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Guide to
Electric Power
Generation
3rd Edition
i
This page intentionally left blank
ii
Guide to
Electric Power
Generation
3rd Edition
A.J. Pansini
K.D. Smalling
iii
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Pansini, Anthony J.
Guide to electric power generation/A.J. Pansini, K.D. Smalling.--3rd ed.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 0-88173-524-8 (print) -- ISBN 0-88173-525-6 (electronic)
1. Electric power production. 2. Electric power plants. I. Smalling,
Kenneth D. 1927-
II. Title.
TK1001 .P35 2005

621.31--dc22
2005049470
Guide to electric power generation/A.J. Pansini, K.D. Smalling.

©2006 by The Fairmont Press. All rights reserved. No part of this publication
may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
Published by The Fairmont Press, Inc.

700 Indian Trail
Lilburn, GA 30047
tel: 770-925-9388; fax: 770-381-9865
http://www.fairmontpress.com
Distributed by Taylor & Francis Ltd.

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E-mail: [email protected]
Distributed by Taylor & Francis Ltd.

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E-mail: [email protected]
Printed in the United States of America

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0-8493-9511-9 (Taylor & Francis Ltd.)
While every effort is made to provide dependable information, the publisher,

authors, and editors cannot be held responsible for any errors or omissions.
iv
Contents
Preface ............................................................................................................... vii
Preface to the Third Edition ............................................................................ ix
Introduction ...................................................................................................... xi
Chapter 1 Planning and Development of Electric Power Stations .........1
Chapter 2 Electric Power Generation ....................................................... 11
Chapter 3 Fuel Handling ............................................................................63
Chapter 4 Boilers..........................................................................................83
Chapter 5 Prime Movers ...........................................................................153
Chapter 6 Generators ................................................................................195
Chapter 7 Operation and Maintenance ..................................................229
Chapter 8 Environment and Conservation ............................................245
Chapter 9 Green Power.............................................................................251
Index ....................................................................................................267
v
vi
Preface
Like water, food, and air, electrical energy has become an integral
part of daily personal and business lives. People have become so accus-
tomed to flicking a switch and having instant light, action, or communica-
tion that little thought is given to the process that produces this electrical
energy or how it gets to where it is used. It is unique in that practically all
that is produced is not stored but used instantly in the quantities that are
needed. For alternatives to electrical energy, one must go back to the days
of gas lamps, oil lamps, candles, and steam- or water-powered mechani-
cal devices—and work days or leisure time that was limited to daylight
hours for the most part.
Where does this vital electrical energy come from and how does
it get to its users? This book covers only the how, when and where
electrical energy is produced. Other texts cover how it is delivered to
the consumer. The operations of an electric system, like other enterprises
may be divided into three areas:
Electric Generation (Manufacturing)
Electric Transmission (Wholesale Delivery)
Electric Distribution (Retailing)
The electric utility is the basic supplier of electrical energy and is
perhaps unique in that almost everyone does business with it and is uni-
versally dependent on its product. Many people are unaware that a utility
is a business enterprise and must meet costs or exceed them to survive.
Unlike other enterprises producing commodities or services, it is obligat-
ed to have electrical energy available to meet all the customer demands
when they are needed, and its prices are not entirely under its control.
The regulation of utilities by government agencies leads to the per-
ception that utilities are in fact monopolies. People have alternatives in
almost every other product they use such as choosing various modes of
travel—auto, train or plane. People can use gas, oil or coal directly for
their own energy needs or use them to generate their own electrical ener-
gy. Indeed some people today use sunlight or windpower to supplement
their electrical energy needs. The point is that electrical energy supply
from an electric system is usually much more convenient and economical
vii
than producing it individually. Some larger manufacturing firms find it
feasible to provide their own electrical energy by using their waste energy
(cogeneration) or having their own individual power plants. In some
cases legislation makes it mandatory to purchase the excess energy from
these sources at rates generally higher than what the utility can produce it
for.
The fact remains that utilities must pay for the materials, labor and
capital they require and pay taxes just like other businesses. In obtaining
these commodities necessary to every business, utilities must compete
for them at prices generally dictated by the market place, while the prices
charged for the product produced—electrical energy—are limited by gov-
ernment agencies.
Since our first edition, electric systems have been moving toward
deregulation in which both consumer and supplier will be doing business
in a free market—which has no direct effect on the material contained in
the accompanying text.
The problems faced with producing electrical energy under these
conditions are described in this text in terms which general management
and non-utility persons can understand. Semi-technical description in
some detail is also included for those wishing to delve more deeply into
the subject.
None of the presentations is intended as an engineering treatise,
but they are designed to be informative, educational, and adequately il-
lustrated. The text is designed as an educational and training resource for
people in all walks of life who may be less acquainted with the subject.
Any errors, accidental or otherwise, are attributed only to us.
Acknowledgment is made of the important contributions by Messrs.
H.M. Jalonack, A.C. Seale, the staff of Fairmont Press and many others to
all of whom we give our deep appreciation and gratitude.
Also, and not the least, we are grateful for the encouragement and
patience extended to us by our families.
Waco, Texas Anthony J. Pansini
Northport, N.Y. Kenneth D. Smalling
1993/2001
viii
Preface
To the Third Edition
The twentieth Century ended with more of the demand for elec-
tricity being met by small units known as Distributed Generation and
by cogeneration rather than by the installation of large centrally located
generating plants. Although this may appear to be a throwback to
earlier times when enterprises used windmills and small hydro plants
for their power requirements, and a bit later with these converted to
electric operation, then making such “left over” power available to the
surrounding communities, the return to local and individual supply
(cogeneration) may actually be pointing in the direction of future meth-
ods of supply. Will the end of the Twenty First Century see individual
generation directly from a small unit, perhaps the rays from a few grains
of radioactive or other material impinging on voltaic sensitive materi-
als, all safely controlled ensconced in a unit that takes the place of the
electric meter?
There are many advantages to this mode of supply. Reliability may
approach 100 percent. When operated in conjunction with Green Power
systems, supplying one consumer tends to make security problems dis-
appear and improvements in efficiency and economy may be expected.
Transmission and distribution systems, as we know them, may become
obsolete
The output of such systems will probably be direct current, now
showing signs of greater consideration associated with Green Power
units: fuel cells, solar power and others, all provide direct current.
Insulation requirements are lower, synchronizing problems disappear,
and practical storage of power is enhanced—all pointing to the greater
employment of direct current utilization.
The current trend toward Distributed Generation, employing
primary voltages and dependence on maintenance standards being fol-
lowed by “lay” personnel, pose safety threats that do not occur with
the systems envisioned above. With education beginning in the lower
grades about the greater ownership of such facilities by the general
public, all tend to safer and foolproof service.
The Twenty First Century should prove exciting!
ix
x
Introduction
The last two decades of the Twentieth Century saw a distinct de-
cline in the installation of new generation capacity for electric power in
the United States. With fewer units being built while older plants were
being retired (some actually demolished), the margin of availability
compared to the ever increasing demand for electricity indicated the
approach of a shortage with all of its associated problems. (This became
reality for consumers in California who experienced rolling blackouts
and markedly high energy costs.) Perhaps spurred by the deregulation
initiated for regulated investor utilities, an effort to reverse this trend
began at the end of the century to restore the vital position of power
generation in the new millennium, described in Chapter One. The appar-
ent decline in constructing new generation may be explained by several
factors:
• The decline of nuclear generation in the U.S. because of adverse

public opinion, and soaring costs caused by the increasing com-
plexity of requirements promulgated by federal agencies.
• The introduction of stringent rules for emissions by the Clean Air

Act and other local regulations.
• The reluctance of regulated utilities to risk capital expenditures

in the face of deregulation and divestiture of generation assets,
as well as uncertainty of final costs from changing government
regulations.
• The endeavors to meet electric demands through load manage-

ment, conservation, cogeneration (refer to Figure I-1), distributed
generation, and green power (fuel cells, wind solar, micro turbine,
etc.) (refer to Figure I-2).
xi
The choice of fuels for new plants presents problems. Fossil fuels
still predominate but are more than ever affected by environmental and
political considerations. Natural gas, the preferred “clean fuel”, is in
short supply while new explorations and drilling are subject to many
non-technical restrictions. The same comment applies to oil, although
the supply, while more ample, is controlled by foreign interests that
fix prices. The abundance of coal, while fostering stable prices, can no
longer be burned in its natural state but must be first processed for
cleaner burning. While many other nations (e.g. France) obtain much
of their electrical energy requirements from nuclear power, the United
States that pioneered this type plant sells abroad but does not compete
in this country.
It is also evident that new transmission lines to bring new sources
of energy to load centers will be required (but are not presently being
built). Such lines now become the weak link in the chain of deregulated
supply. Notoriously, such lines are built in out-of-the-way places for
environmental and economic reasons and are subject to the vagaries of
nature and man (including vandals and saboteurs). Who builds them,
owns and operates them, is a critical problem that must be solved in
the immediate future.
Implementation of other power sources such as fuel cells, solar
panels, wind generators, etc., needs development—from expensive ex-
perimental to large-scale economically reliable application. Hydropower
may find greater application, but its constancy, like wind and sun, is
subject to nature’s whims.
The new millennium, with the changing methods of electric supply
brought about by deregulation, may see some alleviation in the prob-
lems associated with generating plants. It will also see new challenges
that, of a certainty, will be met by the proven ingenuity and industry
of our innovators and engineers, the caretakers of our technology.
xii
Figure I-1a. Cogeneration System Overview
(Courtesy Austin American Statesman)
xiii
xiv
Figure I-1b. Cogeneration System with Gas Turbine (Courtesy Exxon Corp.)
(Top) Figure I-2a. Roof-
top photovoltaic panels
will play a key role in
on-site power genera-
tion. The natatorium of
the Georgia Institute of
Technology in Atlanta
uses 32,750 square feet
of solar panels. (Photo:
Solar Design Associates)
(Left) Figure I-2b. Wind,

an important renewable
source of power, may be
combined in a hybrid
system with a diesel
backup.
(Courtesy Pure Power,

Supplement to Consulting
Engineering)
xv
Figure I-2c. Microturbines can be run on any fuel, but natural gas
is the fuel of choice. (Photo, Capstone Turbine) (Courtesy Pure
Power, Supplement to Consulting Engineering)
xvi
Planning and Development of Electric Power Stations 1
Chapter 1
Planning and Development

Of Electric Power Stations
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
W ith the dawn of a new era in which the electric incandescent

light replaced oil lamps and candles, sources of electrical
energy had to be found and developed. Gas light com-
panies were giving way to geographically small electric companies.
For instance on Long Island, New York, a company called “Babylon
Electric Light Company” was formed in 1886. It would surprise many
LI residents today that the low level waterfall on Sumpwam’s Creek in
Babylon was used to light up eight stores and three street lights and
that the dam still exists. Similar examples can be cited for other com-
munities throughout the country. Most small electric companies started
out using hydropower or steam engines to generate their electrical
energy.
As the innovation caught on and the electrical energy requirements
grew from the use of lights and electrically driven equipment, so did the
growth of electric power generators. The size of generators grew from a
few hundred watts to thousands of kilowatts. New sources of fuel needed
to power generators led to coal, oil and gas fired boilers. New ways of
transmitting electric energy for some distance was found and led to larger
central stations instead of the small local area stations. As AC (alternating
current) transmission developed to permit sending power over longer
distances, the early small electric companies consolidated their territories
and started to interconnect their systems. Planning and development
of these early generating stations were not hindered by environmental
1
2 Guide to Electric Power Generation
restrictions or government regulations. Their main concern was raising

of enough capital to build the stations and selecting the best site for the
fuel to be used and the load to be served. The 1990’s introduced deregula-
tion, one result of which was the divesting of some utility generation to
non-utility generation or energy companies. New generation added was
mostly in the form of combustion turbine units previously used by utili-
ties for peak loads, and not lower energy cost units such as steam turbines
or hydro generators.
GROWTH OF ELECTRIC USAGE
While the growth of electric usage proceeded at a fairly steady pace

in these early years, it was the years following World War II that saw a
tremendous expansion in generation-particularly in steam and hydro sta-
tions as illustrated by these statistics:
Table 1-1. Generation Capacity in the United States

(in millions of kW or gigawatts)
————————————————————————————————
Ave. gW Increase
Investor Govn’t Non Total Per 5-yr. Period
Year Utilities Agencies Utility U.S. Ending ---
————————————————————————————————
1950 55.2 13.7 6.9 82.9 4.0
1955 86.9 27.6 16.4 130.9 9.6
1960 128.5 39.6 17.8 185.8 11.0
1965 177.6 58.6 18.4 254.5 13.7
1970 262.7 78.4 19.2 360.3 21.2
1975 399.0 109.4 19.2 527.6 33.5
1980 477.1 136.6 17.3 631.0 20.7
1985 530.4 158.3 22.9 711.7 16.1
1990 568.8 166.3 45.1 780.2 13.7
1995 578.7 171.9 66.4 817.0 7.4
2000 443.9 192.3 23.2 868.2 10.3
————————————————————————————————
NOTE: 1990-2000 divested generation from utilities to non-utility (mer-
chant generation) probably affects allocation of generation
Net Summer Generating Capacity

(in millions of kW)
Steam Int. Comb. Gas turb. Nuclear Hydro Other Total

————————————————————————————————
1950 48.2 1.8 0 0 19.2 - 69.2
1960 128.3 2.6 0 0.4 35.8 - 167.1
1970 248.0 4.1 13.3 7.0 63.8 0.1 336.4
1980 396.6 5.2 42.5 51.8 81.7 0.9 578.6
1990 447.5 4.6 46.3 99.6 90.9 1.6 690.5
2000 507.9 5.9 83.8 97.6 99.1 17.4 811.7
Source: DOE statistics
PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT
The period 1950-1990 was most important in the planning and de-
velopment of electric generating stations. It began with the creation of
many new stations and expansion of existing stations. Nuclear stations
made their debut and subsequently at the end of the period were no lon-
ger acceptable in most areas of the United States. The oil crisis in the 70’s
had an effect on the use of oil fired units and created the need for intense
electric conservation and alternative electric energy sources. Finally, the
large central stations were being augmented by independent power pro-
ducers and peaking units in smaller distributed area stations using waste
heat from industrial processes, garbage fueled boilers, natural gas and
methane gas from waste dumps.
The 1980’s and 1990’s also saw the effect of environmental restric-
tions and government regulation both on existing stations and new sta-
tions. Instead of a relatively short time to plan and build a new generat-
ing station, the process now takes 5-10 years just to secure the necessary
permits—especially nuclear. Nuclear units grew from 18 stations totaling
7 million kW capacity to 111 units totaling almost 100 million kW. For
now, it is not likely that many more new nuclear units will operate in
the United States because of public opinion and the licensing process. The
incident at Three Mile Island resulted in adverse public reaction despite
the fact that safety measures built into the design and operation prevented
any fatalities, injuries or environmental damage. The accident at Cher-
nobyl added to the negative reaction despite the difference between the
safer American design and the Russian nuclear design and operation.
Planning a new generating station in today’s economic and

regulatory climate is a very risky business because of the complicated
and time consuming licensing process. Large capital investments are
also being required to refit and modernize existing units for envi-
ronmental compliance and to improve efficiencies. At the same time,
more large sums of money are being spent on mandated conservation
and load management (scheduling of consumer devices to achieve a
lowered maximum demand) programs. These programs have affected
the need for new generation or replacing older generation by signifi-
cantly reducing the electrical energy requirements for system demand
and total usage.
The future planning and development of electric generating sta-
tions will involve political, social, economic, technological and regula-
tory factors to be considered and integrated into an electrical energy
supply plan. The system planner can no longer predict with the same
degree of certainty when, where and how much generation capacity
must be added or retired.
FUTURE CONSIDERATIONS
Will new transmission capacity be added and coordinated with

generation changes since the declining trend of generation additions
has followed the trend of generation additions? What will be the im-
pact of large independent transmission regional operators on system
reliability?
With new generation added principally in the form of relatively
high cost per kWh combustion turbines and not lower cost base load
steam. turbine units or hydro, will deregulation result in lower unit
energy costs to customers?
Can reduction in system load through conservation measures be
forecast accurately and timely enough to allow for adequate genera-
tion? Can conservation reliably replace generation?
Will the merchant generators and energy companies contribute
towards research programs aimed at improving reliability and re-
ducing costs? Previous utility active support of the Electric Power
Research Institute with money and manpower resulted in many in-
dustry advances in the state of the art, but will this continue?
PRESENT POWER PLANT CONSIDERATIONS
Many factors, all interrelated, must be considered before definite

plans for a power plant can be made. Obviously the final construction
will contain a number of compromises each of which may influence
the total cost but all are aimed at producing electrical energy at the
lowest possible cost. Some factors are limited as to their variation
such as available sites. Plans for the expansion of existing stations
also face similar problems although the number of compromises may
be fewer in number.
SITE SELECTION
For minimum delivery losses a plant site should be close as pos-

sible to the load to be served as well as minimizing the associated
expensive transmission costs connecting the plant to the system. En-
vironmental restrictions and other possible effects on overhead electric
lines are requiring more underground connections at a significantly
higher cost. Site selection must also include study of future expansion
possibilities, local construction costs, property taxes, noise abatement,
soil characteristics, cooling water and boiler water, fuel transportation,
air quality restrictions and fuel storage space. For a nuclear station
additional factors need to be considered: earthquake susceptibility, an
evacuation area and an emergency evacuation plan for the surround-
ing community, storage and disposal of spent fuel, off-site electrical
power supply as well as internal emergency power units and most
important the political and community reception of a nuclear facil-
ity. If a hydro plant is to be considered, water supply is obviously
the most important factor. Compromise may be required between the
available head (height of the available water over the turbine) and
what the site can supply. As in fossil fuel and nuclear plants the po-
litical and public reception is critical.
After exhaustive study of all these factors the first cost is esti-
mated as well as the annual carrying charges which include the cost
of capital, return on investment, taxes, maintenance, etc. before the
selection decision can proceed.
SELECTION OF POWER STATION UNITS
The first selection in a new unit would be the choice between a

base load unit or a peaking unit. Most steam stations are base load
units—that is they are on line at full capacity or near full capacity al-
most all of the time. Steam stations, particularly nuclear units, are not
easily nor quickly adjusted for varying large amounts of load because
of their characteristics of operation. Peaking units are used to make
up capacity at maximum load periods and in emergency situations
because they are easily brought on line or off line. This type of unit
is usually much lower in first cost than a base load unit but is much
higher in energy output cost. Peaking units are most likely to be gas
turbines, hydro or internal combustion units. Reciprocating steam
engines and internal combustion powered plants are generally used
for relatively small power stations because of space requirements and
cost. They are sometimes used in large power stations for starting up
the larger units in emergencies or if no outside power is available.
Nuclear power stations are mandated to have such emergency power
sources. No further discussion of this type of unit will be made.
Steam Power Plants

Steam power plants generally are the most economical choice
for large capacity plants. The selections of boilers for steam units
depends greatly on the type of fuel to be used. Investment costs as
well as maintenance and operating costs which include transporta-
tion and storage of raw fuel and the disposal of waste products in
the energy conversion process. Selection also depends on the desir-
ability of unit construction-one boiler, one turbine, one generator-or
several boilers feeding into one common steam header supplying one
or more turbine generators. Modern plant trends are towards the unit
type construction. For nuclear plants the cost of raw fuel, storage and
disposal of spent fuel is a very significant part of the economics.
Hydro-electric Plants
With some exceptions, water supply to hydro plants is seasonal.
The availability of water may determine the number and size of the
units contained in the plant. Unless considerable storage is available
by lake or dam containment, the capacity of a hydro plant is usually
limited to the potential of the minimum flow of water available. In
some cases hydro plants are designed to operate only a part of the
time. Other large installations such as the Niagara Project in New
York operate continuously. In evaluating the economics of hydro
plants the first cost and operating costs must also include such items
as dam construction, flood control, and recreation facilities.
In times of maximum water availability, hydro plants may carry
the base load of a system to save fuel costs while steam units are
used to carry peak load variations. In times of low water availability
the reverse may prove more economical. The difference in operating
costs must be considered in estimating the overall system cost as well
as system reliability for comparison purposes.
CONSTRUCTION COSTS
Construction costs vary, not only with time, but with locality,
availability of skilled labor, equipment, and type of construction re-
quired. For example in less populated or remote areas skilled labor
may have to be imported at a premium; transportation difficulties
may bar the use of more sophisticated equipment; and certain parts
of nuclear and hydro plants may call for much higher than normal
specifications and greater amounts than is found in fossil plants. Sea-
sonal variations in weather play an important part in determining the
costs of construction. Overtime, work stoppages, changes in codes or
regulations, “extras” often appreciably increase costs but sometimes
unforeseen conditions or events make them necessary. Experience
with previous construction can often anticipate such factors in esti-
mating costs and comparing economics.
FUEL COSTS
Since the cost of fuel is often one of the larger parts of the
overall cost of the product to the consumer, it is one of the basic
factors that determine the kind, cost and often the site of the generat-
ing plant. The cost attributed to the fuel must also include its han-
dling/transportation/storage charges and should as much as practical
take into account future fluctuations in price, continued availability
and environmental restrictions. For instance the oil crisis in the 70’s
sharply escalated the cost of fuel for oil fired plants and limited its
supply. In the years following further cost escalations resulted from
the environmental requirements for lower sulfur fuels.
FINANCE COSTS
Like other items in the construction, maintenance and opera-

tion of a power plant, the money to pay for them is obtained at a
cost. This includes sale of bonds and stocks, loans and at times the
reinvestment of part of the profits from operations of the company.
Even if the entire cost of the proposed plant was available in cash,
its possible earning potential invested in other enterprises must be
compared to the cost of obtaining funds by other means such as those
mentioned previously before a decision is made on how to finance
the project.
In this regard, the availability of money at a suitable cost often
determines the schedule of construction. This may occur from the ab-
solute lack of capital or because of exorbitant interest rates. In some
cases the total cost for obtaining the required funds may be lower if it
is obtained in smaller amounts over a relatively long period of time.
In an era of inflation, the reverse may be true and the entire amount
obtained at one time and accelerating construction to reduce the ef-
fects not only of the cost of money but increasing costs of labor and
material. In this regard it may be worth knowing what a dollar today
at a certain interest rate is worth X years hence. Conversely, what a
dollar invested X years hence is worth today at a certain interest rate.
These are given in the following formulas:
Future worth = (1 + interest rate)x
Present worth = 1
x
(1 + interest rate)
The impact of taxes, federal, state, and local, and others (income,
franchise, sales, etc.) and insurance rates may also affect the method
of financing and construction.
FIXED COSTS
It should be of interest to note that there are certain costs as-

sociated with a generating plant that must be provided for whether
or not the plant produces a single kilowatt-hour of electrical energy.
This is similar to the expenses of car owners who must meet certain
expenses even though the car may never be driven.
Fixed charges are those necessary to replace the equipment when
it is worn out or made obsolete. Interest and taxes carry the invest-
ment, while insurance and accumulated depreciation funds cover the
retirement of physical property.
Interest is the time cost of money required for the work. It is af-
fected by the credit rating of the utility, the availability of money and
other financial conditions internal and external to the company at the
time money is borrowed.
Taxes can be as variable as interest rates. In addition to property
taxes, utilities are also subject to franchise tax, income tax, licensing
and other special imposts created by local, state and federal authori-
ties.
Insurance carried by utilities include accidents, fire, storms, ve-
hicles and particularly in the case of power plants boiler insurance.
Insurance carriers for boilers require periodic inspections by their
personnel and may result in recommendations for changes or im-
provements to the plant the benefits of which can offset the cost of
insurance.
Depreciation of property and equipment takes place continually.
At some time after initial installation most equipment will reach a
condition at which it has little or no useful life remaining. A retire-
ment reserve permits replacement to retain the integrity of the initial
investment.

Electric Power Generation 11
Chapter 2
Electric Power Generation
ENERGY CONVERSION
P ower generating plants, like other manufacturing plants, process

raw materials into useful products, often accompanied by some
waste products. For power plants the useful product is electri-
cal energy. The waste products for fossil plants include ash and smoke
visibly and heat invisibly.
Similarities include the use of equipment and materials that serve
to expedite and improve efficiency of operations, although they may not
be directly involved in the manufacture of the product. For example,
water may be used to produce the steam and for cooling purposes,
oil to lubricate moving parts, and fans and pumps to move gases and
fluids. Additional similarities include facilities for the reception of raw
materials, disposal of waste, and for delivery of the finished product as
well as trained personnel to operate the plant. Economic considerations,
including capital investment and operating expenses which determine
the unit costs of the product while meeting competition (oil, natural gas
in this case) are common to most business enterprises.
There are some important dissimilarities. As a product electricity
not only is invisible and hazardous in its handling but for the most
part cannot be stored. Inventories cannot be accumulated and the ever
changing customer demands must be met instantly. All of this imposes
greater standards of reliability in furnishing a continuing supply both
in quantity and quality. This criteria assumes even greater importance
as such generating plants are vital to national economy and contribute
greatly to the standard of living.
In the larger central generating plants, fossil or nuclear energy
(in the form of fuel) is first converted into heat energy (in the form of
11
steam), then into mechanical energy (in an engine or turbine), and finally
into electrical energy (in a generator) to be utilized by consumers. A
schematic arrangement is shown in Figure 2-1, below.
consumer
boiler/ engine
source
fuel fire steam shaft generator

furnace turbine turbine
Figure 2-1
Schematic Diagram of Energy Conversion
Most commonly, electricity is produced by burning a fossil fuel

(coal, oil or natural gas) in the furnace of a steam boiler. Steam from
the boiler drives a steam engine or turbine connected by a drive shaft
to an electrical generator.
A nuclear power plant is a steam-electric plant in which a nuclear
reactor takes the place of a furnace and the heat comes from the reaction
within the nuclear fuel (called fission) rather than from the burning of
fossil fuel. The equipment used to convert heat to power is essentially
the same an ordinary steam-electric plant. The product, electrical energy
is identical; see Figure 2-2.
The processes and the equipment to achieve these energy trans-
formations will be described in fundamental terms, encompassing ar-
rangements and modifications to meet specific conditions. Some may be
recognized as belonging to older practices (for example burning lump
coal on iron grates). While serving purposes of illustration, it must be
borne in mind that for a variety of reasons, some of the equipment and
procedures continue in service and, hence, knowledge of their operation
is still desirable. Pertinent changes, developments and improvements,
brought about by technological, economic and social considerations are
included.
The four conversion processes in a typical steam generating plant
may be conveniently separated into two physical entities, following
accepted general practice. The first two processes comprise operations
known as the BOILER ROOM, while the latter two are included in those
known as the TURBINE ROOM.
Except for the source of heat they use to create steam, nuclear and fossil power
plants are basically the same.
Figure 2-2. (Courtesy LI Lighting Co.)
INPUT ENERGY SOURCES

Sources of energy for the production of electricity are many and
varied. In addition to the energy contained in falling water, the more
common are contained in fuels which contain chemical energy. These
can be characterized as fossil and non-fossil fuels; the former, formed
from animal and plant matter over thousands of years, while the latter
comprises radioactive-associated materials. Coal, oil and natural gas fall
into the first category as fossil fuels, while uranium and plutonium (and
less known thorium) comprise so-called nuclear fuels. All fuels may be
classified as solid, liquid or gaseous, for handling purposes.
A number of fuels commonly employed in the production of
electricity are contained in Table 2-1; representative values of their heat

content and the components of the chemical compounds are indicated.
Table 2-1. Energy Sources

————————————————————————————————
1. Hydro - Depends on availability, volume and head (distance from
the intake to the water wheels).
2. Fossil Fuels - Typical Characteristics (Approximate Values)
Components in Percent
Fuel Btu/lb Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen Sulphur Nitrogen Ash
————————————————————————————————
Wood 9,000 52.0 6.0 25.0 0.3 15.0 1.7
Coal Lignite 11,000 60.0 6.0 4.0 1.0 1.0 28.0
Oil 18,500 88.0 8.2 0.5 3.0 0.1 0.2
Natural Gas 22,000 69.0 23.5 1.5 0.3 5.7 0.0
3. Nuclear Fuels
Fuel Btu/lb
Uranium
Plutonium 38.7 billion
Thorium
4. Other Fuels
Fuel
Tar
Garbage Components may vary widely, but the
Manure Heap Gas combustible contents generally include
Aquatic & Land Plants carbon and hydrogen as basic elements.
Bagasse
Husks
5. Other Energy Sources

Geo-thermal
Wind Variable - from very large
Tides quantities to very small
Solar (Direct Sun Rays) quantities - Some not
Temperature Differences always available.
between Surface & Deep
Layers of Water Bodies
COMBUSTION
Combustion, commonly referred to as burning, is the chemical

process that unites the combustible content of the fuel with oxygen in
the air at a rapid rate. The process converts the chemical energy of the
fuel into heat energy, and leaves visible waste products of combustion,
generally in the form of ash and smoke.
Chemistry of Combustion
In order to understand what takes place when fuel is burned, it
is desirable (though not essential) to review the chemistry of the action
involved.
Elements, Molecules and Atoms

All substances are made up of one or more “elements.” An element
is a basic substance which, in present definition, cannot be subdivided into
simpler forms. The way these elements combine is called chemistry.
The smallest quantity of an element, or of a compound of two or
more elements, is considered to be the physical unit of matter and is
called a “molecule.” In turn, molecules are composed of atoms. An atom
is defined as the smallest unit of an element which may be added to or
be taken away from a molecule. Atoms may exist singly but are usually
combined with one or more atoms to form a molecule. Molecules of
gaseous elements, such as oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen, each consist
of two atoms. See Figure 2-3.
Figure 2-3. Illustrating Composition of Atoms & Molecules

Chemical Combinations
Chemical symbols and equations convey much information in a
condensed form. Chemical combinations may be written as equations
in which, for convenience, symbols are used to represent different ele-
ments. Thus, for the gaseous elements mentioned above: O represents
one atom of oxygen, H one atom of hydrogen, and N one atom of
nitrogen. As indicated above, molecules of gaseous elements each con-
tain two atoms and are represented by O2; H2; and N2. Molecules of
non-gaseous elements may consist of a single atom; for example, carbon
represented by C, sulphur by S, etc.
Water is represented by H2O which indicates that each molecule
of which it is composed consists of two atoms of hydrogen and one
of oxygen. Two molecules of water would be indicated by placing the
number 2 in front of the symbol - thus, 2H2O.
Atoms of the different elements have different relative “weights;”
hence chemical combinations always take place in definite proportions.
For example, hydrogen combines with oxygen to form water: these two
elements combine in the proportion of two atoms of hydrogen to one
atom of oxygen and it will be found that 2 pounds of hydrogen will
combine with 16 pounds of oxygen to make 18 pounds of water. If more
hydrogen is present, it will remain uncombined; if less, some of the
oxygen will remain uncombined. The parts entering into combination
will always be in the proportion of one to eight.
Atomic and Molecular Weights

Since the elements combine in certain definite proportions, a value
has been assigned to each one to simplify the computations. This value
is called the “atomic weight.” Hydrogen, being the lightest known ele-
ment, has been taken as one or unity, and the heavier elements given
weights in proportion. The following atomic weights are used in fuel
combustion problems:
Hydrogen (H) .............. 1

Carbon (C) .................. 12
Nitrogen (N) .............. 14
Oxygen (O) ................. 16
Sulphur (S) ................. 32
The molecular weight of a substance is obtained by the addition of

the atomic weights composing the substance. Thus, carbon dioxide, CO2,
has a molecular weight of one carbon atom and two oxygen atoms:
1 × 12 + 2 × 16 = 12 + 32 = 44
that is, the molecular weight of carbon dioxide is 44.
Fuel and Air

Fossil fuels are composed of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), sulphur (S),
nitrogen (N), oxygen (O), and some other important elements. As indi-
cated previously, the largest percentage of such fuels is pure carbon and
the next largest part is hydrocarbons composed of hydrogen and carbon
in varying proportions, depending on the kind of fuel.
Air is mainly a combination of two elements, oxygen (O) and nitro-
gen (N), existing separately physically and not in chemical combination.
Neglecting minor quantities of other gases, oxygen forms 23.15 percent
of air by weight, nitrogen forming the other 76.85 percent. On the other
hand, the volumes of the two gases would be in proportion of 20.89 per-
cent oxygen and 79.11 percent nitrogen; or a cubic foot of air would con-
tain 0.2089 cubic foot of oxygen and 0.7911 cubic foot of nitrogen.
Combustion may be defined as the rapid chemical combination of
an element, or group of elements, with oxygen. The carbon, hydrogen and
sulphur in the fuel combines with the oxygen in the air and the chemical
action can give off a large quantity of light and heat. The carbon, hydro-
gen and sulphur are termed combustibles. If the air was pure oxygen and
not mixed with the inert nitrogen gas, combustion once started, would
become explosive as pure oxygen unites violently with most substances
- with damaging effects to boilers and other combustion chambers.
Chemical Reactions—Combustion Equations

The principal chemical reactions of the combustion of fossil fuels are
shown in the following equations expressed in symbols:
(1) Carbon to carbon monoxide 2C + O2 = 2CO

(2) Carbon to carbon dioxide, 2C + 2O2 = 2CO2
(3) Carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide 2CO + O2 = 2CO2
(4) Hydrogen to water 2H2 + O2 = 2H2O
(5) Sulphur to sulphur dioxide S + O2 = SO2
(1) For incomplete combustion of C to CO:
Total Combus-
2C + O2 = 2CO N2 Air tion Products
Atom Wt 24 32 56 — — —
Pounds 1 1.333 2.333 4.425 5.758 6.758
(2) For complete combustion of C to CO2:

C + O2 = CO2
Atom Wt 12 32 36 — — —
Pounds 1 2.667 3.667 8.854 11.521 12.521
(3) For combustion of CO to CO2

2CO + O2 = 2CO2
Atom Wt 56 32 88 — — —
Pounds 1 0.571 1.571 1.892 2.463 3.463
(4) For combustion of H2 to H2O:

2H2 + O + 2H2O
Atom Wt 4 32 34 — — —
Pounds 1 8.000 9.000 26.557 34.557 35.557
(5) For combustion of S to SO2:

S + O2 = SO2
Atom Wt 32 32 64 — — —
Pounds 1 1.000 2.000 3.320 4.320 5.320
From these unit figures, the air requirements and the amount of
combustion products (flue gases) may be determined for the different
kinds of fuels.
Other Chemical Reactions

The chemical reactions indicated above may be influenced by the
relative amounts of the elements present.
Thus, if a small amount of carbon is burned in a great deal of air,
CO2 results. But if there is a great deal of carbon and a little air, instead
of a small portion of the carbon being burned to CO2 as before and the
rest remain unaffected, a large portion will be burned to CO and there
will be no CO2 formed at all. The action is as if CO was a nearly satisfied
combustion, and if an unattached O atom should be present and nothing

else available, it would unite with the CO and form CO2. But if more
C was present, the C atom would prefer to pair off with an atom of C
and make more CO. Such preferences are referred to as “affinity.”
Now if CO2 comes into contact with hot carbon, an O atom, act-
ing in accordance with the affinity just mentioned, will even leave the
already existing CO2 and join with an atom of hot carbon, increasing
the amount of CO in place of the former CO2 molecule.
Such action may actually take place in parts of the fuel being
burned and affect the design and operation of furnaces.
Perfect Combustion vs Complete Combustion

Perfect combustion is the result of supplying just the right amount
of oxygen to unite with all the combustible constituents of the fuel, and
utilizing in the combustion all of the oxygen so supplied that neither
the fuel nor the oxygen may be left over.
Complete combustion, on the other hand, results from the com-
plete oxidation of all the combustible constituents of the fuel, without
necessarily using all the oxygen that is left over. Obviously, if extra
oxygen is supplied, it must be heated and will finally leave the boiler
carrying away at least part of the heat, which is thereby lost. If perfect
combustion could be obtained in a boiler there would be no such waste
or loss of heat. The more nearly complete combustion can approach a
perfect combustion, the loss will occur in the burning of a fuel. The
problems of design and operation of a boiler are contained in obtaining
as nearly as possible perfect combustion.
HEAT AND TEMPERATURE

When fuels are burned, they not only produce the combustion
products indicated in the chemical equations listed above. More impor-
tantly, they also produce heat. The heat will cause the temperature of
the gases and the surrounding parts to rise.
The distinction between temperature and heat must be clearly un-
derstood. Temperature defines the intensity, that is, how hot a substance
is, without regard to the amount of heat that substance may contain. For
example, some of the boiling water from a kettle may be poured into
a cup; the temperature of the water in the kettle and the cup may be
the same, but the amount of heat in the greater volume of water in the
kettle is obviously several times the amount of heat contained in the

water in the cup.
If two bodies are at different temperatures, heat will tend to flow
from the hotter one to the colder one, just as a fluid such as water tends
to flow from a higher to a lower level.
Temperature may be measured by its effect in expanding and con-
tracting some material, and is usually measured in degrees. The mercury
thermometer is a familiar instrument in which a column of mercury
is enclosed in a sealed glass tube and its expansion and contraction
measured on an accompanying scale. Two such scales are in common
use, the Fahrenheit (F) and the Centigrade or Celsius (C). The former
has the number 32 at the freezing point of water and 212 at the boiling
point; thus 180 divisions, or degrees, separate the freezing and boiling
points or temperatures of water. The latter has the number zero (0) at
the freezing point of water and 100 at the boiling point; thus 100 at the
boiling points thus 100 divisions or degrees separate the freezing and
boiling points or temperatures of water. Both scales may be extended
above the boiling points and below the freezing points of water. Refer
to Figure 2-4. Other instruments may employ other liquids, gases, or
metals, registering their expansion and contraction in degrees similar to
those for mercury. Temperature values on one scale may be converted
to values on the other by the following formuas:
°C = 5 °F – 32 and °F = 9 °C + 32
9 5
212° boiling pt. of water 100°
32° freezing pt. of H2O 0°
Fahrenheit Scale Centigrade or Celsius Scale
Figure 2-4. Comparison of F & C Temperature Scales

Heat, that is, the amount of heat in a substance, may be measured

by its effect in producing changes in temperature of the substance. Thus,
if heat is added to water, it will become hot and its temperature rise.
The unit of heat, or the amount of heat, is measured in British Thermal
Units (Btu) or in Calories (C). The Btu is the amount of heat required
to raise one pound of water (about a pint) one degree Fahrenheit. The
Calorie is the amount of heat required to raise one kilogram of water
(about 1-1/3 liters) one degree Centigrade. Heat values in one system
may be converted to values in the other by the following formulas:
1 Btu = 0.2521 Calorie and 1 Calorie = 3.9673 Btu’s

1 Btu = Approx. 1/4 Calorie and 1 Calorie = Approx. 4 Btu’s
Different substances require different amounts of heat to raise the

temperature one degree; these quantities are called the specific heats of
the substances. Compared to water (its specific heat taken as 1), that of
iron is 0.13, kerosene 0.5, air 0.244, etc.
Temperature of Ignition
When air is supplied to a fuel, the temperature must be high
enough or ignition will not take place and burning will not be sustained.
Nothing will burn until it is in a gaseous state. For example, the wax
of a candle cannot be ignited directly; the wick, heated by the flame of
a match, draws up a little of the melted wax by capillary action until it
can be vaporized and ignited. Fuels that liquefy on heating usually will
melt at a temperature below that at which they ignite. Solid fuels must
be heated to a temperature at which the top layers will gasify before
they will burn.
Table 2-2 gives ignition temperatures for various substances, in-
cluding some hydrocarbons mentioned earlier.
The ignition temperatures of fuels depend on their compositions;
since the greatest part is carbon, the temperature given in the table, 870°F,
will not be far wrong. Heat must be given to the fuel to raise it to the
temperature of combustion. If there is moisture in the fuel, more heat
must be supplied before it will ignite, since practically all of the moisture
must be evaporated and driven out before the fuel will burn.
Temperature of Combustion
When the fuel is well ignited, its temperature will be far above
Table 2-2. Ignition Temperatures
Approximate
Substance Symbol Ignition Temperature
°F °C
———————— ———— ———————————
Sulphur S 470 245
Carbon (fixed) C 870 465
Acetylene C2H2 900 480
Ethylene C2H4 950 510
Ethane C2H6 1000 540
Hydrogen H2 1130 610
Methane CH4 1200 650
Carbon Monoxide CO 1210 655
———————————————————————————————
that of ignition. While combustion is taking place, if the temperature

of the elements is lowered (by whatever means) below that of ignition,
combustion will become imperfect or will cease, causing waste of fuel
and the production of a large amount of soot.
Since it is the purpose to develop into heat all the latent energy in
the fuel, it is important that the temperature of the fuel be kept as high
as practical. The maximum temperature attainable will depend generally
on four factors:
1. It is impossible to achieve complete combustion without an excess

amount of air over the theoretical amount of air required, and the
temperature tends to decrease with the increase in the amount of
excess air supplied.
2. If this excess air be reduced to too low a point, incomplete com-

bustion results and the full amount of heat in the fuel will not be
liberated.
3. With high rates of combustion, so much heat can be generated that,

in a relatively small space, even if the excess air is reduced to the
lowest possible point, the temperatures reached may damage the
containing vessel.
4. Contrary-wise, if the containing vessel is cooled too rapidly (by

whatever means), the temperature of the burning fuel may be low-
ered resulting in poor efficiency.
The rate of combustion, therefore, affects the temperature of the

fire, the temperature increasing as the combustion rate increases, pro-
vided that relation of fuel to air is maintained constant.
Temperatures of 3000°F may be reached at high rates of combus-
tion and low amounts of excess air and may cause severe damage to
heat resisting materials and other parts of the containing vessel.
COMBUSTION OF FOSSIL FUELS
Carbon and hydrogen are the only elementary fuels; sulphur and
traces of other elements do burn and give off heat, but these are col-
lectively so small as to be considered negligible and their constituents as
nuisance impurities. Oxygen from the air is the only elementary burning
agent necessary to every heat producing reaction.
Coal
Coal is a complex substance containing mainly carbon, hydrogen,
sulphur, oxygen and nitrogen. Typical approximate percentages of these
constituents are shown in Table 2-1. It must be recognized, however,
that there are different kinds of coals whose characteristics may differ
from the typical values shown. Coals are classified with the aid of the
various characteristics by which they may be distinguished. Among the
more important are:
Volatile Matter - This term describes the mixture of gases and hy-
drocarbon vapors that may be given off when coal is heated at very high
temperatures; these may include acetylene, ethylene, ethane, methane,
and others. The more the volatile matter, the more liable the coal will
produce smoke. This is an indicator of the property of the coal.
Fixed Carbon - This term applies to that portion of the carbon left
in the coal after the volatile matter is subtracted. It is usually combined
with the percentages of moisture and ash in the coal when classifying
coals.
Coals may have different properties depending on where they are
mined and require different ways of firing for best results. In addition to
heating values, the amounts of ash and smoke produced when the coal
is fired are different for the several kinds of coal. Their classification is
indicated in Table 2-3.
Ash - Ash is the residue after all the carbon, hydrogen and the
small quantities of sulphur are burned away; coal ash varies consider-
ably in the different kinds of coal. A large amount of ash in coal not
only lowers its heating value but causes ash removal to become more
difficult. The clinkering of coal depends largely on its composition. Ash
may consist of alumina and silica derived from clay, shale and slate,
iron oxide from pyrites or iron sulfide, and small quantities of lime and
magnesia.
Heat of Combustion
If one pound of carbon is completely burned to CO2, the heat
developed will be 14.550 Btu. That is, the heat evolved would heat
14,550 lbs of water 1°F, or 1455 lbs 10°F, or 145.5 lbs 100°F, etc. The
heat of combustion of carbon is therefore said to be 14.550 Btu. (See
equation 2-2, p. 18.)
If, however, the pound of carbon is incompletely burned to CO2,
which occurs when too little air is supplied, the heat involved would
be only 4,500 Btu. If the gas passes off, the loss will be 14,550 minus
4,500 or 10,050 Btu, or approximately 70% of the possible heat that can
be evolved. That is, 70% of the fuel value is wasted if CO is formed
instead of CO2. (See equation 1, p. 18)
The CO, however, can be burned to CO2 by the addition of more
air under suitable temperature conditions and, in the end, the same
amount of heat per pound of carbon, 14,550 Btu, will be developed as
Table 2-3. Classification of Coals
Volatile Matter Fixed Carbon, Ash Heating Values

Kind of Coal in % & Moisture Content-% Approx. Btu
—————— —————— ———————— ——————
Hard Anthracite 3 to 7.5 97.0 to 92.5 11500-13500
Semi Anthracite 7.5 to 12.5 92.5 to 87.5 13300-13800
Semi Bituminous 12.5 to 25.0 87.5 to 75.0 14500-15200
Bituminous-East 25 to 40 75 to 60 14000-14500
Bituminous-West 35 to 50 65 to 50 13000-14000
Lignite Over 50 Under 50 10500-13000
———————————————————————————————————
when C is burned to CO2 in one operation. (See equation 3, p. 18)

The heat of combination of hydrogen is 62,100 Btu per pound and
of sulphur 4,050 Btu per pound.
The heat of combustion of a typical sample of dry coal is given
below in Table 2-4, analyzed by its components; the contributions of
each to the total heat evolved by a pound of coal is also indicated.
Table 2-4. Ultimate Analysis of Coal Sample
Heat of Combustion Heat per lb

Substance %by weight Btu/lb of coal-Btu
————— ————— ————————— –—————
Carbon (C) 84.0 14,550 12,222
Hydrogen (H) 4.1 - 0.3* 62,100 2,360*
Sulphur (S) 0.8 4,050 32
Oxygen (O) 2.4* - -
Nitrogen (N) 1.4 - -
Ash (Inert) 7.3 - -
Total 100.0 14,614
*Hydrogen in the fuel is 4.1%, but some of which is combined with

oxygen and exists as inherent moisture which is not available to produce
heat. Since it takes 8 parts of oxygen to convert 1 part of hydrogen to wa-
ter, then 2.4 divided by 8 = 0.3 parts of hydrogen will not produce heat;
4.1 - 0.3 = 3.8% of hydrogen will produce heat.
————————————————————————————————
If instead of being dry, the coal is burned as it comes, a condition

termed “as fired, “ it will have some moisture in it. Since heat is required
to evaporate the moisture, and the heat thus used is not available, the
effective Btu per pound of coal will be less. For example, if the coal
contained 5% moisture, the heating value would be 14,614 × 0.95 or
13883 Btu. (Actually, with the added moisture, the percentages of the
several constituents would also be slightly altered to keep the total to
100 percent.)
When coal is burned, the temperature of the burning fuel may be
judged roughly from the color, brilliancy and appearance of the fire. For
example:
Dull red to cherry red ....................... 1000 to 1500°F

Bright cherry red............................... 1500 to 1600 °F
Orange ................................................... 1600 to 1700°F
Light orange to yellow ...................... 1700 to 2000°F
White to dazzling white ........................ Over 2000°F
GASIFICATION OF COAL
The gasification of coal is a process that converts solid coal into

combustible gas mainly composed of carbon monoxide and hydrogen.
The gas, cleaned of waste material and particulate matter (pollutants),
is ready to be burned to produce heat and energy.
Coal, together with hydrogen and steam, heated to a tempera-
ture of some 1600°C will produce a gas of some 20 to 25 percent Btu
content of natural gas (depending on the type of coal), together with
some important by-products. The gas, a mixture of carbon monoxide
and hydrogen, synthesis gas or syngas, that is ultimately burned in a
steam boiler to produce steam to power one or more steam turbines to
generate electricity. (Refer to Figure 2-5)
Wabash IGCC Process

Flow Diagram
Figure 2-5. Variations of Gasification Process (Courtesy Power Engineer-

ing)
Piñon Pine's IGCC Process Flow Diagram
Process Flow of the Polk IGCC Project
Figure 2-5. (Continued)

Although of low Btu, this gas can compete economically with other
fuels because:
1. The by-products of the process beside particulates (coal dust) are

sulfur and nitrogen compounds that are extricated at this point (and
other residues and the gas itself are valuable in the petrochemical
industry). These compounds are pollutants that are also produced
in the combustion of other fuels, requiring expensive processes to
eliminate or reduce them to values meeting environmental require-
ments before released to the atmosphere. Syngas when burned
produces carbon dioxide and water, requiring no processing when
released to the atmosphere.
2. The syngas, produced at high pressure, is made to power a gas

turbine to generate electricity that constitutes a portion of the over-
all electricity output. It is then exhausted at a lower pressure, goes
on to be burned in steam boilers to produce steam to drive other
steam turbines to produce electricity. This is sometimes referred to
as a composite or combined cycle. (Refer to Figure 2-6)
3. The syngas produced, not only fires the gasifier unit itself, but, as
mentioned, produces valuable by-products that include sulfur and
nitrogen oxides and other materials. Sulfur nitrogen and other mate-
rials are recovered by standard processes that may employ cyclone
and ceramic filters, catalysts, scrubbers, absorption and dissolution in
amino acids and other solutions. An inert slag is also produced that
may be used as an aggregate in highway and other construction.
In the use of coal as a fuel, a comparison of the gasified method

to that of coal burned using wet slurry feed, the typical components of
raw syngas and slurry coal are shown in the Table 2-5.
Some 80% of the energy in the original coal is contained in the
syngas, as it leaves the gasification process, and is known as the cold
gas efficiency. Another 15% from the steam produced in the gasifier and
gasifier cooler, for a total of some 95% in comparison with a cold gas
efficiency of some 75% using wet slurry feed. In the gasifier, the syngas
is cooled to some 800-900°C by gas flowing through the unit, and then
further cooler to some 400°C in a high pressure heat exchanger (the
waste heat delivered to a boiler producing steam to power a steam tur-
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OF QUEEN ELIZABETH'S REIGN
BY
EDWARD GILLIAT, M.A. (Oxon.)

SOMETIME MASTER AT HARROW SCHOOL
AUTHOR OF "FOREST OUTLAWS," "HEROES OF MODERN INDIA,"

"ROMANCE OF MODERN SIEGES," &c. &c.
WITH FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS

LONDON
SEELEY, SERVICE & CO. LIMITED
38 GREAT RUSSELL STREET
1914
UNIFORM WITH THIS VOLUME
THE RUSSELL LIBRARY

FOR
BOYS & GIRLS
A SERIES OF COPYRIGHT VOLUMES OF TRUE
STORIES OF ADVENTURE
Fully Illustrated. Extra crown 8vo, 2s. 6d. each
STORIES OF RED INDIAN ADVENTURE.

By H. W. G. HYRST, Author of "Adventures in the
Arctic Regions," &c.
STORIES OF ELIZABETHAN HEROES.

By Rev. EDWARD GILLIAT, M.A., sometime Master at
Harrow School, Author of "In Lincoln Green,"
"Heroes of the Indian Mutiny," &c., &c.
SEELEY, SERVICE & CO. LIMITED

CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
The Elizabethan World
CHAPTER II
Sir John Hawkins, Seaman and Administrator
CHAPTER III
George Clifford, Earl of Cumberland, the Champion of the Tilt-yard
CHAPTER IV
Sir Martin Frobisher, the Explorer of the Northern Seas
CHAPTER V
Sir Humphrey Gilbert, the Founder of Newfoundland
CHAPTER VI
Lord Howard of Effingham, the Trusted of the Queen
CHAPTER VII
Sir Richard Grenville, the Hero of Flores
CHAPTER VIII
John Davis, the Hero of the Arctic and Pacific
CHAPTER IX
Francis Drake, the Scourge of Spain
CHAPTER X
Sir Francis Drake, the Queen's Greatest Seaman
CHAPTER XI
Sir Richard Hawkins, Seaman and Geographer
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
"Sir Francis" ... Coloured Frontispiece [missing from source book]
Attempt on Sir John Hawkins' Life
Fire-Ships
Capture of an Eskimo
England's First Colony
The Blowing-up of the "San Felipe"
Sir Richard Grenville and the "Revenge"
Drake captures Nombre de Dios
Angling for Albatross
PUBLISHERS' NOTE
The contents of this volume have been taken from Mr. Gilliat's larger
book entitled "Heroes of the Elizabethan Age," published at five shillings.
STORIES OF ELIZABETHAN HEROES
CHAPTER I
THE ELIZABETHAN WORLD
Before we touch upon the lives of some of the heroes of the Maiden
Queen, it were well to consider briefly what life was like in those days, and
how it differed from our own.
When on a November day in 1558 Sir Nicholas Throckmorton spurred

his steaming horse to Hatfield, in haste to inform the Princess Elizabeth that
Queen Mary was dead, he was bidden to ride back to the Palace of St.
James's and request one of the ladies of the bedchamber to give him, if the
Queen were really dead, the black enamelled ring which her Majesty wore
night and day. So cautious had the constant fear of death made Anne
Boleyn's daughter.
Meanwhile a deputation from the Council had arrived at Hatfield to offer

to the new Queen their dutiful homage.
Elizabeth sank upon her knees and exclaimed: "A Domino factum est
istud, et est mirabile in oculis nostris" ("This is the Lord's doing, and it is
marvellous in our eyes")—a text which the Queen caused to be engraved on
her gold coins, in memory of that day of release from anxiety. For the poor
young Princess had lived for years in a state of alarm; she had been
imprisoned in the Tower, the victim of plots for and against her; she had
been kept under severe control at Woodstock under Sir Henry Bedingfeld,
where she once saw a milkmaid singing merrily as she milked the cows in
the Park, and exclaimed, "That milkmaid's lot is better than mine, and her
life far merrier."
And now on a sudden her terrors were turned into a great joy; and what
the Princess felt all England was soon experiencing, as soon as men realised
that the tyranny of Rome and of Spain was shattered and gone.
Elizabeth was now at the close of her twenty-fifth year, of striking

beauty and commanding presence, tall and comely, with a wealth of hair,
yellow tinged with red; she inherited from her mother an air of coquetry, and
her affable manners soon endeared her to her people. The English were tired
of Smithfield fires and foreign priests and princes; a new era seemed to be
dawning upon them at last—an era of freedom for soul and body; and
imagination ran riot with hope to forecast a new and happier world. The
homage of an admiring nation was stirred by her young beauty; and wild
ambition, not content with the quiet fields of England, turned adventurously
to the New World beyond the Atlantic, where men dreamed of real cities
paved with gold. It is true that the Pope had given all the great West to his
faithful daughter, Spain; but Englishmen thought they had as much right to
colonise America as any son of Spain, and they soon obtained their Queen's
leave to land and explore. But the first merchants who ventured west found
that Spanish policy forbade "Christians to trade with heretics." Nay, if they
were taken prisoners by the Spaniards they suffered the punishment of the
rack and the stake; and if they escaped, they came home with tales of cruelty
that set all England ablaze to take revenge. "Abroad, the sky is dark and
wild," writes Kingsley, "and yet full of fantastic splendour. Spain stands
strong and awful, a rising world-tyranny, with its dark-souled Cortezes and
Pizarros, Alvas, Don Johns and Parmas, men whose path is like the lava
stream: who go forth slaying and to slay in the names of their Gods.... Close
to our own shores the Netherlands are struggling vainly for their liberties:
abroad, the Western Islands, and the whole trade of Africa and India, will in
a few years be hers ... and already Englishmen who go out to trade in
Guinea, in the Azores and New Spain, are answered by shot and steel."
We know a good deal of the life in Elizabethan England from an account

written by Harrison, Household Chaplain to Lord Cobham. He was an
admirer of still older days, as we see from his complaint about improved
houses: "See the change, for when our houses were builded of willow, then
had we oaken men; but now that our houses are come to be made of oak, our
men are not only become willow, but a great manie, through Persian
delicacie crept in among us, altogether of straw, which is a sore alteration....
Now have we manie chimnies; and yet our tenderlings complain of rheumes,
catarhs and poses. Then had we none but reredosses, and our heads did never
ache. For as the smoke in those daies was supposed to be a sufficient
hardning for the timber of the house, so it was reputed a far better medicine
to keep the goodman and his family from the quake or pose."
Harrison notes how rich men were beginning to use stoves for sweating
baths, how glass was beginning to be used instead of lattice, which was
made out of wicker or rifts of oak chequer-wise, how panels of horn for
windows had been going out for beryl or fine crystal, as at Sudeley Castle.
Then for furniture, it was not rare to see abundance of arras in noblemen's
houses, with such store of silver vessels as might fill sundry cupboards.
There were three things that old men remembered to have been marvellously
changed; one was the multitude of chimneys lately erected, whereas only the
great religious houses and manor places of the lords had formerly possessed
them, but each one made his fire against a reredosse in the hall, where he
dined and dressed his meat in the smoke and smother; the second thing was
the improved bedding. Formerly folks slept on straw pallets covered only
with a sheet, and a good round log under their heads for a bolster. "As for
servants, if they had anie sheet above them, it was well, for seldom had they
any under them to keep them from the pricking straws that ran oft through
the canvas and rased their hardened hides."
The third thing was the exchange from wooden cups and platters into
pewter or tin. Now the farmers had featherbeds and carpets of tapestry
instead of straw, sometimes even silver salt-cellars and a dozen spoons of
pewter.
Harrison bewails the decay of archery, and says that all the young
fellows above eighteen wear a dagger. Noblemen wear a sword too, while
desperate cutters carry two rapiers, "wherewith in every drunken fray they
are known to work much mischief"; and as the trampers carry long staves,
the honest traveller is obliged to carry horse-pistols; for the tapsters and
ostlers are in league with the highway robbers who rob chiefly at Christmas
time, "till they be trussed up in a Tyburn tippet."
There was a proverb, "Young serving-men, old beggars," because

servants were spoilt for any other service or craft; so that the country
swarmed with idle serving-men, who often became highwaymen.
A German traveller writes of England thus: "The women there are

charming, and by nature so mighty pretty as I have scarcely ever beheld, for
they do not falsify, paint or bedaub themselves as they do in Italy or other
places, but they are some deal awkward in their style of dress; for they dress
in splendid stuffs, and many a one wears three cloth gowns, one over the
other. Then, when a stranger goeth to a citizen's house on business, or is
invited as a guest, he is received by the master of the house and the ladies
and by them welcomed: he has even a right to take them by the arm and to
kiss them, which is the custom of the country; and if any one doth not do
this, it is regarded and imputed as ignorance and ill-breeding on his part."
Erasmus, writing in 1500, after a visit to Sir Thomas More, exclaims

merrily: "There is a custom which it would be impossible to praise too
much. Wherever you go, every one welcomes you with a kiss, and the same
on bidding you farewell. You call again, when there is more kissing.... You
meet an acquaintance anywhere, you are kissed till you are tired. In short,
turn where you will, there are kisses, kisses everywhere."
It was the same before and after a dance: you bowed, or curtseyed, and
kissed your partner in all formal ceremony. So Shakespeare—
"Come unto these yellow sands,

And then take hands:
Curtseyed when you have, and kissed,
The wild waves whist" (hushed).
Another foreigner describes the English as serious, like the Germans,

liking to be followed by hosts of servants who wear their masters' arms in
silver, fastened to their left arms: they excel in music and dancing, and their
favourite sport is hawking: they are more polite than the French in eating,
devour less bread but more meat, which they roast in perfection. They put a
great deal of sugar in their drink, a habit which may account for their teeth
turning black in age. Harrison tells us that the nobles had "for cooks
musicall-headed Frenchmen, who concocted sundrie delicacies: every dish
being first taken to the greatest personage at the table."
We are told that Sir Walter Raleigh was once staying with a noble lady,
whom he heard in the morning scolding her servant and crying, "Have the
pigs been fed? have the pigs been fed?"
At eleven o'clock Master Walter came down to dinner, and could not
resist a sly remark to his hostess, "Have the pigs been fed?" The lady drew
herself up haughtily and rejoined, "You should know best, Sir Walter,
whether you have had your breakfast or no." So the laugh was turned on the
wit for once: for indeed it had become unusual for people to require any
breakfast before eleven o'clock in Queen Elizabeth's time. Formerly they had
four meals a day, consisting of breakfast, dinner, nuntion or beverage, and
supper. "Now these odd repasts," says Harrison, "thanked be God! are very
well left, and each one (except here and there some young hungrie stomach
that cannot fast till dinner-time) contenteth himself with dinner and supper
only." It was the custom at table amongst yeomen and merchants for the
guest to call for such drink as he desired, when a servant would bring him a
cup from the cupboard; but when he had tasted of it, he delivered it again to
the servant, who made it clean and restored it to the cupboard. "By this
device much idle tippling is cut off, for if the full pots should continually
stand neare the trencher, divers would be alwaies dealing with them." Yet in
the houses of the nobles it was not so, but silver goblets or glasses of Venice
graced the tables.
They were content with four or six dishes, finishing with jellies and
march-paine "wrought with no small curiosity"; potatoes, too, began to be
brought from Spain and the Indies. The best beer was usually kept for two
years and brewed in March; of light wines there were fifty-six kinds, mostly
foreign, from Italy, Greece, and Spain, clarets from France, and Malmsey
wine.
"I might here talk somewhat of the great silence that is used at the tables
of the honourable and wiser sort, likewise of the moderate eating and
drinking that is daily seen, and finally of the regard that each one hath to
keep himself from the note of surfeiting and drunkennesse."
They were a proud, self-respecting people in those spacious times, and

even the poorer sort, when they could get a time to be merry, thought it no
small disgrace if they happened to be "cup-shotten."
In regard to their dress the English at that time seem to have been
somewhat extravagant, copying first the Spanish guise, then the French,
anon the Italian or German—nay, even Turkish and Moorish fashions gained
favour; "so that except it were a dog in a doublet, you shall not see any so
disguised as are my countrymen of England."
Our good friend Harrison waxes quite sarcastic as he describes, "What
chafing, what fretting, what reproachful language doth the poor workman
bear away! ... Then must we put it on, then must the long seams of our hose
be set by a plumb-line: then we puff, then we blow, and finally sweat till we
drop, that our clothes may stand well upon us."
It became the fashion for ladies to dye their hair yellow out of
compliment to the Queen, who however in her later years used wigs, and
was reputed to have a choice of eighty attires of false hair.
In 1579 the Queen gave her command to the Privy Council to prevent
excesses of apparel, and it was ordered that "No one shall use or wear such
excessive long cloaks; being in common sight monstrous." Neither were they
to wear such high ruffs of cambric about their necks as were growing
common, both with men and women. Quilted doublets, curiously slashed,
and lined with figured lace, Venetian hose and stockings of the finest black
yarn, with shoes of white leather, betokened the courtier, the clank of whose
gilded spurs announced his coming.
In regard to weapons, the long-bow had gone out of use, but they shot
with the caliver, a clumsy musket with a short butt, and handled the pike
with dexterity. Corslets and shirts of mail still remained; every village could
furnish forth three or four soldiers, as one archer, one gunner, one pikeman,
and a bill-man. As to artillery, the falconet weighed five hundred pounds,
with a diameter of two inches at the mouth; the culverin weighed four
thousand pounds, having a diameter of five inches and a half; the cannon
weighed seven thousand, and the basilisk nine thousand pounds.
In 1582 Queen Elizabeth had twenty-five great ships of war, the largest
being of 1000 tons burden, besides three galleys: there were 135 ships that
exceeded 500 tons, which could fight at a pinch, for many private owners
possessed ships of their own.
A man-of-war in those days was well worth two thousand pounds, and "it
is incredible to say how greatly her Grace was delighted with her fleet."
After all, it is the men that count most, and the men of that day were as full
of good courage as the best of us.
On the Continent they had a saying that "England is a paradise for
women, a prison for servants, and a purgatory for horses"; for the females
had more liberty in England than on the Continent, and were almost like
masters; while the servants could not escape from England without a
passport, and the poor horses were worked all too hard.
For instance, when the Queen broke up her Court to go on progress,

there commonly followed her more than three hundred carts laden with bag
and baggage. For you must know that in Tudor England, besides coaches,
they used no waggons for their goods, but had only two-wheeled carts,
which were so large that they could carry quite as much as waggons, and as
many as five or six horses were needed to draw them.
In those days they knew full well what deep ruts could do in the way of
lowering speed, and the jaded horses must sometimes have thought that they
were pulling a plough, and not a coach.
Fynes Moryson, a traveller, gives a pleasant account of his journeyings:

"The world affords not such Innes as England hath, either for good and
cheap entertainment after the guests' own pleasure, or for humble attendance
upon passengers. For as soon as a traveller comes to an Inne, the servants
run to him, and one takes his horse and walks him till he be cold, then rubs
him and gives him meat. Another servant gives the traveller his private
chamber and kindles his fire: the third pulls off his boots and makes them
cleane. Then the Host or Hostess visits him; and if he will eat with the Host,
or at a common table with others, his meal will cost him six pence, or in
some places but four pence: but if he will eat in his chamber, the which
course is more honourable, he commands what meat he will, according to his
appetite, and when he sits at table the Host or Hostess will visit him, taking
it for courtesie to be bid sit downe: while he eats he shall have musicke
offered him: if he be solitary the musicians will give him the good day with
musicke in the morning. It is the custom to set up part of supper for his
breakfast. Ere he goeth he shall have a reckoning in writing, which the Host
will abate, if it seem unreasonable. At parting, if he give some few pence to
the chamberlain and ostler they wish him a happy journey."
We may add that folk did not use night-gowns, as we see from George
Cavendishes "Life of Wolsey": "My master went to his naked bed." But a
night-gown in those days meant a dressing-gown. Hentzner gives us a
description of the life at Court, from which we will take a few passages. He
was at Greenwich Palace, being admitted to the presence-chamber, which
was hung with rich tapestry and strewn with hay, or rushes. After noticing
the small hands and tapering fingers of the Queen, her stately air and
pleasing speech, he says: "As she went along in all this state and
magnificence, she spoke very graciously, first to one foreign Minister, then
to another: for, besides being well skilled in Greek, Latin, and French, she is
mistress of Spanish, Scotch, and Dutch. Whoever speaks to her, it is
kneeling: now and then she will pull off her glove and give her hand to kiss,
sparkling, with rings and jewels. The Ladies of the Court that followed her,
very handsome and well-shaped, were dressed in white, while she was
guarded on either side by her gentlemen Pensioners, fifty in number, with
gilt battle-axes."
What a marvellous lady was this Queen, so taught by suffering to

dissemble and deceive, so trained by her tutors, Ascham and others, that she
could make a speech in Latin to the Doctors of Cambridge and Oxford, or
converse with a Dutchman, nay, even with a Scot in his own tongue.
We rather suspect that Hentzner may have been mistaken about the Scot;
for surely she could not speak with a Highlander in Gaelic, and to
understand a Lowland Scot could not have taxed her royal powers much.
England was a strange mixture of richness and poverty, of learning and

superstition, of refined luxury and brutal amusements at that age. Hentzner
describes how in a theatre built of wood he one day sat to listen to excellent
music and noble poetry of tragedy or comedy, the next time he witnessed the
cruel baiting of bulls and bears by English bull-dogs. "To this entertainment
there often follows that of whipping a blinded bear, which is performed by
five or six men standing around in a circle with whips, which they exercise
upon him without any mercy, as he cannot escape from them because of his
chain: he defends himself with all his force and skill, throwing down all who
come within his reach, and tearing the whips out of their hands and breaking
them. At these spectacles" (he writes in 1598) "the English are constantly
smoking tobacco, and in this manner: they have pipes on purpose made of
clay, into the farther end of which they put the herb, so dry that it may be
rubbed into powder; putting fire to it they draw the smoke into their mouths,
which they puff out again through their nostrils, like to funnels."
The writer has one of these Elizabethan pipes: it is made with an

exceedingly small bowl, showing how precious was the weed which Raleigh
had recently introduced. The pipes have been found by workmen employed
on the banks of the Thames in Southwark.
We must remember, in criticising the conduct of Elizabethan heroes, that

they lived in a cruel age; that torture was still employed by the law, even to
delicate ladies; that much of their sport was brutal, and much of their
merriment gross and indelicate. There is, and there has been, a decided
progress in the manners of Europeans; so that it is with a moral effort that
we try to see things with their eyes and judge them with discrimination. For
instance, many of their great seamen may in one aspect be regarded as
pirates; for the great Queen sometimes did not sanction their raids over
western waters until they had brought her some priceless spoil. The pirate
was then knighted and commended for his valiant deeds of patriotism. Even
along the coasts of England local jealousy set the galleys of the Cinque Ports
in the south at making reprisals upon the traders of Yarmouth. When these
depredations were made upon foreigners there were few who denounced
them; for it became a kind of sport, an adventure well worth the attention of
any squire's son, to snatch some rich prize from the wide ocean and
distribute largesse on safely coming to port.
These men were the Robin Hoods of the sea, and when from selfish
plunderings they rose to be champions of religious freedom as well, their
career seemed in most men's minds to be worthy of all admiration. But in
order to understand fully the motives which induced the more noble spirits to
go forth and do battle with Spain on private grounds, and at their own
expense, we ought to have sat at the Mermaid, or other taverns, and heard
the mariners' tales as they told them fresh from the salt sea. We should have
listened to stories of cruel wrongs inflicted on the brave Indians of South
America, which would have stirred any dormant spirit of chivalry within us,
and made us long to champion the weak.
We should have heard the story of the Indian chief who was taken
prisoner by the Spaniards, and suffered the penalty of losing his hands
because he had fought so strenuously for his mother-land. This Indian
returned to his people, and devoted the rest of his life to encouraging and
heartening his countrymen to the great work of fighting for life and liberty,
showing his maimed arms, and calling to mind how many others had had
half a foot hacked off by the Spaniards that they might not sit on horseback.
Then, when a battle was being fought, we should have been told how this
chief loaded his two stumps with bundles of arrows and supplied the fighters
with fresh store, as they lacked them. Surely men so brave as this man
challenged admiration and deserved succour.
The young Queen of England had suffered herself, and these stories must
have stirred her heart to say with the Dido of Virgil—
"Haud ignara mali, miseris succurrere disco."
Raleigh and Drake, Hawkins and Frobisher, Shakespeare and Spenser

may have sat by a coal-fire and heard or told such stories; for Raleigh writes:
"Who will not be persuaded that now at length the great Judge of the world
hath heard the sighs, groans, and lamentations, hath seen the tears and blood
of so many millions of innocent men, women, and children, afflicted,
robbed, reviled, branded with hot irons, roasted, dismembered, mangled,
stabbed, whipped, racked, scalded with hot oil, put to the strapado, ripped
alive, beheaded in sport, drowned, dashed against the rocks, famished,
devoured by mastiffs, burned, and by infinite cruelties consumed,—and
purposeth to scourge and plague that cursed nation, and to take the yoke of
servitude from that distressed people, as free by nature as any Christian."
It was not the massacres under Cortez and Pizarro, earlier in this century,
which roused the deepest indignation; it was the tales of inhuman cruelty
perpetrated by Spanish colonists in time of peace, and of the noble conduct
of the conquered Indians under the degrading conditions of their slavery,
which most moved pity and wrath and feelings of revenge.
Men told the story of the Cacique who was forced to labour in the mines
with his former subjects, how he called the miners together—ninety-five in
all—and with a dignity befitting a prince made them the following speech:—
"My worthy companions and friends, why desire we to live any longer
under so cruel a servitude? Let us now go unto the perpetual seat of our
ancestors, for we shall there have rest from these intolerable cares and
grievances which we endure under the subjection of the unthankful. Go ye
before, I will presently follow." So speaking, the Indian chief held out
handfuls of those leaves which take away life, prepared for the purpose; so
they disdainfully sought in death relief from the cruel bondage of their
Spanish masters.
Again, an officer named Orlando had taken to wife the daughter of a

Cuban Cacique; but, because he was jealous, he caused her to be fastened to
two wooden spits, set her before the fire to roast, and ordered the kitchen
servants to keep her turning. The poor girl, either through panic, fear, or the
torment of heat, swooned away and died. Now the Cacique her father, on
hearing this, took thirty of his men, went to the officer's house and slew the
woman whom he had married after torturing his former wife, slew her
women and all her servants; then he shut the doors of the house and burnt
himself and all his companions. Tales such as these might well sting a
generous and kindly people into doing harsh actions. Froude says in his
"Forgotten Worthies": "On the whole, the conduct and character of the
English sailors present us all through that age with such a picture of
gallantry and high heroic energy as has never been over-matched." So, when
we feel inclined to pass judgment upon our "heroes" for their misdeeds, we
must remember the spirit of the time, and the wrongs of the weaker, and the
promptings of generosity and religion.
CHAPTER II
SIR JOHN HAWKINS, SEAMAN AND

ADMINISTRATOR
This famous sea-captain was the grandson of John Hawkins of Tavistock,
who was a merchant in the service of Henry VIII. John was born at
Plymouth in the year 1520, and drank in the love of the salt seas from his
earliest years. His father, William Hawkins, was known to be one of the
most experienced sea-captains in the west of England: he had fitted out a
"tall and goodly ship," the Paul of Plymouth, and made in her three voyages
to Brazil and to Guinea. He treated the savage people so well that they
became very friendly, and in 1531 he brought one of their chiefs to England,
leaving a Plymouth man behind as hostage. This chief was presented to King
Henry and became the lion of society. On his way home to Brazil he died of
sea-sickness; but Hakluyt tells us that the savages, being fully persuaded of
the honest dealing of William Hawkins with their king, believed his report
and restored the hostage, without harm to any of his company.
William Hawkins married Joan Trelawny and had two sons, John and
William, both of whom made their way as seamen and merchants.
John made some voyages to the Canary Islands when quite a youth, and
with his quick eye for gain soon learnt that negroes might be cheaply gotten
in Guinea and profitably sold in Hispaniola. John Hawkins was not the first
to make and sell slaves, but he was the first Englishman to take part in this
cruel and inhuman barter. The Spaniards and Portuguese had used slaves,
both Moors and negroes, and Hawkins no doubt had seen plenty of cases of
slave-holding along the west coast of Africa, where savage warfare was
carried on between native tribes, and such of the conquered as were not
eaten were retained as slaves. He may have thought therefore that he was
only carrying them to a less barbarous captivity; and we should remember
that slavery was defended even by some religious people until quite recent
times: but we must deplore the fact that this daring sea-dog, who certainly
was not without religious feelings, found in this traffic a source of gain.
No doubt John, on his return to England, discussed the matter openly

with men of influence, for in October 1562, being now more than forty years
old, he led an expedition of a hundred men in three ships, the Solomon of
120 tons, the Swallow of 100 tons, and the Jones of 40 tons burden, and
sailed direct for the coast of Sierra Leone, in West Africa, just north of
Guinea. Hakluyt draws a veil over the exact methods by which John
Hawkins got possessed of 300 fine negroes, besides other merchandise; but
he probably took sides in some local quarrel and carried off his share of the
prisoners. These poor wretches were carried across the Atlantic in the stuffy
holds of small ships, and landed at San Domingo, one of the largest of the
Spanish islands in the West Indies.
John made due apologies for entering the Spanish port: they could see he
was really in want of food and water. The Spaniards too were polite, and as
they peeped into his hold they saw the very thing they wanted—negroes. A
bargain was quickly made, and John Hawkins took off in return for his
captives quite a goodly store of pearls, hides, sugar, and other innocent
materials.
Hawkins himself arrived safely in England with his three ships, but his
partner, Thomas Hampton, who took what was left over in two Spanish ships
to Cadiz, did not fare so well. For when it became known at Cadiz that
English merchants had been trading with Spain's colonies, Philip II.
confiscated the cargo, and Hampton narrowly escaped the prisons of the
Inquisition. Queen Elizabeth was warned by her ambassador at Madrid that
further voyages of this nature might lead to war.
For it seems that Philip had been an admirer of the Maiden Queen, and
had been rebuffed as a suitor; whereby his love had changed to hate, and he
lost no opportunity of showing his resentment.
But Queen Bess had her father's spirit in her, and answered the Spanish
threat by permitting one of her largest ships, the Jesus of Lübeck, to be
chartered for a new voyage. The Earls of Leicester and Pembroke joined in
raising money for the expedition—this time it was a Court affair; there sailed
a hundred and seventy men in five vessels, and they were to meet another
Queen's ship, the Minion, before they got out of the Channel.
Again Hawkins raided the West African coast, "going every day on shore
to take the inhabitants, with burning and spoiling of their towns."
It is strange how men engaged in such ruthless work could yet believe
that they were specially preserved by Providence. For on New Year's Day
1565 they were well-nigh surprised by natives as they were seeking water.
But a pious seaman wrote thus in his journal: "God, who worketh all things
for the best, would not have it so, and by Him we escaped without danger—
His name be praised for it!" Then they set sail for the West Indies with a
goodly cargo of miserable slaves; but for eighteen days they were becalmed
—"as idle as a painted ship, upon a painted ocean." "And this happened to us
very ill, being but reasonably watered for so great a company of negroes and
ourselves. This pinched us all: and, that which was worst, put us in such fear
that many never thought to have reached the Indies without great dearth of
negroes and of themselves; but the Almighty God, which never suffereth His
elect to perish, sent us the ordinary breeze."
Let us hope that they felt some pity for the poor negroes too, who must
have suffered agonies of thirst on that hideous journey.
But King Philip had ordered his Christian subjects to have no dealings
with heretics; and for some time they could sell no negroes in Dominica.
But some heathen Indians presented cakes of maize, hens, and potatoes,
which the English crews bought for beads, pewter whistles, knives, and other
trifles. "These potatoes be the most delicate roots that may be eaten, and do
far exceed our parsnips and carrots."
We need to remind ourselves occasionally of some of the luxuries which

our ancestors never knew till these old seadogs brought them home—
tobacco and potatoes! and later on, tea and coffee! It is difficult to imagine
what the want of such things would mean to us now.
But not all the Indians were so kind as these they first met; for on the
American mainland they fell in with a tribe whom the devilries of Spain had
turned to "ferocious bloodsuckers," and whom they only narrowly avoided.
Hawkins, according to his instructions from the Queen's Council, kept away
from the larger dependencies and islands, and tried to sell his cargo in out-
of-the-way places which Philip's orders might not have reached. At
Barbarotta he was refused permission to trade. But Hawkins sent in a
message: "I have with me one of Queen Elizabeth's own ships. I need
refreshment and without it I cannot depart; if you do not allow me to have
my way, I shall have to displease you."
Thereat he ran out a few of his guns to mark the form which his
displeasure might assume: the Spaniards improved in politeness. At Curacoa
they feasted on roast lamb to their heart's content: near Darien they again
had to use threats of violence in order to get licence to trade; but the price
offered by the Spaniards for the negroes so disgusted the equitable mind of
John Hawkins that he wrote the Governor a letter saying that they dealt too
rigorously with him, to go about to cut his throat in the price of his
commodities ... but seeing they had sent him this to his supper, he would in
the morning bring them as good a breakfast.
When that breakfast was served—and served hot—it proved to be

garnished with a handsome volley of ordnance, with ships' boats landing at
full speed a hundred armed Englishmen: the Spaniards fled.
"After that we made our traffic full quietly, and sold all our negroes."
Hawkins then sailed for Hispaniola, but being misled by his pilot he found
himself at Jamaica and then at Cuba, and so along the coast of Florida,
meeting many Indians whenever they landed who were of so fierce a
character that of five hundred Spaniards who had recently set foot in the
country only a very few returned; and a certain friar who essayed to preach
to them "was by them taken and his skin cruelly pulled over his ears and his
flesh eaten." "These Indians as they fight will clasp a tree in their arms and
yet shoot their arrows: this is their way of taking cover."
In coasting along Florida they found a Huguenot colony that had been
founded there at the advice of Admiral Coligny. They had been reduced by
fighting the Indians from two hundred to forty, and were glad to accept a
passage home in the Tiger. On the 28th of July the English ships started for
home, but, owing to contrary winds, their provisions fell so short they "were
in despair of ever coming home, had not God of His goodness better
provided for us than our deserving." On the 20th September they landed at
Padstow in Cornwall, having lost twenty persons in all the voyage, and with
great profit in gold, silver, pearls, "and other jewels great store." The Queen
was delighted with the bold way in which Hawkins had traded in defiance of
the Spanish king, and by patent she conferred on him a crest and coat of
arms.
The Spanish ambassador at once wrote off to his master, saying he had
met Hawkins in the Queen's palace, who gave him a full account of his
trading with full permission of the governors of towns (he did not say by
what means he had obtained such licence); "The vast profit made by the
voyage has excited other merchants to undertake similar expeditions.
Hawkins himself is going out again next May, and the thing needs
immediate attention." The result of this letter was that Hawkins was strictly
forbidden by Sir William Cecil from "repairing armed, for the purpose of
traffic, to places privileged by the King of Spain." So the ships went, but
Hawkins stayed at home; his ships returned next summer laden with gold
and silver. The crews did not publish any account of how they had obtained
their cargoes, and as the Queen had recently been assisting the Netherlands
in their struggle for liberty against Spain, she made no indiscreet inquiries,
and proceeded to lend the Jesus of Lübeck and the Minion for another
expedition. One of the volunteers was young Francis Drake, now twenty-two
years of age, whom Hawkins made captain of one of his six vessels.
As they left Plymouth they fell in with a Spanish galley en route for
Cadiz with a cargo of prisoners from the Netherlands. Hawkins fired upon
the Spanish flag, and in the confusion many of the captives escaped to the
Jesus, whence they were sent back to Holland.
The Spanish ambassador wrote strongly to the Queen, and the Queen
wrote strongly to Hawkins; but Hawkins had sailed away and was
encountering storms off Cape Finisterre, so that he had a mind to return for
repairs. But the weather moderating he went on to the Canaries and Cape
Verde. Here he landed 150 men in search of negroes, but eight of his men
died of lockjaw from being shot by poisoned arrows. "I myself," writes
Hawkins, "had one of the greatest wounds, yet, thanks be to God, escaped."
In Sierra Leone they joined a negro king in his war against his enemies,
attacked a strongly paled fort, and put the natives to flight. "We took 250
persons, men, women, and children, and our friend the king took 600
prisoners," which by agreement were to go to the English, but the wily negro
decamped with them in the night, and Hawkins had to be content with his
own few. They were at sea from February 3rd until March 27th, when they
sighted Dominica, but found it difficult to trade, until after a show of force
the Spaniards gave in and eagerly bought the slaves. At Vera Cruz the
inhabitants mistook our ships for the Spanish fleet. There is a rocky island at
the mouth of the harbour which Hawkins seized. The next morning the
Spanish fleet arrived in reality, but Hawkins would not admit them until they
had promised him security for his ships. Now there was no good anchorage
outside, and if the north wind blew "there had been present shipwreck of all
the fleet, in value of our money some £1,800,000." So he let them in under
conditions, for even Hawkins thought that he ought not to risk incurring his
Queen's indignation. On Thursday Hawkins had entered the port, on Friday
he saw the Spanish fleet, and on Monday at night the Spaniards entered the
port with salutes, after swearing by King and Crown that Hawkins might
barter and go in peace.
For two days both sides laboured, placing the English ships apart from
the Spanish, with mutual amity and kindness. But Hawkins began to notice
suspicious changes in guns and men, and sent to the Viceroy to ask what it
meant. The answer was a trumpet-blast and a sudden attack. Meanwhile a
Spaniard sitting at table with Hawkins had a dagger in his sleeve, but was
disarmed before he could use it. The Spaniards landed on the island and slew
all our men without mercy. The Jesus of Lübeck had five shots through her
mainmast, the Angel and Swallow were sunk, and the Jesus was so battered
that she served only to lie beside the Minion, and take all the battery from
the land guns.
ATTEMPT ON SIR JOHN HAWKINS' LIFE
As the Spanish and English fleets were anchored at Vera Cruz apparent amity and
goodwill existed between the two, but as Hawkins was sitting at dinner one day a Spaniard
sitting at table with him was discovered with a dagger up his sleeve, but fortunately was
disarmed before he could use it.
Hawkins cheered his soldiers and gunners, called his page to serve him a
cup of beer, whereat he stood up and drank to their good luck. He had no
sooner set down the silver cup than a demi-culverin shot struck it away.
"Fear nothing," shouted Hawkins, "for God, who hath preserved me from
this shot, will also deliver us from these traitors and villains."
Francis Drake was bidden to come in with the Judith, a barque of 50

tons, and take in men from the sinking ships: at night the English in the
Minion and Judith sailed out and anchored under the island. The English
taken by the Spaniards received no mercy. "They took our men and hung
them up by the arms upon high posts until the blood burst out of their
fingers' ends."
The Judith under Drake sailed for England and reached Plymouth in
January 1569; the Minion, with 200 men, suffered hunger and had to eat rats
and mice and dogs. One hundred men elected to be landed and left behind to
the mercies of Indians and Spaniards. "When we were landed," said a
survivor, "Master Hawkins came unto us, where friendly embracing every
one of us, he was greatly grieved that he was forced to leave us behind him.
He counselled us to serve God and to love one another; and thus courteously
he gave us a sorrowful farewell and promised, if God sent him safe home, he
would do what he could that so many of us as lived should by some means
be brought into England—and so he did." Thus writes Job Hartop. So we see
that John Hawkins, the slave-dealer, sincerely tried after his fashion to serve
God as well as his Queen. His men loved him and spoke well of him when
he failed; a good test of a man's worth when men will speak well of you
though all your plans be broken and your credit gone. But alas! for the poor
hundred men left ashore on the Mexican coast! They wandered for fourteen
days through marshes and brambles, some poisoned by bad water, others
shot by Indians or plagued by mosquitoes, until they came to the Spanish
town of Panluco, where the Governor thrust them into a little hog-stye and
fed them on pigs' food. After three days of this they were manacled two and
two and driven over ninety leagues of road to the city of Mexico. One of
their officers used them very spitefully and would strike his javelin into neck
or shoulders, if from faintness any lagged behind, crying, "March on,
English dogs, Lutherans, enemies to God." After four months in gaol they
were sent out as servants to the Spanish colonists. For six years they fared
passing well, but in 1575 the Inquisition was introduced into Mexico, and
then their "sorrows began afresh." On the eve of Good Friday all were
dressed for an auto-da-fé and paraded through the streets. Some were then
burnt, others sent to the galleys, the more favoured ones got three hundred
lashes apiece. One who had escaped had spent twenty-three years in various
galleys, prisons, and farms.
Meanwhile Hawkins was taking his other hundred men back to England,
meeting violent storms, but "God again had mercy on them." Then food
became scarce and many died of starvation: the rest were so weak they could
hardly manage the sails. At last they sighted the coast of Spain and put in at
Vigo for supplies; here more died from eating excess of fresh meat after their
famine. At length, with the help of twelve English sailors they reached
Mount's Bay in Cornwall, in January 1569.
Here was a miserable ending of an ambitious expedition: no profits, no

gold, no silver for the rich merchants and courtiers who had subscribed for
the fitting out of the ships; no jewels for the lady who graced the throne.
Sadly John Hawkins wrote to Sir William Cecil: "All our business hath had
infelicity, misfortune, and an unhappy end: if I should write of all our
calamities, I am sure a volume as great as the Bible will scarcely suffice."
Thus our hero, ruined but not broken, bided his time for revenge. As the
years wore on England and Spain grew more embittered. Private warfare had
existed for some time, and Philip had wished to declare open war in 1568;
but the Duke of Alva cautioned him against making more enemies, while
they still found it hard to subdue the Low Countries. So, for a while, the
King contented himself with underhand efforts to stir up rebellion in Ireland
and England.
In the year 1578 John Hawkins was summoned by the Queen from
Devon and appointed Comptroller of the Navy. His business was to see to
the building of new ships, the repairing of old ones, and the victualling and
manning of all about to take the sea. Hawkins is said to have invented "false
netting" for ships to fight in, chain-pumps and other devices. Acting with
Drake he founded the "Chest" at Chatham, a fund made up by voluntary
subscriptions from seamen on behalf of their poorer brethren. In fact he
entered upon his work with the same zeal which he had shown in the West
Indies. Lucky was it for him that he had a mistress like Elizabeth; for under
the craven James he would certainly have been handed over to the
Inquisition, or put to death by Spanish order, like Raleigh. In 1572 Hawkins
and George Winter were commissioned to do their utmost to clear the British
seas of pirates and freebooters, for of late the coasts of Norfolk and the East
had been much troubled by sea-robbers. But through all his multifarious
duties the old sea-rover was ever most bent on paying off old scores against
King Philip. So many of his friends, beside himself, had lost their all or
endured sharp punishment in Spanish dungeons, that he grimly chuckled
when he heard of Drake having "singed King Philip's beard"; and when the
news came that the invasion of England was only put off, and Pope Sixtus V.
had spurred his Spanish Majesty to quick action by the oft-quoted taunt,
"The Queen of England's distaff is worth more than Philip's sword," then
John Hawkins rubbed his hands gleefully, and lost no time in getting all the
Queen's ships taut and in order, well victualled and well manned. But
Hawkins did not mince matters when he saw anything amiss; any hesitation
or signs of parsimony met with his blunt disapproval. He writes in February
1588 to urge that peace could only be won by resolute fighting: "We might
have peace, but not with God. Rather than serve Baal, let us die a thousand
deaths. Let us have open war with these Jesuits, and every man will
contribute, fight, devise or do, for the liberty of our country."
Hawkins also wrote to ask for the use of six large and six small ships for
four months, with 1800 mariners and soldiers, which he would employ in
another raid upon the Spanish coast, so as to hinder Philip's grand Armada.
"I promise I will distress anything that goeth through the seas: and in
addition to the injury done to Spain, I shall acquire booty enough to pay four
times over the cost of the expedition."
But Burghley, like his mistress, kept a tight hand over slender resources,
and he rejected Hawkins' offer. Macaulay says that even Burghley's jests
were only neatly expressed reasons for keeping money carefully. Lord
Howard bitterly complained to Walsingham that "her Majesty was keeping
her ships to protect Chatham Church withal, when they should be serving
their turn abroad"; and again, when Drake was being prevented from getting
his Plymouth squadron in order for sea-service, he writes: "I pray God her
Majesty do not repent her slack dealing.... I fear ere long her Majesty will be
sorry she hath believed some so much as she hath done." Lord Burghley's
task was to defeat the Armada with an almost empty exchequer. We find
calculations of his as to whether it will not be cheaper to feed the sailors of
the fleet on fish three days a week and bacon once, instead of the usual
ration of four pennyworth of beef each day. And naturally these attempts to
cut down expenses were misconstrued into parsimony. But with all her rigid
economy, Elizabeth could show a brave front when the crisis came; as in the
camp at Tilbury, when she addressed the little army that was expecting every
hour to be called to meet the fierce onset of the invaders: "I have placed my
chiefest strength and safeguard in the loyal hearts and goodwill of my
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Published by The Fairmont Press, Inc.

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Distributed by Taylor & Francis Ltd.

Printed in the United States of America

0-88173-524-8 (The Fairmont Press, Inc.)

While every effort is made to provide dependable information, the publisher,

Preface ............................................................................................................... vii

Preface to the Third Edition ............................................................................ ix

Chapter 1 Planning and Development of Electric Power Stations .........1

Chapter 2 Electric Power Generation ....................................................... 11

Chapter 3 Fuel Handling ............................................................................63

Chapter 5 Prime Movers ...........................................................................153

Chapter 6 Generators ................................................................................195

Chapter 7 Operation and Maintenance ..................................................229

Chapter 8 Environment and Conservation ............................................245

Chapter 9 Green Power.............................................................................251

• The decline of nuclear generation in the U.S. because of adverse

• The introduction of stringent rules for emissions by the Clean Air

• The reluctance of regulated utilities to risk capital expenditures

• The endeavors to meet electric demands through load manage-

(Left) Figure I-2b. Wind,

(Courtesy Pure Power,

Planning and Development

W ith the dawn of a new era in which the electric incandescent

restrictions or government regulations. Their main concern was raising

GROWTH OF ELECTRIC USAGE

While the growth of electric usage proceeded at a fairly steady pace

Table 1-1. Generation Capacity in the United States

Net Summer Generating Capacity

Steam Int. Comb. Gas turb. Nuclear Hydro Other Total

PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT

Planning a new generating station in today’s economic and

Will new transmission capacity be added and coordinated with

PRESENT POWER PLANT CONSIDERATIONS

Many factors, all interrelated, must be considered before definite

For minimum delivery losses a plant site should be close as pos-

SELECTION OF POWER STATION UNITS

The first selection in a new unit would be the choice between a

Steam Power Plants

Like other items in the construction, maintenance and opera-

Future worth = (1 + interest rate)x

It should be of interest to note that there are certain costs as-

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Electric Power Generation

P ower generating plants, like other manufacturing plants, process

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