MME 301: Mineral Processing

Lecture 3: Ore Dressing and Liberation:

Lecture 3: Ore Dressing and Liberation

3.1 Introduction to Ore Dressing

Ore dressing, also known as beneficiation or mineral processing, involves the processes of
separating valuable minerals from their ores. This Lecture covers the essential techniques and
processes used to achieve mineral liberation and efficient separation, setting the stage for
extracting metals and other valuable components.

The purpose of ore dressing is to maximize the concentration of valuable minerals while
minimizing the content of unwanted gangue (waste material). A thorough understanding of ore
dressing techniques is fundamental to improving recovery rates and enhancing the economic
viability of mining operations.

3.2 Objectives of Ore Dressing

The primary objectives of ore dressing are to:

1. Increase Concentration: Enrich the ore by increasing the proportion of valuable minerals.
2. Achieve Mineral Liberation: Separate valuable minerals from the gangue to facilitate
efficient downstream processing.
3. Reduce Energy Consumption: Optimize the size reduction processes to reduce energy
costs.
4. Minimize Waste: Remove impurities and minimize tailings, reducing the environmental
impact of mining activities.
5. Prepare for Further Processing: Produce a concentrate that meets the specifications
required for smelting or other chemical extraction methods.

3.3 Basic Comminution Process

Comminution is the first stage of ore dressing and involves breaking down the ore into smaller
particles to facilitate liberation. Comminution is typically divided into two main processes:

3.3.1 Crushing

Crushing is the initial size reduction process that reduces the ore to manageable pieces. It is usually
performed in multiple stages:

• Primary Crushing: Large pieces of ore are reduced using heavy-duty crushers such as jaw
crushers, gyratory crushers, or impact crushers.
• Secondary Crushing: Medium-sized ore pieces are further reduced using cone crushers
or hammer mills.

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MME 301: Mineral Processing

• Tertiary Crushing: Finer crushing to produce a product that is suitable for grinding, using
high-speed impact crushers or cone crushers.

Factors Affecting Crushing Efficiency:

• Hardness of Ore: Harder ores require more energy for effective crushing.
• Moisture Content: Wet ore can clog equipment and reduce efficiency.
• Feed Size: The initial size of the ore affects the choice of crushing equipment.

3.3.2 Grinding

Grinding is the process of reducing crushed ore into fine particles to achieve proper liberation. It
typically involves:

• Rod Mills: Used for coarse grinding, where rods tumble within the mill to break the ore.
• Ball Mills: Spherical grinding media grind the ore to finer sizes.
• Autogenous and Semi-Autogenous Mills (AG/SAG): The ore itself acts as the grinding
media, reducing costs but requiring specific ore characteristics.

Grinding Media and Energy Efficiency:

• The choice of grinding media (rods, balls, or the ore itself) impacts energy consumption.
• Properly sized media improve grinding efficiency and reduce wear on the mill.

3.4 Liberation of Minerals

Liberation is the process of exposing valuable minerals by reducing the ore to a particle size where
individual minerals are freed from the surrounding gangue. Effective liberation is critical for the
efficiency of subsequent separation processes.

3.4.1 Importance of Liberation

• Improved Recovery: Proper liberation increases the likelihood of recovering valuable

minerals during separation.
• Optimized Separation Techniques: Accurate liberation data helps in selecting suitable
separation methods.
• Energy Savings: Over-grinding can increase energy consumption and processing costs.
Effective liberation aims to minimize energy usage.

3.4.2 Factors Influencing Liberation

1. Mineral Texture: The distribution and intergrowth of valuable minerals with gangue
affect liberation.
2. Grain Size: Finer grains require more precise grinding for effective liberation.
3. Crushing and Grinding Efficiency: Proper selection of crushing and grinding methods
improves liberation.

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MME 301: Mineral Processing

Lecture 4: Comminution Processes:

Lecture 4: Comminution Processes

4.1 Introduction to Comminution

Comminution is the process of reducing solid materials from one average particle size to a smaller
size by crushing, grinding, cutting, vibrating, or other processes. It is a critical stage in mineral
processing because it facilitates the liberation of valuable minerals from the surrounding waste
material or gangue. Efficient comminution enhances subsequent mineral separation processes,
making it a cornerstone of ore dressing and mineral processing.

Comminution can be broadly divided into two categories: crushing (for coarse particles) and
grinding (for finer particles). This Lecture delves into the mechanisms, equipment, and theoretical
principles that govern comminution, offering a comprehensive understanding of this fundamental
mineral processing stage.

4.2 Objectives of Comminution

The primary objectives of comminution are:

1. Mineral Liberation: Breaking down the ore to free valuable minerals from the
surrounding gangue.
2. Particle Size Reduction: Reducing the particle size to a level suitable for separation.
3. Increasing Surface Area: Enhancing the surface area of the particles to facilitate chemical
reactions, such as leaching.
4. Optimizing Energy Consumption: Balancing the cost of energy input with the required
degree of liberation.
5. Improving Downstream Processing: Preparing the ore for subsequent processes such as
flotation, magnetic separation, and leaching.

4.3 Types of Comminution

Comminution can be achieved through two main processes: crushing and grinding.

4.3.1 Crushing

Crushing is the initial size reduction stage and involves breaking large chunks of ore into smaller
pieces using mechanical forces. Crushing equipment is designed to apply compressive force to
reduce particle size. Key types of crushers include:

1. Jaw Crusher:
o Utilizes a fixed and a moving plate to create a compression force.
o Suitable for primary crushing of large ore chunks.

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MME 301: Mineral Processing

o Effective for ores with high compressive strength.

2. Gyratory Crusher:
o Works on a similar principle to the jaw crusher but with a gyrating spindle.
o Can handle a higher capacity and is used for primary and secondary crushing.
3. Cone Crusher:
o Uses a rotating cone within a stationary shell to crush ore.
o Ideal for secondary and tertiary crushing.
o Provides uniform particle size reduction.
4. Impact Crusher:
o Uses high-speed impact forces to fracture the ore.
o Suitable for materials with low hardness and for producing fine particles.
o Common types include horizontal shaft impactors (HSI) and vertical shaft
impactors (VSI).
5. Roll Crusher:
o Consists of two rotating cylinders that crush the material between them.
o Used for secondary crushing of friable materials.

Crushing Factors:

• Ore hardness and compressive strength.

• Feed size and desired product size.
• Moisture content and stickiness of the material.

4.3.2 Grinding

Grinding is the process of reducing particles to fine powder or fine-sized particles. It is generally
divided into wet and dry grinding. The choice of grinding method depends on the mineralogy of
the ore and the downstream process requirements. Major grinding equipment includes:

1. Ball Mill:
o Cylindrical device filled with grinding media (steel balls or ceramic balls).
o Rotates to grind the ore through impact and attrition.
o Ideal for fine grinding and mineral liberation.
2. Rod Mill:
o Similar to ball mills but uses long steel rods as grinding media.
o Suitable for coarse grinding and preliminary liberation.
o Produces more uniform particle sizes than ball mills.
3. Autogenous (AG) and Semi-Autogenous (SAG) Mills:
o Utilizes the ore itself as the grinding media (AG) or a combination of ore and
grinding balls (SAG).
o Ideal for coarse grinding and handling high-capacity feed.
o Energy-efficient and suitable for ores with natural fracture planes.
4. Vertical Roller Mill:
o Uses rollers to crush and grind material between a rotating table and grinding
rollers.
o Energy-efficient and produces a fine, consistent product.

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MME 301: Mineral Processing

Commonly used in cement and coal processing.

o
5. High-Pressure Grinding Rolls (HPGR):
o Uses two rotating cylinders to compress the ore at high pressure.
o Creates micro-cracks in particles, improving downstream processing efficiency.
o Energy-efficient and suitable for hard, abrasive ores.

Grinding Factors:

• Ore characteristics and mineralogy.

• Feed size and required final particle size.
• Wet or dry grinding conditions.
• Grinding media type and size.

4.4 Comminution Theories

The efficiency and energy consumption of comminution processes are governed by several
theoretical principles:

4.4.1 Kick's Law

Kick's Law states that the energy required for size reduction is proportional to the size reduction
ratio:

= ⋅ ln

where:

• E = energy required,
• k = constant (related to material properties),
• Df= final particle size,
• Di = initial particle size.

Kick's Law is most accurate for coarse crushing, where the particle size reduction is relatively low.

4.4.2 Rittinger's Law

Rittinger's Law suggests that the energy required for size reduction is proportional to the new
surface area created:

1 1
= −

where:

• E = energy required,
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MME 301: Mineral Processing

• kR = Rittinger's constant,
• Df= final particle size,
• Di = initial particle size.

Rittinger's Law is more suitable for fine grinding, where surface area increase is significant.

4.4.3 Bond's Law

Bond's Law, or the Bond Work Index, provides a more generalized estimate for energy
consumption in comminution:

10 10
= ⋅ −

where:

• E = energy required,
• Wi= Bond Work Index (a constant specific to the material),
• Df = final particle size (can also be represented as P80: the 80% passing size of the product)
• Di = initial particle size (can also be represented as F80: the 80% passing size of the feed)

Bond’s Law is widely used for both crushing and grinding.

Solved Examples

Example 1: Calculate the energy needed to reduce a 100 mm particle to 20 mm using Kick’s Law,
given k= 15 kJ/kg.

Solution

where:

• E is the specific energy consumption (kJ/kg)

• K is Kick's constant (15 kJ/kg)
• Di is the initial particle size (100 mm)
• Df is the final particle size (20 mm)

100
= 15 ⋅ ln
20

Answer: E = 24.2 kJ/kg.

Example 2: Determine the specific energy consumption for grinding from a 2 mm feed to a 0.1
mm product using Rittinger’s Law, with kR = 75 kJ/m².

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MME 301: Mineral Processing

Solution

where:

• E is the specific energy consumption (kJ/kg)

• kR is Rittinger's constant (75 kJ/m²)
• Di is the initial particle size (2 mm = 0.002 m)
• Df is the final particle size (0.1 mm = 0.0001 m)

Substituting the values into the formula, we get:

1 1
= 75 ⋅ −
0.0001 0.002

Answer: E= 712,500 kJ/kg.

Example 3: Use Bond's equation to estimate the power requirement to grind a 10 cm particle down
to 1 cm, with a Work Index of 10.5 kWh/ton.

Solution

where:

• E is the specific energy consumption (kWh/ton)

• Wi is the Work Index (10.5 kWh/ton)
• P80 is the 80% passing size of the product (1 cm = 0.01 m)
• F80 is the 80% passing size of the feed (10 cm = 0.1 m)

Plugging in the values:

10 10
= 10.5 ⋅ −
√0.01 √0.1

Answer: E =10.5 x 68.37 = 717.96 kWh/ton.

4.5 Particle Size Analysis in Comminution

Accurate particle size analysis is crucial for evaluating the efficiency of comminution. Methods
include:

1. Sieve Analysis: Uses a series of sieves with different mesh sizes to classify particles by
size.
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MME 301: Mineral Processing

2. Laser Diffraction: Analyzes the distribution of particle sizes using light scattering.
3. Hydrometer Analysis: Uses fluid suspension to measure particle settling rates, indicating
particle size.
4. Sedimentation: Measures particle size based on sedimentation velocity in a fluid.

The results of particle size analysis help optimize comminution parameters and assess the degree
of mineral liberation.

4.6 Energy Efficiency in Comminution

Comminution is energy-intensive, consuming up to 50% of the energy in a mineral processing

plant. Techniques to improve energy efficiency include:

1. Pre-Weakening Techniques:
o Use of High-Pressure Grinding Rolls (HPGR) to induce micro-fractures.
o Blasting optimization to create pre-weakened ore for crushing.
2. Optimized Equipment Selection:
o Using energy-efficient mills (e.g., Vertical Roller Mills).
o Choosing suitable grinding media and proper mill speed.
3. Improving Load Management:
o Maintaining optimal fill levels in mills.
o Real-time monitoring of ore properties for process adjustments.

4.7 Factors Influencing Comminution Performance

Several factors influence the performance and efficiency of comminution processes:

• Ore Hardness: Harder ores require more energy and may wear down equipment faster.
• Feed Size Distribution: Uniform feed sizes improve efficiency, while irregular feeds may
cause overloading or under-utilization.
• Moisture Content: High moisture can lead to material sticking, clogging, and reduced
grinding efficiency.
• Crushing and Grinding Equipment Maintenance: Regular maintenance and monitoring
ensure consistent performance and reduce downtime.

4.8 Advances in Comminution Technology

The comminution field is evolving, with innovations aimed at reducing energy consumption,
improving automation, and minimizing environmental impact:

1. High-Pressure Grinding Rolls (HPGR): Increasingly used for its energy efficiency and
ability to induce micro-fractures.
2. Vertical Stirred Mills: Provide energy-efficient fine grinding.
3. Smart Sensors and Automation: Real-time data collection to optimize milling conditions.
4. Pre-Concentration: Techniques like ore sorting before comminution reduce unnecessary
energy consumption by separating gangue early.

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MME 301: Mineral Processing

Lecture 5: Sizing Analysis and Particle Size

Distribution
5.1 Sizing Analysis Techniques
Introduction

In mineral processing, the accurate measurement and control of particle size distribution play a
crucial role in optimizing the efficiency of various processes such as grinding, separation, and
concentration. Sizing analysis is the process of determining the size distribution of a sample. The
techniques for sizing analysis can be broadly classified into two categories: wet and dry methods.
Understanding the principles behind these techniques allows mineral processing professionals to
select the most appropriate method for a given material.

5.1.1 Sieve Analysis

Sieve analysis, one of the oldest and most commonly used techniques, involves separating particles
into size fractions using a series of sieves with decreasing mesh sizes. The procedure is simple: a
weighed sample is placed on the top sieve of a stack and mechanically agitated. Each sieve retains
particles larger than its mesh size while allowing smaller particles to pass through.

5.1.2 Laser Diffraction Analysis

Laser diffraction is a modern method that uses the diffraction of a laser beam as it passes through
a dispersed sample to measure particle size distribution. This method is advantageous for its speed,
precision, and ability to measure a wide range of particle sizes.

5.1.3 Sedimentation Method

Sedimentation is based on the principle that particles will settle at different rates depending on
their size. The sample is suspended in a fluid, and the particles are allowed to settle over time. The
settling rates are monitored, and particle sizes are determined using Stokes’ Law.

5.1.4 Microscopic Analysis

Microscopic analysis involves the direct observation and measurement of particles using a
microscope. It is suitable for samples where particle shape and morphology are important. Image
analysis software can be used to automate the process and generate particle size distributions.

5.1.5 Vibrating Screen Analysis

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MME 301: Mineral Processing

A vibrating screen is used to separate particles based on size by passing a mixture of particles over
a series of vibrating sieves. The vibration enhances the passage of finer particles through the mesh
while larger particles are retained.

5.2 Particle Size Distribution and Its Importance in Mineral

Processing
5.2.1 Understanding Particle Size Distribution

Particle size distribution (PSD) is a description of the range and frequency of particle sizes within
a sample. It is often represented as a histogram or a cumulative curve, showing the percentage of
particles that fall within specific size ranges. PSD is a key parameter in mineral processing because
it affects the efficiency of downstream processes.

5.2.2 Importance of PSD in Mineral Processing

• Grinding Efficiency: PSD determines the energy requirements for grinding. Finer PSD
can reduce energy consumption during subsequent processing.
• Separation and Concentration: Processes like gravity separation, flotation, and magnetic
separation are sensitive to PSD. Fine particles may cause inefficiencies in separation
processes, while an optimal PSD can enhance recovery rates.
• Dewatering and Filtration: Particle size impacts the efficiency of dewatering operations.
Coarse particles are easier to filter and settle faster, whereas fine particles may require
additional chemical treatment.
• Product Quality: In industrial applications, PSD can directly impact the quality of the
final product, especially in the production of aggregates, ceramics, and powders.

5.2.3 Methods for Presenting PSD

• Histogram: A bar chart showing the frequency of each size fraction.

• Cumulative Size Distribution Curve: A graph showing the cumulative percentage
passing for each size fraction.
• Log-Normal Plot: Used for particles that follow a log-normal distribution pattern, useful
for fine particles.

5.3 Vibrating Screen Method for Particle Size Analysis

5.3.1 Introduction to Vibrating Screens

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MME 301: Mineral Processing

A vibrating screen is a mechanical screening device that uses a vibrating motion to separate
materials into fractions based on size. The screens are typically composed of a series of woven
wire mesh or perforated plates, each with a specific opening size. This method is suitable for dry
materials and allows the efficient separation of particles into different size ranges.

5.3.2 How the Vibrating Screen Works

The screen assembly consists of multiple decks with different mesh sizes, stacked vertically. As
the sample is fed onto the top deck, the vibration causes the material to move across the screen
surface. Smaller particles pass through the openings to the lower decks, while larger particles
remain on top. This results in a graded separation of the sample based on particle size.

5.3.3 Procedure for Vibrating Screen Analysis

1. Sample Preparation: Weigh and prepare the sample to be analyzed.

2. Setup: Load the sample onto the top screen of the vibrating screen apparatus.
3. Operation: Activate the vibration mechanism for a specified duration, ensuring consistent
vibration throughout the process.
4. Separation: Allow the particles to segregate based on their size, collecting the fraction
retained on each screen.
5. Data Collection: Weigh each fraction to determine the mass retained on each screen.
6. Calculation: Calculate the percentage retained and cumulative percentage passing for each
fraction.

5.3.4 Advantages and Limitations of Vibrating Screens

• Advantages: High throughput, accurate sizing, simple operation, and effective separation
of dry materials.
• Limitations: Inefficient for wet or sticky materials and limited to particles within a specific
size range.

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