system's availability and uptime. -
**Example:** The system must be available 99.9% of the time, excluding planned
maintenance periods.

8. **Interoperability Constraints:**
- **Description:** Requirements for the system to interact seamlessly with other
external systems or components.
- **Example:** The system must be able to integrate with third-party payment
gateways and APIs.

9. **Budgetary Limits:**
- **Description:** Constraints related to the financial resources available for system
development, deployment, and maintenance.
- **Example:** The total project cost should not exceed $X, including development,
testing, and infrastructure expenses.

10. **User Accessibility:**

- **Description:** Conditions ensuring that the system is accessible to users with different
abilities and disabilities.
- **Example:** The system must comply with WCAG 2.0 accessibility standards.

11. **Geographical Constraints:**

- **Description:** Limitations based on the geographical distribution of users or system
components.
- **Example:** The system must support users in multiple time zones and languages.

12. **Environmental Conditions:**

- **Description:** Constraints related to the physical environment in which the system
operates.
- **Example:** The system must function in both online and offline modes to
accommodate intermittent network connectivity.

13. **Cultural and Ethical Considerations:**

- **Description:** Conditions related to cultural norms, ethical guidelines, or social
expectations.
- **Example:** The system must avoid displaying content that is culturally insensitive
or offensive.
Identifying and clearly defining these boundary conditions during the system design phase is
essential for making informed design decisions, setting realistic expectations, and ensuring
the system's successful implementation and operation within its defined constraints.

Benefits of Identifying and Addressing Boundary Conditions:

• Improved Robustness: By considering edge cases and potential failures, the system
can be designed to handle them gracefully and minimize downtime.
• Enhanced Security: Identifying and addressing security vulnerabilities early in the
design process can help to prevent attacks and data breaches.
• Increased Scalability: Carefully considering resource management and performance
limitations allows the system to be designed for future growth and scalability.
• Better User Experience: Addressing error handling and user input validation can lead
to a more positive and intuitive user experience.
• Reduced Development Costs: Identifying and addressing boundary conditions
upfront can save time and money during development and testing.