MME 301: Mineral Processing

Lecture 1: Introduction to Mineral Processing

1.1 Overview of Mineral Processing Technology

Mineral processing is the branch of science and engineering concerned with the extraction of
valuable minerals from ores. This field encompasses the complete processing cycle, from ore
extraction to the production of marketable mineral concentrates or metals. Mineral processing
combines physics, chemistry, and technology to achieve efficient recovery and value addition of
minerals through a series of carefully controlled processes.

In modern mineral processing, techniques have advanced to maximize the recovery and purity of
minerals, minimize waste, and increase sustainability. The importance of mineral processing
extends beyond just the economic aspect; it includes environmental responsibility, technological
innovation, and resource optimization, making it a crucial component of the mining industry and
global economy.

1.2 Key Terminology in Mineral Processing and Chemical Formulas for Common Minerals

Understanding some foundational terminology is essential:

• Ore: A naturally occurring solid material from which valuable minerals or metals can
be profitably extracted.
• Gangue: Non-valuable minerals within an ore that must be separated to yield the
desired product.
• Grade: The concentration of valuable minerals within an ore.
• Beneficiation: Another term for mineral processing, aimed at enhancing the quality
and value of ores.
• Recovery: The percentage of valuable material that is successfully extracted from the
ore during processing.
• Concentrate: The end product after the beneficiation process, containing a high
percentage of the desired valuable mineral.
• Tailings: The waste material remaining after the valuable minerals have been
extracted from the ore.
• Comminution: The process of reducing the size of ore particles to liberate valuable
minerals. This includes crushing and grinding.
• Liberation: The process of freeing valuable minerals from the gangue, achieved
through comminution.
• Crushing: The first stage of comminution, where ore is broken down into smaller
pieces using mechanical force.
• Grinding: The second stage of comminution, where crushed ore is further reduced to
fine particles.
• Sizing: The process of classifying particles into different sizes, typically using
screens or classifiers.
• Screening: A method used to separate particles based on size using a mesh or
perforated surface.

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• Classification: The process of separating particles based on size, shape, or density,

often using hydrocyclones or classifiers.
• Concentration: The process of increasing the percentage of valuable minerals in the
ore through separation techniques.
• Gravity Separation: A concentration method that separates minerals based on
differences in specific gravity.
• Magnetic Separation: A process that uses magnetic fields to separate magnetic
materials from non-magnetic materials.
• Froth Flotation: A physico-chemical separation process that uses bubbles to
selectively adhere to and separate valuable minerals from gangue.
• Dewatering: The removal of water from mineral concentrates to facilitate handling
and transport.
• Agglomeration: The process of binding fine particles into larger masses to improve
handling or facilitate processing. Examples include pelletizing and briquetting.
• Hydrometallurgy: A processing technique that uses aqueous chemistry to extract
metals from ores or concentrates.
• Pyrometallurgy: A thermal processing technique that uses high temperatures to
extract metals from ores or concentrates.
• Sampling: The process of collecting representative portions of ore or concentrate to
analyze composition, grade, or process efficiency.
• Heap Leaching: A hydrometallurgical process that involves stacking crushed ore and
applying a leaching solution to extract valuable metals.
• Mill Feed: The material that enters a processing plant for treatment, including raw
ore, recycled materials, or other input streams.
• Mineral: A naturally occurring inorganic substance with a defined chemical
composition and crystalline structure, which can be extracted and processed for its
valuable components.
• Rock: A solid, naturally formed aggregate of minerals or mineral-like substances.
Rocks are classified into three main types: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic,
based on their formation processes.
• Lode: A deposit of valuable minerals embedded in rock, typically forming a vein,
layer, or other distinct feature that can be mined.
• Ore Body: A concentration of minerals within a rock that forms a geological unit and
is considered economically viable for mining and processing.
• Host Rock: The rock in which a mineral deposit or ore body is found. Understanding
the host rock helps determine the appropriate processing methods for mineral
extraction.

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MME 301: Mineral Processing

Chemical formulas for some common minerals:

Silicate Minerals

1. Quartz: SiO2
2. Feldspar (Orthoclase): KAlSi3O8
3. Feldspar (Plagioclase): NaAlSi3O8−CaAl2Si2O8
4. Mica (Muscovite): KAl2(AlSi3O10)(OH)2
5. Mica (Biotite): K(Mg,Fe)3(AlSi3O10)(OH)2
6. Olivine: (Mg,Fe)2SiO4
7. Garnet: (Ca,Mg,Fe,Mn)3(Al,Fe,Cr)2Si3O12

Carbonate Minerals

1. Calcite: CaCO3
2. Dolomite: CaMg(CO3)2
3. Malachite: Cu2(CO3)(OH)2

Oxide Minerals

1. Hematite: Fe2O3
2. Magnetite: Fe3O4
3. Corundum: Al2O3
4. Rutile: TiO2

Sulfide Minerals

1. Pyrite: FeS2
2. Galena: PbS
3. Chalcopyrite: CuFeS2
4. Sphalerite: ZnS

Sulfate Minerals

1. Gypsum: CaSO4⋅2H2O
2. Barite: BaSO4

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MME 301: Mineral Processing

Halide Minerals

1. Halite: NaCl
2. Fluorite: CaF2

Phosphate Minerals

1. Apatite: Ca5(PO4)3(F,Cl,OH)

1.3 Historical Development of Mineral Processing

Historically, mineral processing has evolved significantly. The earliest methods date back to
ancient civilizations, where techniques like hand-picking, panning, and simple washing were used.
The advent of modern machinery and advancements in science have led to today’s highly
mechanized and automated mineral processing techniques, allowing for higher throughput and
recovery rates with reduced environmental impact.

Significant milestones in mineral processing include:

• Ancient Methods: Simple techniques like panning and sluicing.

• Industrial Revolution: Introduction of more complex machinery, such as stamp mills.
• 20th Century: Development of froth flotation and other separation methods.
• 21st Century: Digitalization and automated processing plants, focusing on sustainability.

1.4 Importance of Mineral Processing in Resource Utilization

Mineral processing plays a vital role in making mineral resources usable and accessible by turning
raw ores into marketable commodities. This value addition has numerous economic, social, and
environmental benefits:

• Economic Value: Mineral processing enables the extraction of valuable materials,

contributing significantly to a country’s GDP and providing raw materials for industries.
• Social Value: The mineral processing industry creates job opportunities, especially in
developing regions.
• Environmental Responsibility: Advanced mineral processing techniques can minimize
environmental impact by improving recovery rates, reducing waste, and optimizing water
and energy usage.

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MME 301: Mineral Processing

1.5 Key Objectives in Mineral Processing

The primary objectives of mineral processing are as follows:

• Recovery of Valuable Minerals: Ensuring maximum recovery of valuable minerals from

ores.
• Quality Control: Enhancing the grade and purity of minerals to meet industrial standards.
• Efficiency: Minimizing energy, water, and chemical consumption during processing.
• Environmental Management: Reducing waste and adhering to environmental standards.

1.6 Major Processes in Mineral Processing

Mineral processing consists of several core processes that are often interconnected. Each process
plays a distinct role in transforming ore into valuable products. Here is a brief overview of each
major process:

1.6.1 Comminution

• Description: The process of reducing the size of ore particles to liberate valuable minerals
from gangue.
• Methods: Crushing and grinding.
• Significance: Fundamental for effective separation; improper comminution can result in
poor recovery rates.

1.6.2 Sizing and Classification

• Description: Dividing particles into different size ranges.

• Methods: Screening and hydrocycloning.
• Significance: Ensures efficient separation and concentration by preparing particles of
uniform size for further processing.

1.6.3 Concentration Techniques

Mineral concentration is achieved through both physical and physico-chemical methods.

• Physical Methods:
o Gravity Separation: Separating minerals based on differences in specific gravity.
o Magnetic and Electrical Separation: Utilizing magnetic or electric properties to
separate minerals.
• Physico-Chemical Methods:
o Froth Flotation: A process of selective separation by surface chemistry,
commonly used for sulfide ores.

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MME 301: Mineral Processing

1.6.4 Dewatering and Tailings Disposal

• Dewatering: Removing water from mineral concentrates for easier handling and transport.
• Tailings Disposal: Management of waste products to minimize environmental impact.

1.6.5 Sampling

• Description: Collecting representative samples to analyze ore quality and processing

efficiency.
• Importance: Ensures accurate data for monitoring and optimizing processing operations.

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MME 301: Mineral Processing

Lecture 2: Structures and Textures of Minerals

2.1 Introduction to Mineral Structures and Textures

Minerals are the fundamental building blocks of rocks and ores, and understanding their structures
and textures is critical in mineral processing. The physical arrangement of minerals within rocks
affects the efficiency of processes such as crushing, grinding, and separation. By examining the
crystalline structure and texture, mineral processing professionals can optimize extraction
methods, improve mineral liberation, and increase recovery rates.

2.2 Crystalline Structures of Minerals

Minerals have ordered atomic arrangements that form crystals. The crystalline structure
determines many of a mineral’s physical properties, such as hardness, cleavage, and density, which
impact processing techniques.

2.2.1 Basic Crystal Systems

Minerals are classified into seven crystal systems based on their symmetry and lattice parameters:

1. Cubic (Isometric): Characterized by three axes of equal length that intersect at 90-degree
angles. Example minerals: Pyrite, Galena.
2. Tetragonal: Similar to cubic, but with one axis longer or shorter than the other two.
Example minerals: Zircon, Cassiterite.
3. Hexagonal: Contains four axes—three of equal length in one plane at 120 degrees, and a
fourth axis perpendicular to the others. Example minerals: Quartz, Beryl.
4. Trigonal: A subset of hexagonal with a threefold rotational symmetry. Example minerals:
Calcite, Dolomite.
5. Orthorhombic: Comprises three mutually perpendicular axes, all of different lengths.
Example minerals: Olivine, Topaz.
6. Monoclinic: Features three unequal axes, with two intersecting at an oblique angle and one
perpendicular. Example minerals: Gypsum, Orthoclase.
7. Triclinic: The least symmetrical system with three unequal axes, none of which intersect
at 90 degrees. Example minerals: Kyanite, Albite.

2.2.2 Crystal Habit and Form

• Crystal Habit: The external shape a mineral naturally exhibits, such as prismatic, tabular,
or fibrous. This can influence the grinding efficiency and liberation of minerals.
• Crystal Form: Refers to the set of crystal faces related by symmetry. Examples include
cubic, dodecahedral, and rhombohedral forms.

2.2.3 Significance in Mineral Processing

The crystalline structure affects the physical behavior of minerals during comminution and
separation:

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• Hardness influences the energy required for grinding.

• Cleavage impacts fracture patterns and liberation of minerals.
• Density affects separation efficiency, particularly in gravity separation processes.

2.3 Mineral Textures

Textures in minerals refer to the physical arrangement and relationship between mineral grains in
a rock. These textures reveal important information about the formation history of the mineral and
influence the liberation and recovery of minerals during processing.

2.3.1 Types of Mineral Textures

1. Granular Texture: Characterized by equidimensional grains of approximately the same

size. Common in igneous rocks like granite. Suitable for efficient liberation during
grinding.
2. Porphyritic Texture: Large crystals (phenocrysts) are embedded in a finer-grained matrix.
The difference in grain size affects the crushing strategy for effective liberation.
3. Massive Texture: Minerals are tightly intergrown with no visible crystal boundaries,
making it challenging to separate the minerals.
4. Banded Texture: Alternating layers of different minerals, typical in sedimentary and some
metamorphic rocks. This texture can aid in sorting and selective separation.
5. Crystalline Texture: Well-formed crystals are visible and interlocked. This texture
indicates the minerals have formed under specific temperature and pressure conditions.
6. Vesicular Texture: Contains gas bubbles, creating a porous appearance. Common in
volcanic rocks, this texture can affect the density-based separation processes.
7. Fractured Texture: Minerals exhibit irregular breaks or fractures. Such textures can
impact comminution efficiency as fractured surfaces may reduce the grinding energy
required.

2.3.2 Significance in Mineral Processing

• Texture Impact on Liberation: The size, shape, and distribution of minerals influence
how well they can be liberated during comminution.
• Grinding and Crushing: Certain textures, like massive or granular, may require more or
less energy for effective size reduction.
• Separation Methods: Specific textures can improve or hinder separation processes like
froth flotation, gravity separation, and magnetic separation.

2.4 Mineral Associations

Mineral associations refer to the occurrence of multiple minerals together within a rock or ore.
Understanding these associations is crucial for selecting appropriate separation techniques.

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2.4.1 Primary Mineral Associations

• Sulfide Minerals: Typically associated with ores containing metals like copper, lead, and
zinc. Separation often involves flotation.
• Oxide Minerals: Common in iron ore, ilmenite, and other oxide-dominated ores. Suitable
for magnetic separation.
• Silicate Minerals: Abundant in various rock types, often forming complex associations
that require careful beneficiation.

2.4.2 Gangue and Valuable Mineral Intergrowth

• Intergrowth: Refers to the intimate association of valuable and gangue minerals,

impacting liberation efficiency.
• Locked Particles: Occurs when valuable minerals are intergrown with gangue, requiring
finer grinding for complete liberation.

2.5 Techniques for Studying Mineral Structures and Textures

Various methods are employed to study mineral structures and textures to aid in effective mineral
processing:

2.5.1 Petrographic Microscopy

• Usage: Examination of thin sections of rocks under polarized light.

• Application: Identifies mineral associations, grain boundaries, and textures, providing
insights into grinding requirements and liberation.

2.5.2 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD)

• Usage: Analyzes the crystal structure by observing the diffraction pattern of X-rays.
• Application: Determines the mineral composition and crystal structure, helping to identify
the optimal separation techniques.

2.5.3 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)

• Usage: Provides high-resolution images of mineral surfaces.

• Application: Analyzes mineral textures, surface characteristics, and particle morphology.

2.5.4 Electron Probe Microanalysis (EPMA)

• Usage: Measures the elemental composition of minerals with precise electron beams.
• Application: Assesses chemical variability within individual minerals, aiding in the
selection of chemical separation methods.

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MME 301: Mineral Processing

2.6 Practical Implications of Mineral Structures and Textures

Understanding mineral structures and textures helps improve the efficiency and effectiveness of
mineral processing operations:

• Optimizing Comminution: Knowledge of hardness, cleavage, and fracture patterns can

reduce energy consumption in crushing and grinding.
• Enhancing Separation: Recognizing the distribution of minerals assists in selecting the
most appropriate separation techniques, minimizing losses.
• Maximizing Recovery: Effective liberation and concentration depend on a deep
understanding of how minerals are intergrown and their physical characteristics.

2.7 Mohs' Scale of Hardness

The hardness of a mineral is a crucial property in mineral processing as it influences the choice of
crushing and grinding equipment and the energy required for mineral liberation. One of the most
widely used methods for evaluating mineral hardness is Mohs' Scale of Hardness. Developed by
Friedrich Mohs in 1812, this scale ranks minerals based on their ability to scratch one another,
providing a relative hardness value ranging from 1 (softest) to 10 (hardest).

2.7.1 Understanding Mohs' Scale of Hardness

Mohs' Scale is a qualitative ordinal scale that measures the scratch resistance of various minerals.
Each mineral on the scale can scratch those below it but can be scratched by those above it. The
scale includes 10 standard minerals as benchmarks, ranging from the softest, talc, to the hardest,
diamond.

Mohs' Hardness Mineral Description

1 Talc Very soft, greasy feel
2 Gypsum Can be scratched by a fingernail
3 Calcite Easily scratched by a copper coin
4 Fluorite Can be scratched by a knife blade
5 Apatite Harder than glass
6 Orthoclase Feldspar Can scratch window glass
7 Quartz Scratches steel
8 Topaz Hard, scratches quartz
9 Corundum Extremely hard, scratches topaz
10 Diamond The hardest natural mineral

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2.7.2 Importance of Mohs' Scale in Mineral Processing

The hardness of minerals directly affects several aspects of mineral processing:

1. Comminution Efficiency:
o Harder minerals (those with higher Mohs' ratings) require more energy for crushing
and grinding.
o Knowing the hardness helps in selecting the appropriate crushing equipment,
grinding media, and comminution strategy.
o For example, softer minerals can be easily ground with lower energy, while harder
minerals may require high-energy mills.
2. Equipment Wear and Tear:
o Minerals with high hardness levels can cause significant wear on crushing and
grinding equipment, leading to increased maintenance costs.
o By understanding the hardness of the minerals being processed, operators can
choose more durable materials for equipment linings and grinding media.
3. Separation Processes:
o The hardness can impact the choice of separation techniques, particularly when
dealing with minerals that require size reduction before separation.
o For instance, a mineral with a low Mohs' hardness may be separated through
flotation without excessive grinding, whereas harder minerals might require fine
comminution to achieve proper liberation.

2.7.3 Limitations of Mohs' Scale

While Mohs' Scale provides a useful relative hardness indicator, it has some limitations in the
context of mineral processing:

• Non-Linear Scale: Mohs' Scale is not a linear scale; the difference in hardness between
minerals is not uniform. For example, the jump from Corundum (9) to Diamond (10) is
much larger than from Talc (1) to Gypsum (2).
• Qualitative Nature: It is a qualitative measure and does not provide quantitative hardness
values, which are sometimes necessary for precise processing adjustments.
• Applicability to Industrial Materials: The scale is primarily for natural minerals; it may
not accurately represent the hardness of synthetic materials or industrial compounds used
in processing.

2.7.4 Practical Application of Mohs' Scale in Processing Plants

In practical mineral processing, Mohs' Scale is often supplemented by more precise hardness
measurements such as the Vickers or Brinell hardness tests, which provide quantitative values.
However, Mohs' Scale is still a quick and convenient reference for:

• Preliminary Field Assessments: Estimating the hardness of ore samples during initial
exploration and feasibility studies.

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• Screening for Comminution: Determining the sequence of crushing and grinding

equipment to handle varying hardness in ore bodies.
• Mineral Sorting: Assisting in the physical sorting of minerals by hand or simple screening
methods during the early stages of ore processing.

Summary of Key Points

• Mohs' Scale of Hardness ranks minerals from 1 (softest) to 10 (hardest), with each mineral
capable of scratching those below it.
• The hardness of minerals affects the choice of comminution techniques, equipment
durability, and overall processing costs.
• While a valuable tool, Mohs' Scale has limitations and is often complemented by more
quantitative hardness tests in modern mineral processing.

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