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Quantum Mechanics A Modern Development 2nd Edition
Leslie E Ballentine Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Leslie E Ballentine
ISBN(s): 9789814578585, 9814578584
Edition: 2nd Revised ed.
File Details: PDF, 142.53 MB
Year: 2014
Language: english
Quantum
Mechanics
A Modern Development
2nd Edition
Quantum
Mechanics
A Modern Development
2nd Edition
This page intentionally left blank
 Quantum
Mechanics
A Modern Development
2nd Edition

Leslie E Ballentine
Simon Fraser University, Canada

Wfi World Scientific
NEW JERSEY « LONDON - SINGAPORE « BEIJING « SHANGHAI « HONG KONG « TAIPEI « CHENNAI
Published by

World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.

5 Toh Tuck Link, Singapore 596224
&7 §A4 office: 27 Warren Street, Suite 401-402, Hackensack, NJ 07601
&K office: 57 Shelton Street, Covent Garden, London WC2H 9HE

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Ballentine, Leslie E., author.
Quantum mechanics : a modern development / Leslie E. Ballentine, Simon Fraser University,
Canada. -- 2nd edition.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-981-4578-57-8 (hardcover : alk. paper) -- ISBN 978-981-4578-58-5 (pbk)
1. Quantum theory. I. Title.
QC174.12.B35 2014
530.12--dc23
2014014232

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Copyright © 2015 by World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.

All rights reserved. This book. or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form or by any means,
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Printed in Singapore
Contents

Preface xi

Introduction: The Phenomena of Quantum Mechanics

Chapter 1 Mathematical Prerequisites

1.1 Linear Vector Space . . . ... ... ... .....
1.2 Linear Operators . . . . . .. .. ... .......
1.3 Self-Adjoint Operators . . . . . ... ... .....
1.4 Hilbert Space and Rigged Hilbert Space . . . ...
1.5 Probability Theory . . . . ... ... ... .....
Problems . . . .. ...

Chapter 2 The Formulation of Quantum Mechanics

2.1 Basic Theoretical Concepts . . . ... ... ....
2.2 Conditions on Operators . . . . . ... .......
2.3 General States and Pure States . . . . ... . ...
2.4 Probability Distributions . . . . . . ... ... ...
Problems . . . ... ... o o oo o

Chapter 3 Kinematics and Dynamics

3.1 Transformations of States and Observables . . . . .
3.2 The Symmetries of Space-Time . . . ... .. ...
3.3 Generators of the Galilei Group . . . . .. ... .. 68
3.4 Identification of Operators with Dynamical Variables 76
3.5 Composite Systems . . . . . ... ... ... ... 85
3.6 [[Quantizing a Classical System]] . . ... .....
3.7 Equations of Motion . . . .. ............
3.8 Symmetries and Conservation Laws . . . . . . . ..
Problems . . . ... ... o o oo o
vi Contents

Chapter 4 Coordinate Representation and Applications 97

4.1 Coordinate Representation . . . . ... ... . ... 97
4.2 The Wave Equation and Its Interpretation . . . . . 98
4.3 Galilei Transformation of Schrodinger’s Equation . 102
4.4 Probability Flux . ... ... ... ... .. .... 104
4.5 Conditions on Wave Functions . . . . . .. ... .. 106
4.6 Energy Eigenfunctions for Free Particles . . . . . . 109
4.7 Tunneling . . ... ... ... ... L. 110
4.8 Path Integrals . . . . .. ... ... ... .. .... 116
Problems . . . .. ... 123

Chapter 5 Momentum Representation and Applications 126

5.1 Momentum Representation. . . . . ... ... ... 126
5.2 Momentum Distribution in an Atom . .. .. ... 128
5.3 Bloch’s Theorem . . . ... ... .......... 131
5.4 Diffraction Scattering: Theory . . . . . . ... ... 133
5.5 Diffraction Scattering: Experiment . . . . . .. .. 139
5.6 Motion in a Uniform Force Field . ... ... ... 145
Problems . . . .. ... 149

Chapter 6 The Harmonic Oscillator 151

6.1 Algebraic Solution . . . ... .. ... ... .... 151
6.2 Solution in Coordinate Representation . . . . . . . 154
6.3 Solution in H Representation . . ... ... .... 157
Problems . . . ... ... o o oo o 158

Chapter 7 Angular Momemtum 160

7.1 Eigenvalues and Matrix Elements . . . . . ..... 160
7.2 Explicit Form of the Angular Momentum Operators 164
7.3 Orbital Angular Momentum . . . . . ... ..... 166
T4 Spin . . ...
7.5 Finite Rotations . . . . . ... .. ... .......
7.6 Rotation Through 27 . . . . .. ... ... .. ...
7.7 Addition of Angular Momenta . . . . . .. ... ..
7.8 Irreducible Tensor Operators. . . . . . .. .. ...
7.9 Rotational Motion of a Rigid Body . . . . .. ...
Problems . . . ... ... o o oo o
Contents vii

Chapter 8 State Preparation and Determination

8.1 State Preparation . . . . ... .. ... ... ...
8.2 State Determination . . ... .. ... .......
8.3 States of Composite Systems. . . . . ... .. ...
8.4 Indeterminacy Relations . . . ... ... ... ...
Problems . . . ... ... o o oo o

Chapter 9 Measurement and the Interpretation of States

9.1 An Example of Spin Measurement . . .. .. ...
9.2 A General Theorem of Measurement Theory . . . .
9.3 The Interpretation of a State Vector . . . .. ...
9.4 Which Wave Function? . . . . .. ... .. .. ...
9.5 Spin Recombination Experiment . . . .. .....
9.6 Joint and Conditional Probabilities . . . . .. . ..
Problems . . . ... ... o o oo o

Chapter 10 Formation of Bound States

10.1 Spherical Potential Well . . . . . . ... ... ...
10.2 The Hydrogen Atom . . . ... ... ... .....
10.3 Estimates from Indeterminacy Relations . . . . . .
10.4 Some Unusual Bound States . . . . . ... ... ..
10.5 Stationary State Perturbation Theory . . .. ...
10.6 Variational Method . . . . . . .. .. ... ... ..
Problems . . . ... ... o o oo o

Chapter 11 Charged Particle in a Magnetic Field

11.1 Classical Theory . . ... ... ... ... .....
11.2 Quantum Theory . . . . . .. ... ... ... ...
11.3 Motion in a Uniform Static Magnetic Field . . . . .
11.4 The Aharonov—Bohm Effect . . . . . ... ... ..
11.5 The Zeeman Effect . . . . .. ... ... ... ...
Problems . . . .. ...

Chapter 12 Time-Dependent Phenomena

12.1 Spin Dynamies . . . ... .. .. ... ... ...
12.2 Exponential and Nonexponential Decay . . . . . .
12.3 Energy-Time Indeterminacy Relations . . . . . ..
124 Quantum Beats . . . ... .. .. ... ... ...
12.5 Time-Dependent Perturbation Theory . . . . ...
viii Contents

12.6 Atomic Radiation . . . . . ... ... ... .....

12.7 Adiabatic Approximation . . . . ... .......
Problems . . . .. ...

Chapter 13 Discrete Symmetries

13.1 SpaceInversion . . . ... ... ... .. ......
13.2 Parity Nonconservation . . . . . . . ... ... ...
13.3 Time Reversal . . . . ... ... ... ... ... ..
Problems . . . .. ...

Chapter 14 The Classical Limit

14.1 Ehrenfest’s Theorem and Beyond . . . . . .....
14.2 The Hamilton-Jacobi Equation and the
Quantum Potential . . . . .. .. ...
14.3 Quantal Trajectories . . . . . . . . ... ... ...
14.4 The Large Quantum Number Limit . . . . . . . ..
Problems . . . ... ... o o oo o

Chapter 15 Quantum Mechanics in Phase Space

15.1 Why Phase Space Distributions? . . . .. .....
15.2 The Wigner Representation . . . .. ... .. ...
15.3 The Husimi Distribution . . . .. .. ... ... ..
Problems . . . .. ...

Chapter 16 Scattering
16.1 Cross Section . . . . ... ... ...........
16.2 Scattering by a Spherical Potential . . . . . . ...
16.3 General Scattering Theory . . . . . . ... .. ...
16.4 Born Approximation and DWBA . . . .. .....
16.5 Scattering Operators . . . . . . . . ... ... ...
16.6 Scattering Resonances . . .. . ... ... .. ...
16.7 Diverse Topics . . . . . . . . . ... oL
Problems . . . ... ... o o oo o

Chapter 17 Identical Particles

17.1 Permutation Symmetry . . . . . . . ... ... ...
17.2 Indistinguishability of Particles . . . . .. ... ..
17.3 The Symmetrization Postulate . . . . . . . .. ...
17.4 Creation and Annihilation Operators . . . . . . . .
Contents ix

Problems . . . .. ... 492

Chapter 18 Many-Fermion Systems 493

18.1 Exchange . . ... ... ... ... ... ..., 493
18.2 The Hartree-Fock Method . . . . . . ... .. ... 499
18.3 Dynamic Correlations . . . . .. .. ... .. ... 506
18.4 Fundamental Consequences for Theory . . . . . . . 513
18.5 BCS Pairing Theory . . . ... ... ... ..... 514
Problems . . . .. ... 525

Chapter 19 Quantum Mechanics of the

Electromagnetic Field 526
19.1 Normal Modes of the Field . . . . .. ... .. ... 526
19.2 Electric and Magnetic Field Operators . . . . . . . 529
19.3 Zero-Point Energy and the Casimir Force . . . .. 533
19.4 States of the EM Field . . . . .. .. ... ..... 539
19.5 Spontaneous Emission . . . . . ... ... ... .. 548
19.6 Photon Detectors . . . . .. ... ... ... ... .. 551
19.7 Correlation Functions . . . . . . ... ... ... .. 558
19.8 Coherence . . . . .. ... ... ... ... 566
19.9 Optical Homodyne Tomography — Determining
the Quantum State of the Field . . . . .. ... .. 578
Problems . . . ... ... o o oo o 581

Chapter 20 Bell’s Theorem and Its Consequences 583

20.1 The Argument of Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen . . 583
20.2 Spin Correlations . . . . . .. .. ... ... 585
20.3 Bell’s Inequality . . . . . ... .. ... ... .... 587
20.4 A Stronger Proof of Bell’s Theorem . . . . . . ... 591
20.5 Polarization Correlations . . . . . .. ... ... .. 595
20.6 Bell’s Theorem Without Probabilities . . . . . . . . 602
20.7 TImplications of Bell’s Theorem . . . . . . . .. ... 607
Problems . . . ... ... o o oo o 611

Chapter 21 Quantum Information 613

21.1 Quantum States as Carriers of Information . . . . . 613
21.2 Some Quantum Information Theorems . . .. . .. 617
21.3 Quantum Transmission of Information . . . . ... 620
21.4 Cryptography . . . . .. ... . ... ... ..... 626
 Contents

21.5 Entanglement . . . ... ... .. ... ... . ...

21.6 Teleportation of Quantum States . . ..... ...
21.7 Quantum Information from Independent Pairs . . .
21.8 Measurable “in Principle” . . . . ... ... ....
21.9 Quantum Computing . . . . . . . ... ... .... 646
21.10 Quantum Information and Quantum Foundations . 661
Problems . . . ... ... o o oo o 671

Appendix A Schur’s Lemma 673

Appendix B Irreducibility of @ and P 675

Appendix C Proof of Wick’s Theorem 676

Appendix D Solutions to Selected Problems 678

Bibliography 699

Index 715
Preface

There are many textbooks that deal with the formal apparatus of quantum
mechanics (QM) and its application to standard problems, but before the first
edition of this book (Prentice-Hall, 1990), none took account of the develop-
ments in the foundations of the subject that had taken place in the preceeding
few decades. Some specialized treatises on the foundations of QM exist, but
they do not integrate those topics with the standard pedagogical material. My
objective was to remove that unfortunate dichotomy, which divorced the prac-
tical aspects of QM from the interpretation and broader implications of the
theory. This emphasis continued in the expanded 1998 World Scientific edition.
The emergence of Quantum Information (QI) as new branch of QM, is
the prime motivation for this new edition. QI is now a very active area of
research, extending from quantum foundations to new quantum technologies.
A whole book would be needed to treat all aspects of QI, and even then it
would be incomplete shortly after publication, so rapid is the growth of the
research literature. Therefore, I have made no attempt at completeness, and
have concentrated on the basic principles. Quantum information is different
from “classical” information, presenting both new powers and counter-intuitive
limitations. But Shannon’s concept of a quantitative measure of information is
a common thread, tying together the quantum and classical aspects of infor-
mation theory. A few key applications are treated, but only at an introductory
level. These include quantum cryptography, teleportation of states, and quan-
tum computing. Experts in the field of quantum information will notice the
absence of some formal techniques which are commonly used in research. In
limiting my coverage, I have been guided by a pedagogical principle: formalism
should not be introduced for its own sake, but only when it is needed for some
particular problem.
I have paid particular attention to the impact of quantum informa-
tion theory on the foundations and interpretation of QM. QI provides a

xi
xii Preface

new point of view on quantum foundations, and has rejuvenated its study.
The spectrum of possible interpretations is much wider than is commonly
realized. The interrelations among the categories of individual vs ensemble,
ontic vs epistemic, and objective vs subjective, as illustrated in Fig. 21.1, have
not previously been studied in detail.
This edition contains minor changes to most chapters, consisting of many
new references, improving some discussions with which I was no longer satisfied,
and correcting several typographical errors.
This book is intended primarily as a graduate level textbook, but it will
also be of interest to physicists and philosophers who study the foundations
of quantum mechanics. Parts of it could be used by senior undergraduates. Its
evolution can be traced in the prefaces of the earlier editions (from which I
now quote, or paraphrase).
The 1990 version introduced several topics that had previously been found
in few, if any, textbooks. They included:
— A review of probability theory and its relation to the quantum theory.
— Discussion of state preparation and state determination.
— The Aharonov-Bohm effect.
— Some firmly established results in the theory of measurement, which are
useful in clarifying the interpretation of quantum mechanics.
— A more complete account of the classical limit.
— Introduction of rigged Hilbert space as a generalization of the familiar
Hilbert space. It allows vectors of infinite norm to be accommodated within
the formalism, and eliminates the vagueness that often surrounds the ques-
tion of whether the operators that represent observables possess a complete
set of eigenvectors.
— The space-time symmetries of displacement, rotation, and Galilei transfor-
mations are exploited to derive the fundamental operators for momentum,
angular momentum, and the Hamiltonian.
— A charged particle in a magnetic field (Landau levels).
— Basic concepts of quantum optics.
— Modern experiments that illustrate and test the principles of quantum me-
chanics, such as: the direct measurement of the momentum distribution
in the hydrogen atom; the single-crystal neutron interferometer; quantum
beats; photon bunching and anti-bunching.
— Bell’s theorem and its implications.
Preface xiii

The 1998 World Scientific edition added more new material:

— An introduction describing the range of phenomena that quantum

theory seeks to explain.
— Feynman’s path integrals.
— The adiabatic approximation and Berry’s phase.
— Expanded treatment of state preparation and determination, including the
no-cloning theorem and entangled states.
— A new treatment of the energy-time uncertainty relations.
— The influence of a measurement apparatus on the environment, and vice
versa.
— The quantum mechanics of rigid bodies.
— A revised and expanded chapter on the classical limit.
— The phase space formulation of quantum mechanics.
— Expanded treatment of new interference experiments.
— Optical homodyne tomography as a method of measuring the quantum
state of a field mode.
— Bell’s theorem without inequalities and probability.

The Pure State Factor Theorem of Sec. 8.3 has an interesting history. In
his book, Foundations of Quantum Mechanics (Addison-Wesley, 1968), the late
J. M. Jauch assigns the proof of (essentially) this theorem as Problem 1 (p.182).
I do not know whether he possessed a valid proof, since in his next, closely
related problem, he asked us to prove something that is not true! Reading the
relevant part of his chapter, I found the error that misled him into making
the false assertion in Problem 2, and the same error could easily have led
to an invalid solution of the previous problem. I devised a partial proof for
the theorem, but it used perturbation theory, and was not fully general. So,
following the professorial stereotype, I assigned it as a problem for my graduate
student class (warning them, however, of its origin). No one got it in the first
year it was assigned, but in the second year, Bob Goldstein cracked it, and a
modified version of his solution appears in this book. I have not seen the Pure
State Factor Theorem published anywhere else, but perhaps a reader may find
an earlier proof of it.
This book is suitable for a two-semester course, with sufficient material
to allow the instructor some choice of topics. The introductory chapters are
sufficiently novel to deserve some comment.
Chapter 1 contains mathematical topics (vector spaces, operators, and
probability), which may be skimmed by mathematically sophisticated readers.
xiv Preface

These topics are placed at the beginning, rather than in an appendix, because
one needs not only the results but also a coherent overview of their theory, since
they form the mathematical language in which quantum theory is expressed.
The amount of time spent on this chapter may vary widely, depending on
the reader’s degree of mathematical preparation. A mathematically advanced
reader could proceed directly from the Introduction to Chapter 2, although
such a strategy is not recommended.
The space-time symmetries of displacement, rotation, and Galilei trans-
formations are used in Chapter 3 to derive the fundamental operators
for momentum, angular momentum, and the Hamiltonian. This method
replaces the heuristic but inconclusive arguments based upon analogy and
wave-particle duality, which so frustrate the serious student. It also introduces
symmetry concepts and techniques at an early stage, so that they are immedi-
ately available for practical applications. No prior knowledge of group theory
is required. Indeed, a reader who does not know the technical meaning of the
word “group”, and who interprets the references to “groups” as merely mean-
ing sets of related transformations and operators, will lose none of the essential
meaning.
Solutions to some problems are given in Appendix D. The solved problems
are those that are particularly novel, and those for which the answer or the
method of solution is important for its own sake (rather than merely being an
exercise).
At various places, I have segregated in double brackets, [[---]], comments
of a historical, comparative, or critical nature. Those remarks would not be
needed by a hypothetical reader with no previous exposure to quantum me-
chanics. They are used to relate my approach, by way of comparison or con-
trast, to that of earlier writers, and sometimes to show, by means of criticism,
the reason for my departure from the older approaches.

Acknowledgments

This book has drawn on a great many published sources, which are
acknowledged throughout the text. However, I would like to give special men-
tion to the work of T. F. Jordan, which forms the basis of Chapter 3. Much
of the book has been “field-tested” on classes of graduate students at Simon
Fraser University. My former student Bob Goldstein discovered a simple proof
for Pure State Factor Theorem in Sec. 8.3, and his creative imagination was
responsible for the paradox that forms the basis of Problem 9.6. The data
for Fig. 0.4 was taken by Jeff Rudd of the SFU teaching laboratory staff.
Preface XV

In preparing Sec. 1.5 on probability theory, I benefited from discussions with

Prof. C. Villegas. I would like to thank Hans von Baeyer for the key idea in
the derivation of the orbital angular momentum eigenvalues in Sec. 7.3, and
W. G. Unruh for pointing out interesting features of Example (ii1) in Sec. 9.6.
While preparing the chapter on Quantum Information, I have benefited
from correspondence or discussions with Joe Emerson, Nathan Wiebe, William
Wootters, and Stephen Barnett. I am grateful to Jeremy Hilton and the scien-
tific staff of D-Wave Systems, Inc. for explaining to me the workings of their
adiabatic quantum computer, and in particular to Mark Johnson for supplying
useful references.

Leslie E. Ballentine
Professor Emeritus
Simon Fraser University
This page intentionally left blank
Introduction

The Phenomena of
Quantum Mechanics

Quantum mechanics is a general theory. It is presumed to apply to every-

thing, from subatomic particles to galaxies. But interest is naturally focussed
on those phenomena that are most distinctive of quantum mechanics, some
of which led to its discovery. Rather than retelling the historical development
of quantum theory, which can be found in many books,* T shall illustrate
quantum phenomena under three headings: discreteness, diffraction, and
coherence. It is interesting to contrast the original experiments, which led to
the new discoveries, with the accomplishments of modern technology.
It was the phenomenon of discreteness that gave rise to the name “quan-
tum mechanics”. Certain dynamical variables were found to take on only a

: I : - ~
_ 300 2

f
2

E2co-
/ .

=
1
5 i
© 100 -

' | s
10 15
Volts

Fig. 0.1 Current through a tube of Hg vapor versus applied voltage, from the data of
Franck and Hertz (1914). [Figure reprinted from Quantum Physics of Atoms, Molecules,
Solids, Nuclei and Particles, R. Eisberg and R. Resnick (Wiley, 1985).]

*See, for example, Eisberg and Resnick (1985) for an elementary treatment, or Jammer
(1966) for an advanced study.
2 Introduction: The Phenomena of Quantum Mechanics

discrete, or quantized, set of values, contrary to the predictions of classical

mechanics. The first direct evidence for discrete atomic energy levels was pro-
vided by Franck and Hertz (1914). In their experiment, electrons emitted from
a hot cathode were accelerated through a gas of Hg vapor by means of an
adjustable potential applied between the anode and the cathode. The current
as a function of voltage, shown in Fig. 0.1, does not increase monotonically,
but rather displays a series of peaks at multiples of 4.9 volts. Now 4.9 eV is
the energy required to excite a Hg atom to its first excited state. When the
voltage is sufficient for an electron to achieve a kinetic energy of 4.9 €V, it is
able to excite an atom, losing kinetic energy in the process. If the voltage is
more than twice 4.9 V, the electron is able to regain 4.9 €V of kinetic energy
and cause a second excitation event before reaching the anode. This explains
the sequence of peaks.
The peaks in Fig. 0.1 are very broad, and provide no evidence for the
sharpness of the discrete atomic energy levels. Indeed, if there were no better
evidence, a skeptic would be justified in doubting the discreteness of atomic
energy levels. But today it is possible, by a combination of laser excitation
and electric field filtering, to produce beams of atoms that are all in the
same quantum state. Figure 0.2 shows results of Koch et al. (1989), in which
—-
o
)
units
@
T

(67.0.68,0)

STATIC FIELD
IONIZATION
(=}

|
T
( arbitrary

(67.0.08.0)
(87.2.84.0)

1
T
>

(67.063.0)
n
T
SIGNAL

=l
=

n=63 64 65 66 67 68 69 TO7ITZ...
! I 1
0 4 8 12 16 20 24
Fg3 V/em

Fig. 0.2 Individual excited states of atomic hydrogen are resolved in this data [reprinted
from Koch et al., Physica Scripta T26, 51 (1989)].
Introduction: The Phenomena of Quantum Mechanics 3

the atomic states of hydrogen with principal quantum numbers from n = 63

to n = 72 are clearly resolved. Each n value contains many substates that
would be degenerate in the absence of an electric field, and for n = 67 even
the substates are resolved. By adjusting the laser frequency and the various
filtering fields, it is possible to resolve different atomic states, and so to produce
a beam of hydrogen atoms that are all in the same chosen quantum state. The
discreteness of atomic energy levels is now very well established.

54V. >

Fig. 0.3 Polar plot of scattering intensity versus angle, showing evidence of electron diffrac-
tion, from the data of Davisson and Germer (1927).

The phenomenon of diffraction is characteristic of any wave motion, and is

especially familiar for light. It occurs because the total wave amplitude is the
sum of partial amplitudes that arrive by different paths. If the partial ampli-
tudes arrive in phase, they add constructively to produce a maximum in the
total intensity; if they arrive out of phase, they add destructively to produce a
minimum in the total intensity. Davisson and Germer (1927), following a theo-
retical conjecture by L. de Broglie, demonstrated the occurrence of diffraction
in the reflection of electrons from the surface of a crystal of nickel. Some of
their data is shown in Fig. 0.3, the peak at a scattering angle of 50° being
the evidence for electron diffraction. This experiment led to the award of a
Noble prize to Davisson in 1937. Today, with improved technology, even an
undergraduate can easily produce electron diffraction patterns that are vastly
superior to the Nobel prize-winning data of 1927. Figure 0.4 shows an electron
4 Introduction: The Phenomena of Quantum Mechanics

Fig. 0.4 Diffraction of 10 kV electrons through a graphite foil; data from an undergrad-
uate laboratory experiment. Some of the spots are blurred because the foil contains many
crystallites, but the hexagonal symmetry is clear.

diffraction pattern from a crystal of graphite, produced in a routine under-

graduate laboratory experiment at Simon Fraser University. The hexagonal
array of spots corresponds to diffraction scattering from the various crystal
planes.
The phenomenon of diffraction scattering is not peculiar to electrons, or
even to elementary particles. It occurs also for atoms and molecules, and is a
universal phenomenon (see Ch. 5 for further discussion). When first discovered,
particle diffraction was a source of great puzzlement. Are “particles” really
“waves” 7 In the early experiments, the diffraction patterns were detected holis-
tically by means of a photographic plate, which could not detect individual
particles. As a result, the notion grew that particle and wave properties were
mutually incompatible, or complementary, in the sense that different measure-
ment apparatuses would be required to observe them. That idea, however, was
only an unfortunate generalization from a technological limitation. Today it is
possible to detect the arrival of individual electrons, and to see the diffraction
pattern emerge as a statistical pattern made up of many small spots (Tonomura
et al., 1989). Evidently, quantum particles are indeed particles, but particles
whose behavior is very different from what classical physics would have led us
to expect.
In classical optics, coherence refers to the condition of phase stability that
is necessary for interference to be observable. In quantum theory the concept
Introduction: The Phenomena of Quantum Mechanics 5

of coherence also refers to phase stability, but it is generalized beyond any

analogy with wave motion. In general, a coherent superposition of quantum
states may have properties than are qualitatively different from a mixture of
the properties of the component states. For example, the state of a neutron
with its spin polarized in the +z direction is expressible (in a notation that will
be developed in detail in later chapters) as a coherent sum of states that are
polarized in the +z and —z directions, |+ z) = (| +2) + | — z))/\/§ Likewise,
the state with the spin polarized in the +z direction is expressible in terms of
the +z and —z polarizations as | + z) = (| +z) + | — z))/\/fi
An experimental realization of these formal relations is illustrated in
Fig. 0.5. In part (a) of the figure, a beam of neutrons with spin polarized
in the +z direction is incident on a device that transmits +z polarization and
reflects —z polarization. This can be achieved by applying a strong magnetic
field in the z direction. The potential energy of the magnetic moment in the
field, —B - p, acts as a potential well for one direction of the neutron spin,
but as an impenetrable potential barrier for the other direction. The effective-
ness of the device in separating +z and —z polarizations can be confirmed by
detectors that measure the z component of the neutron spin.

(@ ©

o & &
Fig. 0.5 (a) Splitting of a +z spin-polarized beam of neutrons into +z and —z components;
(b) coherent recombination of the two components; (c) splitting of the +z polarized beam
into +z and —x components.
6 Introduction: The Phenomena of Quantum Mechanics

In part (b) the spin-up and spin-down beams are recombined into a single
beam that passes through a device to separate +z and —z spin polarizations. If
the recombination is coherent, and does not introduce any phase shift between
the two beams, then the state | 4+ z) will be reconstructed, and only the +z
polarization will be detected at the end of the apparatus. In part (c) the | — z)
beam is blocked, so that only the | 4+ z) beam passes through the apparatus.
Since |+ 2z) = (|+z)+|— z))/x/fi7 this beam will be split into | + z) and | — z)
components.
Although the experiment depicted in Fig. 0.5 is idealized, all of its compo-
nents are realizable, and closely related experiments have actually been per-
formed.
In this Introduction, we have briefly surveyed some of the diverse phenom-
ena that occur within the quantum domain. Discreteness, being essentially
discontinuous, is quite different from classical mechanics. Diffraction scatter-
ing of particles bears a strong analogy to classical wave theory, but the element
of discreteness is present, in that the observed diffraction patterns are really
statistical patterns of the individual particles. The possibility of combining
quantum states in coherent superpositions that are qualitatively different from
their components is perhaps the most distinctive feature of quantum mechan-
ics, and it introduces a new nonclassical element of continuity. It is the task
of quantum theory to provide a framework within which all of these diverse
phenomena can be explained.
Chapter 1

Mathematical Prerequisites

Certain mathematical topics are essential for quantum mechanics, not only
as computational tools, but because they form the most effective language in
terms of which the theory can be formulated. These topics include the theory
of linear vector spaces and linear operators, and the theory of probability.
The connection between quantum mechanics and linear algebra originated as
an apparent by-product of the linear nature of Schrodinger’s wave equation.
But the theory was soon generalized beyond its simple beginnings, to include
abstract “wave functions” in the 3N-dimensional configuration space of N
paricles, and then to include discrete internal degrees of freedom such as spin,
which have nothing to do with wave motion. The structure common to all
of those diverse cases is that of linear operators on a vector space. A unified
theory based on that mathematical structure was first formulated by P. A. M.
Dirac, and the formulation used in this book is really a modernized version of
Dirac’s formalism.
That quantum mechanics does not predict a deterministic course of events,
but rather the probabilities of various alternative possible events, was recog-
nized at an early stage, especially by Max Born. Modern applications seem
more and more to involve correlation functions and nontrivial statistical dis-
tributions (especially in quantum optics), and therefore the relations between
quantum theory and probability theory need to be expounded.
The physical development of quantum mechanics begins in Ch. 2, and the
mathematically sophisticated reader may turn there at once. But since not only
the results, but also the concepts and logical framework of Ch. 1 are freely used
in developing the physical theory, the reader is advised to at least skim this
first chapter before proceeding to Ch. 2.

1.1 Linear Vector Space

A linear vector space is a set of elements, called vectors, which is closed

under addition and multiplication by scalars. That is to say, if ¢ and ¢ are
8 Ch. 1: Mathematical Prerequisites

vectors then so is ag + bip, where a and b are arbitrary scalars. If the scalars
belong to the field of complex (real) numbers, we speak of a complex (real)
linear vector space. Henceforth the scalars will be complex numbers unless
otherwise stated.
Among the very many examples of linear vector spaces, there are two classes
that are of common interest:

i) Discrete wvectors, s which may be represented

P as columns Of complex
p
numbers,

ai
a2

(i) Spaces of functions of some type, for example the space of all differen-
tiable functions.

One can readily verify that these examples satisfy the definition of a linear
vector space.
A set of vectors { ¢y, } is said to be linearly independent if no nontrivial linear
combination of them sums to zero; that is to say, if the equation Y, cnépn =0
can hold only when ¢, = 0 for all n. If this condition does not hold, the set of
vectors is said to be linearly dependent, in which case it is possible to express
a member of the set as a linear combination of the others.
The maximum number of linearly independent vectors in a space is called
the dimension of the space. A maximal set of linearly independent vectors is
called a basis for the space. Any vector in the space can be expressed as a
linear combination of the basis vectors.
An inner product (or scalar product) for a linear vector space associates a
scalar (v, ¢) with every ordered pair of vectors. It must satisfy the following
properties:

) ( 1, ¢) = a complex number,
) ($,9)= (¥, 0)",
() (¢, 11 + catha)= c1(o, Y1) + ca(¢, ¥2),
) (¢,¢) > 0, with equality holding if and only if ¢ = 0.

From (b) and (c) it follows that

(c191 + cota, §) = 1 (Y1, 8) + c3(2, 8) .

1.1 Linear Vector Space 9

Therefore we say that the inner product is linear in its second argument, and
antilinear in its first argument.
We have, corresponding to our previous examples of vector spaces, the
following inner products:

(1) If ¢ is the column vector with elements ai,as,... and ¢ is the column
vector with elements by, ba, ..., then

(¢, 6) = ajbi +azbo+--- .

(i) If ¢ and ¢ are functions of z, then

(6.9) = [ v @)oo,
where w(z) is some nonnegative weight function.

The inner product generalizes the notions of length and angle to arbitrary
spaces. If the inner product of two vectors is zero, the vectors are said to be
orthogonal.
The norm (or length) of a vector is defined as ||¢|| = (¢, ¢)'/2. The inner
product and the norm satisfy two important theorems:

Schwarz’s inequality,

1w, 9)I” < (&,4)(8,9) - (L.1)

The triangle inequality,

1+ )l < Il + 1181l (1.2)

In both cases equality holds only if one vector is a scalar multiple of the other,
le. ¥ = c¢. For (1.2) to become an equality, the scalar ¢ must be real and
positive.
A set of vectors {¢;} is said to be orthonormal if the vectors are pair-
wise orthogonal and of unit norm; that is to say, their inner products satisfy
(i, &5) = b5
Corresponding to any linear vector space V there exists the dual space of
linear functionals on V. A linear functional F' assigns a scalar F(¢) to each
vector ¢, such that

F(ag + W) = aF(¢) + bF(¢) (1.3)

10 Ch. 1: Mathematical Prerequisites

for any vectors ¢ and v, and any scalars a and b. The set of linear functionals
may itself be regarded as forming a linear space V' if we define the sum of two
functionals as

(F1 + F2)(¢) = Fi(9) + Fa(6) . (1.4)

Riesz theorem. There is a one-to-one correspondence between linear func-

tionals F in V' and vectors f in V, such that all linear functionals have the
form

F(o)=(f,¢), (1.5)
f being a fixed vector, and ¢ being an arbitrary vector. Thus the spaces V and
V' are essentially isomorphic. For the present we shall only prove this theorem
in a manner that ignores the convergence questions that arise when dealing
with infinite-dimensional spaces. (These questions are dealt with in Sec. 1.4.)

Proof. Tt is obvious that any given vector f in V defines a linear functional,

using Eq. (1.5) as the definition. So we need only prove that for an arbitrary
linear functional F' we can construct a unique vector f that satisfies (1.5). Let
{¢n} be a system of orthonormal basis vectors in V', satisfying (¢n, ¢m) = 0pn,m.
Let ¢ =3, 2n¢n be an arbitrary vector in V. From (1.3) we have

F() =" anF(¢n).

Now construct the following vector:

f= [F(4u)]"n-

Its inner product with the arbitrary vector v is

and hence the theorem is proved.

Dirac’s bra and ket notation

In Dirac’s notation, which is very popular in quantum mechanics, the

vectors in V are called ket vectors, and are denoted as |¢). The linear
1.2 Linear Operators 11

functionals in the dual space V' are called bra vectors, and are denoted as
(F'|. The numerical value of the functional is denoted as

F(¢) = (Flo). (1.6)

According to the Riesz theorem, there is a one-to-one correspondence between
bras and kets. Therefore we can use the same alphabetic character for the
functional (a member of V) and the vector (in V) to which it corresponds,
relying on the bra, (F|, or ket, |F), notation to determine which space is
referred to. Equation (1.5) would then be written as

(Flg) = (F'9), (L.7)

|F') being the vector previously denoted as f. Note, however, that the Riesz
theorem establishes, by construction, an antilinear correspondence between
bras and kets. If (F'| > |F), then

CT<F1‘+C;<F2IHCI‘FI>+CQ‘F2>. (18)

Because of the relation (1.7), it is possible to regard the “braket” (F|¢) as

merely another notation for the inner product. But the reader is advised that
there are situations in which it is important to remember that the primary
definition of the bra vector is as a linear functional on the space of ket vectors.

[ In his original presentation, Dirac assumed a one-to-one correspondence

between bras and kets, and it was not entirely clear whether this was a
mathematical or a physical assumption. The Riesz theorem shows that
there is no need, and indeed no room, for any such assumption. Moreover,
we shall eventually need to consideer more general spaces (rigged-Hilbert-
space triplets) for which the one-to-one correspondence between bras and
kets does not hold. ]|

1.2 Linear Operators

An operator on a vector space maps vectors onto vectors; that is to say, if

A is an opetator and v is a vector, then ¢ = A1) is another vector. An operator
is fully defined by specifying its action on every vector in the space (or in its
domuain, which is the name given to the subspace on which the operator can
meaningfully act, should that be smaller than the whole space).
A linear operator satisfies

A1y + catha) = c1(Aghr) + ca(Azho) . (1.9)

12 Ch. 1: Mathematical Prerequisites

Tt is sufficient to define a linear operator on a set of basis vectors, since every

vector can be expressed as a linear combination of the basis vectors. We shall
be treating only linear operators, and so shall henceforth refer to them simply
as operators.
To assert the equality of two operators, A = B, means that Ay = B for
all vectors (more precisely, for all vectors in the common domain of A and B,
this qualification will usually be omitted for brevity). Thus we can define the
sum and product of operators,

(A4 B)p = Ay + By,

ABy = A(By),
both equations holding for all ¢. It follows from this definition that operator
mulitplication is necessarily assoctative, A(BC) = (AB)C. But it need not be
commutative, AB being unequal to BA in general.

Example (i). In a space of discrete vectors represented as columns, a

linear operator is a square matrix. In fact, any operator equation in a space
of N dimensions can be transformed into a matrix equation. Consider, for
example, the equation

Mly) = |¢). (1.10)

Choose some orthonormal basis {|u;),7 = 1...N} in which to expand the
vectors,

[0) =D aslug), 18) =D bilur).

J k
Operating on (1.10) with (u,| yields

D (uil Mlug)ay = (uilur)br

J k

which has the form of a matrix equation,

ZMijaj =b;, (1.11)

J

with M;; = (u;|M|uj;) being known as a matriz element of the operator M. In

this way any problem in an N-dimensional linear vector space, no matter how
it arises, can be transformed into a matrix problem.
1.2 Linear Operators 13

The same thing can be done formally for an infinite-dimensional vector

space if it has a denumerable orthonormal basis, but one must then deal with
the problem of convergence of the infinite sums, which we postpone to a later
section.

Example (ii). Operators in function spaces frequently take the form of

differential or integral operators. An operator equation such as

7] 14 r—7]
=
Oz Ox
may appear strange if one forgets that operators are only defined by their
action on vectors. Thus the above example means that

7]
E[m Y(z)] =¢(z) + o for all ¥(z).

So far we have only defined operators as acting to the right on ket vectors.
We may define their action to the left on bra vectors as

(2lA)l) = (¢l(Alv)) (1.12)

for all ¢ and 1. This appears trivial in Dirac’s notation, and indeed this trivial-
ity contributes to the practical utility of his notation. However, it is worthwhile
to examine the mathematical content of (1.12) in more detail.
A bra vector is in fact a linear functional on the space of ket vectors, and
in a more detailed notation the bra (¢| is the functional

Fo() =(¢,), (1.13)

where ¢ is the vector that corresponds to Fy via the Riesz theorem, and the
dot indicates the place for the vector argument. We may define the operation
of A on the bra space of functionals as

AF4 () = Fs(Ay) for all . (1.14)

The right hand side of (1.14) satisfies the definition of a linear functional of
the vector ¢ (not merely of the vector Ai), and hence it does indeed define a
new functional, called AF,;. According to the Riesz theorem there must exist
a ket vector x such that

AF, () = (x.)
= (). (1.15)
14 Ch. 1: Mathematical Prerequisites

Since x is uniquely determined by ¢ (given A), there must exist an operator

AT such that y = Af¢. Thus (1.15) can be written as

AF, = Fury. (1.16)

From (1.14) and (1.15) we have (¢, A¢¥) = (x,?), and therefore

(A, 9p) = (¢, Ap) forall ¢ and 4. (1.17)

This is the usual definition of the adjoint, Af, of the operator A. All of this
nontrivial mathematics is implicit in Dirac’s simple equation (1.12)!
The adjoint operator can beformally defined within the Dirac notation by
demanding that if (¢| and |¢) are corresponding bras and kets, then (¢|Af =
(w| and Al¢) = |w) should also be corresponding bras and kets. From the fact
that (w|y)* = (¢|w), it follows that

(BlAT[9)"
= (¥|A]¢) forall ¢and e, (1.18)
this relation being equivalent to (1.17). Although simpler than the previous
introduction of A via the Riesz theorem, this formal method fails to prove the
existence of the operator A
Several useful properties of the adjoint operator that follow directly from
(1.17) are

(CA)T = Al , where ¢ is a complex number,

(A+B)t = AT+ Bt
(AB)" = BT AT,
In addition to the inner product of a bra and a ket, (¢[¢’), which is a scalar,
we may define an outer product, |¢)(¢|. This object is an operator because,
assuming associative multiplication, we have

() (@DIN) = [£)((2IN) - (1.19)

Since an operator is defined by specifying its action on an arbitrary vector to
produce another vector, this equation fully defines |¢)(¢| as an operator. From
(1.18) it follows that

([9)(B)T = ) (e - (1.20)
In view of this relation, it is tempting to write (|))T = (¢|. Although no real
harm comes from such a notation, it should not be encouraged because it uses
1.8 Self-Adjoint Operators 15

the “adjoint” symbol, T, for something that is not an operator, and so cannot
satisfy the fundamental definition (1.16).
A useful characteristic of an operator A is its trace, defined as

Tr A=) (u|Aly),
j
where {|u;)} may be any orthonormal basis. It can be shown [see Problem (1.3)]
that the value of Tr A is independent of the particular orthonormal basis that
is chosen for its evaluation. The trace of a matrix is just the sum of its diagonal
elements. For an operator in an infinite-dimensional space, the trace exists only
if the infinite sum is convergent.

1.3 Self-Adjoint Operators

An operator A that is equal to its adjoint AT is called self-adjoint. This

means that it satisfies

(BAly) = (Y] Alg)* (1.21)

and that the domain of A (i.e. the set of vectors ¢ on which A¢ is well defined)
coincides with the domain of AT. An operator that only satisfies (1.21) is called
Hermitian, in analogy with a Hermitian matrix, for which M;; = Mj;x*.

[[ The distinction between Hermitian and self-adjoint operators is relevant

only for operators in infinite-dimensional vector spaces, and we shall make
such a distinction only when it is essential to do so. The operators that
we call “Hermitian” are often called “symmetric” in the mathematical
literature. That terminology is objectionable because it conflicts with the
corresponding properties of matrices. ||

The following theorem is useful in identifying Hermitian operators on a

vector space with complex scalars.

Theorem 1. If (y|Ajy)) = (¢Y|A|y)* for all [¢), then it follows that

(61| Alp2) = (d2|Ald1)* for all |¢1) and |¢9), and hence that A = Af.
Proof. Let |¢) = a|¢1) + b|¢o) for arbitrary a, b, |¢1), and |¢2).
Then

(WIA[) = lal*(d1]Algr) + b (62|

Al d2)
+a*b(p1|Alde) + b a(d2|Alg1)
16 Ch. 1: Mathematical Prerequisites

must be real. The first and second terms are obviously real by hypothesis, so
we need only consider the third and fourth. Choosing the arbitrary parameters
a and b to be a = b =1 yields the condition

(¢11Al2) + (2| Ald1) = (d1]|Ald2)" + (d2| Ald1)" .

Choosing instead a = 1, b = ¢ yields

i(01|Ald2) — i(d2|Ald1) = —i(d1]A|d2)" + i(da|Ald1)" .

Canceling the factor of 7 from the last equation and adding the two equations
yields the desired result, (¢1]A|¢2) = (da]A|d1)*.
This theorem is noteworthy because the premise is obviously a special case
of the conclusion, and it is unusual for the general case to be a consequence of
a special case. Notice that the complex values of the scalars were essential in
the proof, and no analog of this theorem can exist for real vector spaces.

If an operator acting on a certain vector produces a scalar multiple of that

same vector,

Alg) = al¢), (1.22)

we call the vector |¢) an eigenvector and the scalar a an eigenvalue of the
operator A. The antilinear correspondence (1.8) between bras and kets, and
the definition of the adjoint operator AT, imply that the left-handed eigenvalue
equation

(64t = a (s (1.23)
holds if the right-handed eigenvalue equation (1.22) holds.
Theorem 2. If A is a Hermitian operator then all of its eigenvalues
are real.

Proof. Let A|l¢) = al|¢). Since A is Hermitian, we must have ($|A|p) =

(¢|Al@)*. Substitution of the eigenvalue equation yields

(¢lalg) = (glale)”,
a{plg) = a* (8]},
which implies that @ = a*, since only nonzero vectors are regarded as nontrivial
solutions of the eigenvector equation.

The result of this theorem, combined with (1.23), shows that for a self-
adjoint operator, A = Af, the conjugate bra (¢| to the ket eigenvector |¢) is
also an eigenvector with the same eigenvalue a: (¢|A = a(d)|.
1.8 Self-Adjoint Operators 17

Theorem 3. Eigenvectors corresponding to distinct eigenvalues of a Her-

mitian operator must be orthogonal.

Proof. Let Al¢1) = ai|é1) and A|da) = ag|d2). Since A is Hermitian, we

deduce from (1.21) that

0 = ($1|Ald2) — (2| Ald1)”

= a1(¢2|d1) — az(d1|e2)”
= (a1 — a2)(p2|é1) .

Therefore (¢2|¢1) =0 if a1 # as.

If a1 = a2 (= a, say) then any linear combination of the degenerate

eigenvectors |¢1) and |¢2) is also an eigenvector with the same eigenvalue
a. It is always possible to replace a nonorthogonal but linearly independent
set of degenerate eigenvectors by linear combinations of themselves that are
orthogonal. Unless the contrary is explicitly stated, we shall assume that
such an orthogonalization has been performed, and when we speak of the set
of independent eigenvectors of a Hermitian operator we shall mean an
orthogonal set.
Provided the vectors have finite norms, we may rescale them to have unit
norms. Then we can always choose to work with an orthonormal set of eigen-
vectors,

(61, ¢5) = bi5 - (1.24)

Many textbooks state (confidently or hopefully) that the orthonormal set

of eigenvectors of a Hermitian operators is complete; that is to say, it forms a
basis that spans the vector space. Before examining the mathematical status
of that statement, let us see what useful consequences would follow if it were
true.

Properties of complete orthonormal sets

If the set of vectors {¢;} is complete, then we can expand an arbitrary

vector |v) in terms of it: |[v) = >, vi|¢;). From the orthonormality condition
(1.24), the expansion coefficients are easily found to be v; = (¢;|v). Thus we
can write
18 Ch. 1: Mathematical Prerequisites

v) = Z|¢i>(<¢ilv>)

= (Z\@M@\) [0} (1.25)

for an arbitrary vector |v). The parentheses in (1.25) are unnecessary, and are
used only to emphasize two ways of interpreting the equation. The first line
in (1.25) suggests that |v) is equal to a sum of basis vectors each multiplied
by a scalar coefficient. The second line suggests that a certain operator (in
parentheses) acts on a vector to produce the same vector. Since the equation
holds for all vectors |v), the operator must be the identity operator,

Z i) (¢ = 1. (1.26)

If A|¢;) = a;|¢;) and the eigenvectors form a complete orthonormal set —

that is to say, (1.24) and (1.26) hold — then the operator can be reconstructed
in a useful diagonal form in terms of its eigenvalues and eigenvectors:

A=Y alo) (@ (1.27)

This result is easily proven by operating on an arbitrary vector and verifying
that the left and right sides of (1.27) yield the same result. One can use the
diagonal representation to define a function of an operator,

f(4) = Z flai)ldi){bil - (1.28)

The usefulness of these results is the reason why many authors assume, in
the absence of proof, that the Hermitian operators encountered in quantum
mechanics will have complete sets of eigenvectors. But is it true?
Any operator in a finite N-dimensional vector space can be expressed as
an N x N matrix [see the discussion following Eq. (1.10)]. The condition for a
nontrivial solution of the matrix eigenvalue equation

Mo =X, (1.29)

where M is square matrix and ¢ is a column vector, is

det[M —I|=0. (1.30)

1.8 Self-Adjoint Operators 19

The expansion of this determinant yields a polynomial in A of degree N, which

must have N roots. Each root is an eigenvalue to which there must corre-
spond an eigenvector. If all N eigenvalues are distinct, then so must be the
eigenvectors, which will necessarily span the N-dimensional space. A more
careful argument is necessary in order to handle multiple roots (degenerate
eigenvalues), but the proof is not difficult. [See, for example, Jordan (1969),
Theorem 13.1.]
This argument does not carry over to infinite-dimensional spaces. Indeed,
if one lets N become infinite, then (1.30) becomes an infinite power series in A,
which need not possess any roots, even if it converges. (In fact the determinant
of an infinite-dimensional matrix is undefinable except in special cases.) A
simple counter-example shows that the theorem is not generally true for an
infinite-dimensional space.
Consider the operator D = —id/dxz, defined on the space of differentiable
functions of = for a < z < b. (The limits a and b may be finite or infinite.) Its
adjoint, D1, is identified by using (1.21), which now takes the form

b b *
[ o @ptuaas - { / w(x)w(x)dx}
b

- / 6" (@) Dy(2)dz + ifp(@)e* @] (1.31)

The last line is obtained by integrating by parts. If boundary conditions are
imposed so that the last term vanishes, then D will apparently be a Hermitian
operator.
The eigenvalue equation

d
—ig(w) = Ao(a) (1.32)
is a differential equation whose solution is ¢(z) = ce ¥ ¢ = constant. But in
regarding it as an eigenvalue equation for the operator D, we are interested only
in eigenfunctions within a certain vector space. Several different vector spaces
may be defined, depending upon the boundary conditions that are imposed:

V1. No boundary conditions

All complex X are eigenvalues. Since D is not Hermitian this case is of no
further interest.
20 Ch. 1: Mathematical Prerequisites

V2. a = —o0, b = 400, |¢p(x)| bounded as |z|—oc0

All real values of A are eigenvalues. The eigenfunctions ¢(z) are not nor-
malizable, but they do form a complete set in the sense that an arbitrary
function can be represented as a Fourier integral, which may be regarded as a
continuous linear combination of the eigenfunctions.

V3. a = —L/2, b =+L/2, periodic boundary conditions ¢(—L/2)

= ¢(L/2)
The eigenvalues form a discrete set, A = A\, = 27n/L, with n being an
integer of either sign. The eigenfunctions form a complete orthonormal set
(with a suitable choice for c), the completeness being proven in the theory of
Fourier series.

V4. a = —o0, b = 400, ¢(x)—0 as z—+oo

Although the operator D is Hermitian, it has no eigenfunctions within this
space.

These examples suffice to show that a Hermitian operator in an infinite-

dimensional vector space may or may not possess a complete set of eigenvec-
tors, depending upon the precise nature of the operator and the vector space.
Fortunately, the desirable results like (1.26), (1.27) and (1.28) can be reformu-
lated in a way that does not require the existence of well-defined eigenvectors.

The spectral theorem

The outer product |¢;)(¢;| formed from a vector of unit norm is an exam-
ple of a projection operator. In general, a self-adjoint operator p that satisfies
p? = p is a projection operator. Its action is to project out the component of a
vector that lies within a certain subspace (the one-dimensional space of |¢;) in
the above example), and to annihilate all components orthogonal to that sub-
space. If the operator A in (1.27) has a degenerate spectrum, we may form the
projection operator onto the subspace spanned by the degenerate eigenvectors
corresponding to a; = a,

P(a) =Y [6:)(¢il0a.a, (1.33)

and (1.27) can be rewritten as
A=Y "aP(a). (1.34)

The sum on a goes over the eigenvalue spectrum. [But since P(a) = 0 if a is
not an eigenvalue, it is harmless to extend the sum beyond the spectrum.]
1.8 Self-Adjoint Operators 21

The examples following (1.32) suggest (correctly, it turns out) that the
troubles are associated with a continuous spectrum, so it is desirable to rewrite
(1.34) in a form that holds for both discrete and continuous spectra. This
can most conveniently be done with the help of the Stieltjes integral, whose
definition is
n

ol)
[ st@xtot@) = tim 3 glanot- on
b

n—eo 3
(1.35)
the limit being taken such that every interval (zx — zx—1) goes to zero as
n — 00. The nondecreasing function o(z) is called the measure. If o(z) = x,
then (1.35) reduces to the more familiar Riemann integral. If do/dz exists,
then we have
do
/ g(@)do(z) = / 9(z) (d—) dx.
(Stieltjes) (Riemann) -z

The generalization becomes nontrivial only when we allow o(z) to be discon-

tinuous. Suppose that

o(z) = hb(z —c), (1.36)

where 0(z) = 0 for z < 0, f(z) = 1 for z > 0. The only term in (1.35) that
will contribute to the integral is the term for which zx_1 < ¢ and xx > c. The
value of the integral is hg(c).

Xi-1€ X

Fig. 1.1 A discontinuous measure function [Eq. (1.36)].

We can now state the spectral theorem.

Theorem 4. [For a proof, see Riesz and Sz.-Nagy (1955), Sec. 120.] To
each self-adjoint operator A there corresponds a unique family of projection
operators, E()), for real A, with the properties:
22 Ch. 1: Mathematical Prerequisites

(i) Tf Ay < Ay then E(\)E(Ag) = E()E(A) = E(A1)

[speaking informally, this means that F()) projects onto the subspace
corresponding to eigenvalues < AJ;
(it) If e > 0, then E(A +¢)|v) = E(\)|¢) as e — 0;
( i) E(A)|¢) — 0 as A — —o0;
(iv) BO)) — ) as A — +o0;
) [% NE())= A. (1.37)
In (it), (iti) and (iv) |¢) is an arbitrary vector. The integral in (v) with respect
to an operator-valued measure E()) is formally defined by (1.35), just as for
a real valued measure.
Equation (1.37) is the generalization of (1.27) to an arbitrary self-adjoint
operator that may have discrete or continuous spectra, or a mixture of the two.
The corresponding generalization of (1.28) is

s = [~ raEo). (138)
Example (discrete case)

When (1.37) is applied to an operator with a purely discrete spectrum,

the only contributions to the integral occur at the discontinuities of

= Z i) (dilO(A — ai) . (1.39)

These occur at the eigenvalues, the discontinuity at A = a being just

P(a) of Eq. (1.33). Thus (1.37) reduces to (1.34) or (1.27) in this case.

Example (continuous case)

As an example of an operator with a continuous spectrum, consider

the operator @, defined as Q¢ (z) = z¢(z) for all functions ¢ (z). It is
trivial to verify that Q = Q. Now the eigenvalue equation Qo(z) =
A¢(z) has the formal solutions ¢(z) = d(z — ), where A is any real
number and 6(z — A) is Dirac’s “delta function”. But in fact 6(z — \)
is not a well-defined function® at all, so strictly speaking there are no
eigenfunctions ¢(z).

2t can be given meaning as a “distribution”, or “generalized function”. See Gel’fand and

Shilov (1964) for a systematic treatment.
1.8 Self-Adjoint Operators 23

However, the spectral theorem still applies. The projection operators for Q
are defined as

EN¢(@) = 0(A - 2)d(x), (1.40)

which is equal to ¢(z) for z < A, and is 0 for z > X. We can easily verify (1.37)
by operating on a general function ¢ (z):

[ xEoywe)
= [ o0 - w)
= () = Qy().
(In evaluating the above integral one must remember that A is the integration
variable and x is constant.)
Following Dirac’s pioneering formulation, it has become customary in
quantum mechanics to write a formal eigenvalue equation for an operator such
as @ that has a continuous spectrum,

Qlg) = qla) - (1.41)

The orthonormality condition for the continuous case takes the form

(dlq") =d(q" = ") (1.42)

Evidently the norm of these formal eigenvectors is infinite, since (1.42) implies
that (g|g) = co. Instead of the spectral theorem (1.37) for @), Dirac would write

Q= /jo qla)(gldq, (1.43)

which is the continuous analog of (1.27).

Dirac’s formulation does not fit into the mathematical theory of Hilbert
space, which admits only vectors of finite norm. The projection operator (1.40),
formally given by

B0 = [ I, (141
A

—00

is well defined in Hilbert space, but its derivative, dE(g)/dg = |q)(g|, does not
exist within the Hilbert space framework.
Most attempts to express quantum mechanics within a mathematically
rigorous framework have restricted or revised the formalism to make it fit
within Hilbert space. An attractive alternative is to extend the Hilbert space
Exploring the Variety of Random
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broke ranks and in wild enthusiasm greeted each other as long lost
friends. The song they sang is probably seven hundred years old or
older.
 (1) Songs of Childhood, Games and Cradle Songs

From the day of the obelisk to the day of the radio, every baby that
has ever been born has been put to sleep to the soothing sound of the
mother’s song. The Greek mother sang to her baby,
Come, Sleep! come, Sleep! Take him away.
Come, Sleep, and make him slumber.
Carry him to the vineyard of the Aga,
To the Garden of the Aga,
The Aga will give him grapes; his wife, roses; his servant, pancakes.

Many early lullabies were sung in honor of the infant Jesus, which
really gives them a very blesséd beginning. It is related by a Sicilian
poet “When the Madunazza (mother) was mending St. Joseph’s
clothes, the Bambineddu (Bambino—the Infant Jesus) cried in his
cradle, because no one was attending to Him. So the Archangel
Raphael came and rocked Him and said these sweet little words to
Him, ‘Lullaby, Jesus, Son of Mary.’”
The Indians, too, sang lullabies, for you know the squaw is a gentle
soul and takes beautiful care of her papoose. The Chippewas think of
sleep as a big insect and they have named him Weeng. Weeng comes
down from the top of a tree where he is busy making a buzzing noise
with his wings and puts you to sleep by sending many little fairies to
you who beat your head with tiny clubs!
We all know our own Bye, Baby Bunting, Father’s Gone a
Hunting, etc., and Rockabye Baby on the Tree Top.
The Germans, whose children songs and lullabies are so lovely,
have the familiar Schlaf, Kindlein, Schlaf! It is a sweet name the
Italians give their lullaby, the ninne-nanne! And the mothers in
Lyons, France, call sleep souin-souin and have a charming little
song:
Le Poupon voudrait bien do(r)mir;
Le souin-souin ne peu pas venir.
Souin-souin, vené, vené, vené;
Souin-souin, vené, vené, vené!
The infant wants to go to sleep;
Sleep does not wish to come.
Sleep come, come, come;
Sleep come, come, come!
 Games

We all have sung The Farmer in the Dell, London Bridge is Falling
Down, Ring Around the Rosy and many other game-songs. We have
told you of the Indian moccasin game, and we know that in all the
other nations the children have had their game-songs.
 (2) Songs for Religious Ceremonies, Holidays, and
Christmas Carols, etc., May Songs and Spring Festivals

Spring is so full of the beginnings of life, and people can see the
flowers begin to bloom and take on color and glory. Even as you and
I, they have never been able to see them without rejoicing and every
one’s rejoicing sooner or later is a cause for music. In many countries
this renewal of life is celebrated by rites and ceremonies that have
been the source of much folk-lore and music.
The Greeks, as early as the 6th Century B.C., celebrated the coming
of the spring with a religious festival named after the god Dionysus.
Many songs and dances accompanied these festivals. On the evening
before the festival, which lasted five days, there was an impressive
procession by torch-light in which an image of the god Dionysus was
carried to the theatre where the festival was held, accompanied by
many handsome youths and a very splendid bull which was
sacrificed.
In the excavations of Crete this ancient hymn has been found,—a
spring song and a young man-song in one:

Ho! Kouros (young man), most Great, I give thee hail, Lord of all that is wet and
gleaming; thou art come at the head of thy Daemones. To Dickte for the year, Oh,
march and rejoice in the dance and song.

In Germany, it was thought that on Walpurgis-nacht (May night)

witches rode on the tails of magpies and danced away the winter
snows on the Brocken, one of the highest peaks of the Hartz
Mountains. In Germany too, it was the custom for children to set
May-flies (Maikäfer) free and to sing this song:
Maikäferchen fliege,
Dein Vater ist in Kriege
Dein Mutter ist in Pommerland
Pommerland ist abgebrannt
Maikäferchen fliege.

or
May-fly, fly away,
Your father is at war,
Your mother is in Pommerland.
Pommerland is all burned up!
May-fly, fly away.

Don’t you think it is like our rhyme?

Lady-bug, lady-bug,
Fly away home.
Your house is on fire
Your children will burn.

And here is the French:

Avril, tu t’en vas!
Car Mai vient la-bas
Pour balayer ta figure
De pluie, aussi de froidure.
Hanneton, vole!
Hanneton, vole!

Au firmament bleu,
Ton nid est en feu,
Les Turcs avec leur èpée
Viennent tuer ta couvée.
Hanneton, vole!
Hanneton, vole!

or:
April, away!
For here cometh May
With sunshine again
To banish the rain.
May-beetle, fly!
May-beetle, fly!

Afar in the sky,

With flames leaping high,
The Turks with swords rude
Have slaughtered your brood.
May-beetle, fly!
May-beetle, fly!
 The first comic opera, a pastourale six hundred years old, Le Jeu
de Robin et de Marion by Adam de la Hale, is full of May songs.
The King and Queen of the May and May Pole dancers and the
English Jack-in-the-Green, the Thuringian Little Leaf Man and the
Russian tree dressed up are only a few of the many examples of the
rites of spring. And we have seen how the Druids and the Aztecs
celebrated spring.
One of the most modern composers, Igor Stravinsky, has written a
ballet called Le Sacre du Printemps (Rites of Spring) in which he has
used the ancient Russian pagan rites of celebrating the spring. The
music is wild and the rhythms primitive.
 Religious Ceremonies

From legends, we know that songs and dances of the Polish people
accompanied their religious ceremonies before Christianity. When
they exchanged their pagan gods for the teachings of the early
Christian fathers, many of these songs were lost, but some of them
were handed down merely by changing the pagan name to the
Christian. These songs have been traced by the fact that many of
them are based on the old pentatonic scale. The Slavs, the
Lithuanians and the Germanic races have kept this scale in Eastern
and Middle Europe, and the Greeks, the ancient Italians and the
Celts brought it into Western and Southern Europe. These scales are
supposed to have come from Indo-China, for it must not be forgotten
that the Polish along with all Slavs migrated from Asia, the cradle of
the human race.
Two festivals,—St. John’s Eve and Christmas, came down from the
pagan era in Poland and the manner of celebration has changed little
throughout the centuries.
 Christmas Carols

The Polish Christmas Carol was also handed down from the days
before Christ. The word “carol” comes from the old French carole
which was a dance, and gave its name to the song by which it was
accompanied. In the pagan time there were summer carols, winter
carols, Easter carols and carols that celebrated a religious winter
festival. As the winter festival occurred about the same time of the
year as the Nativity or birthday of the Saviour, it was celebrated in
the Christian Church as Christmas. In England, the old Yule-tide of
the Druids has influenced the present celebration of Christmas with
its fun, festivities and Christmas trees!
Throughout Germany, Christmas Carols are still sung early every
Christmas morning, and many of the old hymns have thus been
preserved.
The Christmas Carol in France is called Noël and the old English
word was Nowell.
 (3) Love Songs

It is safe to say that there are more love songs than any other kind
of folk music, and among them is some of the most beautiful music
in the world. You will find charming folk love songs of every
nationality on earth.
Different countries have different marriage customs which give an
intimate picture of the life in different periods, of countries and
tribes far apart. Again we can trace forgotten relationships in like
customs of bygone days. Singing and dancing are very important in
all marriage celebrations, and some wedding music is of great age.
In Russia, for example, the marriage customs and wedding music
are very beautiful and impressive. At the same time no folk dancing
is wilder or gayer than that celebrating a peasant marriage.
Before going to a wedding ceremony, the Polish bride sings one
particular song built on the pentatonic scale, that has probably been
sung for more than two thousand years! There are other wedding
ceremony songs that can be traced back almost as far.
In Brittany, during the 11th and 12th centuries, the priest
demanded a “nuptial song” from the newly-weds on the Sunday
following the wedding, as a wedding tax!
In another place the feudal lord demanded that every new bride
should dance and sing before him and in return he decorated her
with a bonnet of flowers.
You haven’t forgotten the Indian and his love music played on the
flute, have you?
 (4) Patriotic Songs

In the recent World War, we had examples of how folk songs were
made. There were popular songs like Over There (George Cohan),
The Long, Long Trail (by Zo Elliot), Tipperary, Madelon, that were
sung by millions. They were songs of the people, by the people and
for the people, and no one cared who wrote them.
Most of the national hymns and patriotic songs were born in a
time of storm and stress. Words inspired by some special happening
were written on the spur of the moment, and often set to some
familiar tune. America was first sung to the tune of God Save the
King on July 4, 1832. The words of Star Spangled Banner were
written by Francis Scott Key during the War of 1812 as he watched
the bombardment of Fort McHenry in Chesapeake Bay, and was set
to an English drinking song, Anacreon in Heaven. Yankee Doodle, a
song first sung to make fun of the young colonists, became the
patriotic hymn of the Revolution! Where the tune came from is a
mystery, but it shows a family likeness to a little Dutch nursery song,
a German street song, an old English country dance, a folk tune from
the Pyrenees and one from Hungary! But we love our old Yankee
Doodle anyhow! Hail Columbia was adapted to a tune, The
President’s March, which had accompanied Washington when he
was inaugurated, in New York, as our first president.
England’s God Save the King was composed, words and music, by
Henry Carey, and it was used first in 1743 during the Jacobite
uprising. It has since served America, Germany, Denmark and
Switzerland. Auld Lang Syne of Scotland was written by “Bobby”
Burns and set to an old Scotch tune. St. Patrick’s Day was originally
a jig, and The Wearing of the Green was a street ballad of the Irish
rebellion of 1798 mourning the fact that the Irish were forbidden to
wear their national emblem, the shamrock. The Welsh song Men of
Harlech, a stirring tune, dates from 1468.
The French have several thrilling national songs. If you heard
Malbrouk s’en va-t-en guerre (Malbrouk to war is going) you would
say, “Why! that’s For He’s a Jolly Good Fellow.” So it is, and it has
had a long and chequered career. It is supposed to have been brought
into Europe by one of the Crusaders, and was lost for five centuries;
it cropped up again in 1781 when Marie Antoinette sang it to put the
little Dauphin (the French prince) to sleep. Paris picked up the tune
and it was heard in every café and on every street corner. Napoleon
who had no ear for music hummed it. It crossed the English channel.
Even the Arabs sing a popular song like it which they call Mabrooka.
Beethoven used the air in a Battle Symphony (1813).
The stirring hymn of France, is the Marseillaise written by Rouget
de l’Isle (1792) on the eve of the Revolution. It became the marching
song of the French Army and was sung during the attack on the
Tuileries (Paris), the king’s palace. It has always been the Republican
song of France.
In almost every book you read about the French Revolution, La
Carmagnole and Ça Ira are mentioned. They accompanied
thousands of victims to the guillotine. Ça Ira (It will go!) was a
popular dance which Marie Antoinette played on her clavecin. Little
did she know that the same tune would be shouted by the infuriated
mobs as she was driven through the streets of Paris in the tumbril to
the guillotine!
The Italians show their natural love for opera by the fact that their
national hymn is adopted from Bellini’s opera Somnambula.
The Rakoczy March of which you will hear later in the chapter is
the Hungarian national hymn.
We could write an entire book on this subject, but this is only to
give you a suggestion of how these songs grew and where they came
from.
 (5) Songs of Work and Labor and Trades

We have shown you the American Indians singing their songs as

they fish and pound the corn; the boatmen rowing to the rhythm of
their songs; and we have tried to show you that everybody loved
songs as much when they worked as when they danced. Haven’t you,
too, hummed or sung while working? People who accompany dish
cloths and dusters with songs work better!
American negroes have used song to ease their work in the hot
sunny fields. They not only sang, but men were hired to sing and act
as song leaders in the slave days, to set the pace for workers, for
more work was done when the slaves moved to the rhythm of music.
In modern factories today, music is used to relieve the drudgery.
In Southern States the stevedores sing as they unload and load
ships. And haven’t you often heard a rhythmic sound uttered by men
hauling ropes on ships or buildings?
The world over, sailors have their songs and dances, farmers their
reaping and planting songs, spinners and weavers their songs,
boatmen songs like those on the Nile and the Volga boat song.
While few Greek folk songs have come down to our time, we know
that they had songs for reaping the harvest, for grinding the barley,
for threshing the wheat, for pressing the grapes, for spinning wool,
and for weaving. They also had the songs of the shoemaker, the dyer,
of the bath-master, the water carrier, of the shepherd, etc.
There are innumerable spinning songs of all nationalities, and
shepherds’ songs,—you probably know the French Il etait une
Bergère.
In Africa, we hear that the workers when cleaning rice were led by
singers, who clapped their hands and stamped their feet to
accompany the song. One man reports that he heard the negro
women singing a national song in chorus, while pounding wheat
always in time with the music.
Charles Peabody tells of a leader in a band of slaves in America
who was besought by his companions not to sing a certain song
because it made them work too hard!
 The difference between the negro songs and the labor songs of
other peoples and places is, that the negroes had no special labor
songs but sang their religious songs, which they adapted to all
purposes and occasions, while the true labor song was composed to
fit the occasion.
In old England we hear of the “Labor-lilts” which were all work
songs of spinners, milk-maids and shepherds. And we must not
neglect the old night-watchman whom we meet in Wagner’s Die
Meistersinger. Neither can we let go by unnoticed the “town-crier”
who told the news, good and bad. The street calls and cries of the
Middle Ages were labor songs, later, in England and in France made
into real compositions.
We, in America, have the old Cow-boy songs, the Mining songs of
California, and the Lumberjack songs of Maine. These are not exactly
labor songs but are first cousins to them.
The stage coach postillons with their fascinating horn calls are
really music of trades or occupations, too. Isn’t it too bad that the
inartistic jangle of the tram-car and the “honk-honk” of the
automobile tear our ears instead of the tuneful hunting horns and
postillon horns which are still occasionally heard in European
forests!
The world’s workers sing to make work slip along easily, so you see
song is a great lubricant.
 (6) Drinking Songs

In the great dining halls of the Middle Ages, when hunting parties
gathered, and guests were received from near and far, or at
Christmas time, when in old Britain the Wassail-bowl flowed freely,
drinking songs were an important part of the banquet. At the
splendid feasts in Rome, drinking songs were popular. In fact, all
over the world there are thousands of this kind of folk song.
The name Wassail dates back to the day when Vortigern, King of
the Britons, visited Hengist, the Saxon. Rowena, Hengist’s daughter
greeted him with, “Was hail hla, ond cyning!” which mean in plain
English, “Be of health, Lord King!” to which the king replied, “Drink
heil” (Drink health).
 The Word Vaudeville

In the second half of the 15th century, two men named Basselin
and Jean de Houx wrote many drinking songs. As they lived in the
little valleys (in French called vaux) near Vire in Normandy, drinking
songs came to be called vaux-de-vire. At the same time, songs that
were sung in the streets, in fact, any folk songs with gay melodies and
light words, were called voix-de-ville, (or voices of the city). So, in
some way, these two terms became mixed, and the familiar word,
vaudeville is the result!
 (7) Dancing Songs

In the folk dance, man shows the feelings and dispositions of his
race. From this dance of the people, all music gradually took a
measured form, a rhythmic thing that is lacking in the song of
primitive people. In primitive times, all dances were sung,
particularly was this the case with the Slav race. As instruments were
perfected, they took the place of primitive drums and singing as
accompaniment to the dance.
The plain chant, and in fact all music of the church, lacked the
element we call rhythm. It followed a metre or measure needed by
the words, but this was much more like talking than like singing.
Even the ornamented chant of the soloists in the churches had no
definiteness of time or of phrase.
Rhythm as we feel it today, occurs in two ways,—through the
singing of verses and through dancing. We must not forget that early
peoples were much like children, and took pleasure in jingles, and in
moving their feet and bodies in repeated motions which became
dances.
It is most fascinating to see that the people who have the saddest
songs, have the gayest and wildest dances! Maybe it is because the
sadder the nation the more need it has for some gay way of forgetting
its woes. The Russians, the Poles, the Norwegians and the people of
all north countries where the songs are minor and tragic, have the
wildest dances. The clothes, too, of the folk in these countries are
decked in colored embroideries, and the decorations of the houses
giddy and jolly. When the Russians get together they forget their
sorrows in wild and almost frenzied dances, and directly after they
will sing songs of deepest gloom.
 Polish Dances

The Poles have several folk dances that are easily recognized by
their rhythm and style. The great Polish composer Chopin used these
folk dances in some of the loveliest piano music ever written. For
more than six centuries they have been used by Polish composers,
yet there are people who say that folk song has no influence on
musical art.
The Polonaise, in ¾ time, a stately dance of the aristocracy and
nobles rather than of the people, began as a folk dance, and is
supposed to have come from the Christmas Carol. The rhythm of the

Polonaise , is easily recognized and followed.

In the early times, these polonaises had no composer’s tag, but were
often named for some Polish hero, and thus show the date in which
they were born.
One Polish writer dates the “courtly” polonaise from 1573. The
year following the election of Henry III of Anjou, a great reception
took place at Cracow, in which all the ladies of high rank marched in
procession past the throne to the sound of a stately dance. This was
the beginning of the stately polonaise, in which old and young took
part, marching all through the great drawing rooms and gardens.
The Mazurka, another very popular Polish dance, is also in ¾
time, but faster than the polonaise, and slower than the waltz. It is
performed by a few couples at a time, two to eight but rarely more.
The accent of the measure falls on the third beat, which distinguishes
it from a waltz.
Other well known Polish dances are the Krakowiak in ²⁄₄ time, the
Kujawiak in ¾ time, the Obertass in ¾ time, the dance of the
mountaineers, called the Kolomyjka in ²⁄₄ time, and the Kosah in ²⁄₄
time. All these dances are fast, and all of them come directly from
folk songs.
 Spanish Dance-Songs

It is very hard to tell which of the Spanish folk pieces are dances
and which at first were songs, because the favorite songs of Spain are
nearly all sung as accompaniments to dancing. Spain had almost as
rich troubadour music as France, because the influence of the
troubadours and of the jongleurs was very strong, Provence being
Spain’s neighbor. In Catalonia the Provençal language has been used
since the 9th century, and the folk music differs from that of other
parts of Spain.
The songs of Spain divide themselves into four groups. The
Basque, the music of Biscay and Navarre, unlike any music of which
we have told you, is irregular in rhythm, melody, and scale, and the
jota is one of its characteristic dances. Galicia and Castile have gay,
bright, strong marked dance rhythms as may be seen from their
characteristic boleros and seguidillas. Andalusian music and that of
Southern Spain is perhaps the most beautiful of all, for here we find
the influence of the Oriental music to a marked degree, in the use of
the scale, in florid ornament, and in the richness of the rhythm; the
dances fandangos, rondeñas and malagueñas are thought to be
finer than the songs. The guitar is the king of instruments in
Andalusia and how Spanish it is! The fourth group of songs is from
Catalonia of French influence and less Spanish than the others.
 The Ballad and the Ballet

In the English language we have the word ballad, which means a

long poem in which a story is told. We also use the French word
ballet, for a dance on the stage. These two words come from the same
root, and show that at one time ballads and dance tunes were
practically the same thing.
The English dance song, the “round” or the same dance in France
called the ronde, was a popular dance for many centuries, some of
which are most amusing and curious. One dance tune from the 12th
century has Latin words; there is also a well known tune, Sellenger’s
Round, from the collection called the Fitzwilliam Virginal Book.
Another famous ballad (dance) was Trenchmore, a good sample of
English folk dance at the end of the 16th century:

Trenchmore

An English writer (how childlike was his fun!) in 1621 says of

Trenchmore, “Who can withstand it? be we young or old, though our
teeth shake in our heads like virginal jacks (see page 310), or stand
parallel asunder like the arches of a bridge, there is no remedy; we
must dance Trenchmore over tables, chairs, and stools!”
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