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GATE MT Mineral Processing and Extractive

material science and engineering (Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology)

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GATE
METALLURGY ENGINEERING
(MT)
Sub: Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy

Chapter 1:
Introduction to Mineral processing

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Sr No Index Page No
1 Introduction to Mineral Processing A1
2 General methods of extraction and refining B4
3 Extraction Process of Non-ferrous metals C4
4 Iron Making D4
5 Steel making E4
6 Introduction to Material balance F4

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Sr No Chapter Name
1 Introduction to Mineral Processing
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Mineral Beneficiation
1.2.1 Benefits of mineral beneficiation
1.3 Principal steps involved in mineral beneficiation
1.4 Comminution
1.5 Sizing
1.6 Density calculation and settling in fluids
1.7 Classification
1.8 Concentration
1.9 Dewatering

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CHAPTER - 1
Introduction to Mineral processing
1.1 Introduction
• In the field of extractive metallurgy, mineral processing, also known as ore dressing, is the
process of separating commercially valuable minerals from their ores.
• The major steps involved in processing of ores:

Geological survey

Mining

Beneficiation

Extraction Process(depending
on the type of ore)

1.2 Mineral Beneficiation

• Mineral beneficiation can be defined as processing of raw materials to yield marketable
products and waste by means of physical or mechanical methods in such a way that the physical
or chemical identity of the minerals is not destroyed.

1.2.1Benefits of mineral beneficiation:

• Freight and handling cost is reduced.
• Cost of extraction is reduced
• Loss of metal in slag is reduced.
• Metal grade of ore increases.
• The thermal energy required to separate liquid metal from gangue materials reduces.
• By doing beneficiation, lean ores (low grade ores) can be made technically suitable for
extraction of metal.

1.3 Steps involved in beneficiation of ores:

(i) Liberation: Detachment or freeing of dissimilar particles from each other i.e. valuable mineral
particles and gangue mineral particles.
(ii) Separation: Actual separation of liberated dissimilar particles i.e, valuable mineral particles and
gangue mineral particles.

1.3.1 Unit operations:

The operations conducted on any material that involve physical changed are termed as Unit Operations.
Mineral processing/beneficiation can involve four general types of unit operation:

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Comminution
Particle size reduction

Sizing
separation of particle sizes by
screening or classification
Concentration
Removal of unwanted
material from ore

Dewatering
solid/liquid separation

In all of these processes, the most important considerations are the economics of the processes and this
is dictated by the grade and recovery of the final product. To do this, the mineralogy of the ore needs to
be considered as this dictates the amount of liberation required and the processes that can occur. The
smaller the particles processes, the greater the theoretical grade and recovery of the final product, but
this however is difficult to do with fine particles as they prevent certain concentration processes from
occurring.

1.4 Comminution
• Comminution is the process, in which solid materials are reduced in size, by crushing, grinding
and other processes.
• It occurs naturally during faulting in the upper part of the Earth's crust and is an important
operation in mineral processing, ceramics, electronics and other fields.
• Within industrial uses, the purpose of comminution is to reduce the size and to increase the
surface area of solids. It is also used to free useful materials from matrix materials in which
they are embedded, and to concentrate minerals.

1.4.1Comminution energy
The comminution of solid materials consumes energy, which is being used to break up the solid into
smaller pieces. The comminution energy can be estimated by:
• Rittinger's law, which assumes that the energy consumed is proportional to the newly
generated surface area.
• Kick's law, which relates the energy to the sizes of the feed particles and the product particles.
• Bond's law, which assumes that the total work useful in breakage is inversely proportional to
the square root of the diameter of the product particles, implying theoretically that the work
input varies with the length of the new cracks made in breakage.
• Holmes's law, which modifies Bond's law by substituting the square root with an exponent that
depends on the material.

1.4.2 Forces involved in Comminution

Fracture in the particles occurs as a result of application of force. When a force is applied on a
particle, stress will develop within the particle.

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Fig 1.1 Forces involved in Comminution

Types of forces:
(i) Compression or normal impact:
Compressive forces can be applied in two ways:
(a) Slow compression:
• Under the condition of slow loading/ compression, energy applied is just sufficient to load
comparatively few regions of the particle to the fracture point and only a few particles result.
• Their size is comparatively close to the original particle size.
(b) Fast/rapid compression:
• Under the condition of rapid loading, such as high velocity impact, many areas in the particle
are overloaded and the result is that comparatively with a wide size distribution. Impact causes
immediate fracture with no residual stresses.
(ii) Oblique Impact:
• This type of fracture is chipping. In this chipping, the edges or corners of a particle will break
due to the application of oblique forces, generally impact forces on the particle.

(iii) Attrition:
• Attrition or abrasion fracture occurs when a force (shear force) acts parallel to the surface of
the particle. Due to insufficient energy applied on the particle, localised stress occurs and a
small area is fractured to give very fine particles.

1.4.3 Comminution operations:

The comminution operation is divided into two main groups:

Crushing

• Crushing is a size reduction operation wherein large lumps

are reduced to fragments or smaller particles. It is generally a
dry operation.

Grinding

• Grinding is considered as size reduction of relatively coarse

particles to the ultimate fringes.

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NOTE:

The machines used for crushing and grinding are entirely different. The energy required for unit mass
of smaller particles is more than the energy required for unit mass of coarser particles. However, the
energy required to reduce coarser particles is more than that of smaller particles. Hence, the machines
used for crushing (crushers) must be massive and rugged and the machines used for grinding (mills)
must be capable of dispersing energy over a large area.

In crushers, the breaking forces are applied either by compression or impact whereas in grinding
mills, shear forces are predominantly applied.

1.4.4 Types of Crushers:

• A crusher is a machine designed to reduce large rocks into smaller rocks, gravel, or rock
dust. Crushers may be used to reduce the size, or change the form, of waste materials so
they can be more easily disposed of or recycled, or to reduce the size of a solid mix of raw
materials (as in rock ore), so that pieces of different composition can be differentiated.
• The crushing action in the crushing machines (crushers) results from forces applied to the
particles by some moving part working against a stationary or some other moving part.
• It is the first stage in size reduction.
• It has to crush run-of-mine ore which contains large size particles. It requires greater force
to be applied on the particles.
• It is generally a dry operation and is usually performed in two or three stages.

(i) Jaw crusher

Fig 1.2 Jaw crusher

A jaw or toggle crusher uses compressive force for breaking of particles.

• A jaw crusher consists of vertical jaws; one jaw is kept stationary and is called a fixed jaw,
while the other jaw called a swing jaw, moves back and forth relative to it.
• The volume or cavity between the two jaws is called the crushing chamber. The movement of
the swing jaw is quite small, since complete crushing is not performed in one stroke.
• The inertia required to crush the material is provided by a weighted flywheel that moves a shaft
creating an eccentric motion that causes the closing of the gap.
• Single and double toggle jaw crushers are constructed of heavy-duty fabricated plate frames
with reinforcing ribs throughout. The crusher’s components are of high strength design to
accept high power draw. Manganese steel is used for both fixed and movable jaw faces. Heavy
flywheels allow crushing peaks on tough materials. Double Toggle jaw crushers may feature
hydraulic toggle adjusting mechanisms.

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• Jaw crushers are classified by the method of pivoting the swing jaw:

i. Blake crusher: If the swing jaw is pivoted at the top, it has a fixed receiving area and
variable discharge area and is known as a Blake crusher.
ii. Dodge crusher: If the swing jaw is pivoted at the bottom, it has a fixed discharge area
and variable receiving area and is known as a Dodge crusher.
iii. Universal crusher: If the swing jaw is pivoted at an intermediate position, it has both
variable receiving and discharge areas and is known as a Universal crusher.

(ii) Gyratory crusher

Fig 1.3 Gyratory Crusher

• A gyratory crusher is similar in basic concept to a jaw crusher, consisting of a concave surface
and a conical head; both surfaces are typically lined with manganese steel surfaces.
• The inner cone has a slight circular movement, but does not rotate; the movement is generated
by an eccentric arrangement. As with the jaw crusher, material travels downward between the
two surfaces being progressively crushed until it is small enough to fall out through the gap
between the two surfaces.
• A gyratory crusher is one of the main types of primary crushers in a mine or ore processing
plant. Gyratory crushers are designated in size either by the gape and mantle diameter or by the
size of the receiving opening.
• Gyratory crushers can be used for primary or secondary crushing. The crushing action is caused
by the closing of the gap between the mantle line (movable) mounted on the central vertical
spindle and the concave liners (fixed) mounted on the main frame of the crusher. The gap is
opened and closed by an eccentric on the bottom of the spindle that causes the central vertical
spindle to gyrate. The vertical spindle is free to rotate around its own axis.
• The crusher illustrated is a short-shaft suspended spindle type, meaning that the main shaft is
suspended at the top and that the eccentric is mounted above the gear. The short-shaft design
has superseded the long-shaft design in which the eccentric is mounted below the gear

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(iii) Cone crusher

Fig 1.4 Cone Crusher

• A cone crusher is similar in operation to a gyratory crusher, with less steepness in the crushing
chamber and more of a parallel zone between crushing zones.
• It breaks the rocks by squeezing it between the gyrating spindles. These spindles are fully
covered with resistant mantle and a manganese bowl liner covers the hooker.
• Rocks get squeezed at the same moment when it enters in between the bowl liner and mantle.
Only one time breaking is carried out of larger pieces of rocks from ore.
• Broken pieces of rocks fall down to the next position where it is broken again. The same process
continues until the broken pieces become small enough so that it can pass through the narrow
opening that is at the bottom of the Cone Crusher.

(iv) Roll crusher

Fig 1.5 Roll crusher

• Roll crusher consists of two cylindrical rolls revolving towards each other and the feed material
is fed in between the rolls and pulled downward through the rolls by friction.
• In case of role crusher, the material is crushed only ones while it is passing through the crushing
chamber.
• Production of fines is minimum. They can handle friable, wet, sticky and less abrasive feeds
well.

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(v) Impact crushers:

Fig 1.6 Impact crusher

• Impact crushers reduce the particles by impact forces applied through sharp blows of fixed or
free-swinging hammers revolving about central rotor at high speed to the free-falling particles
against stationary surfaces.
• They are used for relatively soft, friable and sticky ones such as phosphates, limestone, clay,
graphite and coal.

1.4.5 Type of grinding mill:

• Grinding is the last stage of comminution process. It is performed in rotating steel vessels
known as tumbling mills or grinding mills.
• Grinding mills can be operated wet, dry, batch wise or continuously.

(i) Ball mills:

Fig 1.7 Ball mill

• A ball mill also known as pebble mill or tumbling mill is a milling machine that consists of a
hollow cylinder containing balls; mounted on a metallic frame such that it can be rotated along
its longitudinal axis.
• As the mill rotates, the balls are lifted to certain height and then dropped. Grinding of ore
particles takes place due to simple rolling of one ball over the other (cascading) and by the free
fall of balls (cataracting)
• Cascading leads to fine grinding whereas cataracting lead to coarse grinding
• As the speed of the mill increases, the balls are lifted higher and a stage is reached where the
balls are carried around the shell and never allowed to fall. That means centrifuging occurs.
The balls will rotate as they are the part of the shell. The speed at which centrifuging occurs is
known as critical speed.

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(The "Critical Speed" for a grinding mill is defined as the rotational speed where centrifugal
force equals gravitational force at the mill shell is inside surface. This is the rotational speed
where balls will not fall away from the mill's shell.)

(ii) Rod mill

Fig 1.8 Rod mill

• The rod mill is a tumbling mill but having a large percentage of its volume (30-40%) loaded
with steel rods. The rods are placed axially in the mill and are loose and free to move within
the mill.
• The internal lining of the drum has a series of lifters which raise the rods and drop them at a
predetermined point
• The mineral is fed in at one end with a maximum size of about 25mm. The rods crush the rock
and as the charge passes through the mill it is reduced in size to approximately 2 mm to 0.1
mm.
• The mill can be fed from one end with the product removed from the other end or alternatively,
the mill can be fed from both ends with the discharge at the centre.
• The process can be wet or dry but is more commonly carried out wet.
• Maximum rod length is about 6 to 7 metres; otherwise, there is a risk of the rods blowing. The
drum diameter is limited to 0.6 or 0.7 times the length of the mill.

Working Principle of rod mill

• The rod mill is a horizontal rotating device transmitted by the outer gear. The materials are
transferred to the grinding chamber through the quill shaft uniformly.
• There are ladder liner and ripple liner and different specifications of ceramic ball in the
chamber. The centrifugal force caused by rotation of barrel brings the ceramic ball to a certain
height and impact and grind the materials. The ground materials are discharged through the
discharging board Thus, the grinding process is finished.

(iii) Tube mill or pebble mill

1.5 Sizing
Separation of mineral particles by screening or classification
Size of a particle is an important consideration in mineral beneficiation because of the following
reasons:
• Energy consumed for reducing the size of the particle depends on size.
• Size of the particle determines the type of size reduction equipment, beneficiation and other
equipment to be employed.

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1.5.1Sieve analysis
• A sieve analysis is a practice or procedure used to assess the particle size distribution of
mineral ore by allowing the material to pass through a series of sieves of progressively smaller
mesh size and weighing the amount of material that is stopped by each sieve as a fraction of
the whole mass.
• Standard test sieves are used in the mineral industry to measure the size of the small and the
fine particles.
• Sieve analysis is performed to determine the percentage weight of closely sized fraction by
allowing the sample material to pass through a series of test sieves. Sieving can be done by
hand or by machine.
• Sieving is generally done dry. Wet sieving is used when the material is in the form of slurry.
When little moisture is present, a combination of wet and dry sieving is performed by initially
adding water.

1.5.1.1 Sieve analysis for particle size distribution

Important terms related to sieve analysis
I. Test Sieve: It is a circular shell of brass having an 8-inch diameter and is about 2 inch high.
II. Sieve cloth: It is made up of wire, woven to produce nominally uniform cloth apertures
(openings). The sieve cloth is placed in the bottom of the shell so that the material can be held
on the sieve.
III. Aperture: It is a distance between two parallel wires.
IV. Mesh number: It is the number of apertures per linear inch. Sieves are designated by mesh
number.
V. Mesh size: It is the size of the aperture i.e., the distance between the two parallel lines. As mesh
number increases, mesh size decreases.

Testing method
• The sieves chosen for the test are arranged in a stack or nest, starting from the coarsest sieve at
the top and finest at the bottom.
• A pan or receiver is placed below the bottom sieve to receive the final undersize, and a lid is
placed on top of the coarsest sieve to prevent escape of the sample.
• The material collected on each sieve is removed and weighed. The complete set of values is
known as Particle size distribution.

Particle Size distribution: It refers to the manner in which particles are quantitatively distributed
among various sizes (a statistical relation between quantity and size)
• The weight percentages of the material retained on each sieve are to be calculated to form
differential analysis.
• Cumulative weight percentage retained is obtained from differential analysis by adding,
cumulatively, the individual differential weight percentages from the top of the table.
Cumulative weight percentage passing is obtained by adding, cumulatively, the individual
weight percentages from the bottom of the table.
• All the fractions are fairly closely sized (except first fraction). Hence the size of the particles in
each fraction may be calculated as arithmetic mean of the limiting sizes.

1200 + 710
For example, the size of -14 + 22 mesh fraction is = 955 microns.
2

It means, the particles which pass through 14 mesh and retain on 22 mesh are having the mean
size of 955 microns. Similarly the mean sizes of each fraction are to be calculated. Table 4.3
shows all values.
• The average size of the material is determined by using the following simple arithmetic formula

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100
 Average size =
w
 di
i

Where w is the weight percent of the material retained by the sieve and d is the mean size of
the material retained by the same sieve.

Mesh Number Retained mesh size

in Weight of material
microns gm
+14 1200 02.5
-14+22 710 18.0
-22+30 500 18.5
-30+44 355 21.0
-44+60 250 27.5
-60+72 210 36.0
-72+100 150 31.5
-100+150 105 26.0
-150+200 74 18.5
-200 50.5
+ Sign designates particles retained on that sieve.
- Sign designates particles passed through that sieve.

Particle size distribution data from size analysis tests

Mesh Retained Mean size Weight gm Wt% Cum wt% Cum wt%
Number mesh size di microns retained wi retained passing W
microns
100.0
+14 1200 1200 02.5 1.0 1.0 99.0
-14+22 710 955 18.0 7.2 8.2 91.8
-22+30 500 605 18.0 7.4 15.6 84.4
-30+44 355 427.5 21.0 8.4 24.0 76.0
-44+60 250 302.5 27.5 11.0 35.0 65.0
-60+72 210 230 36.0 14.4 49.4 50.6
-72+100 150 180 31.5 12.6 62.0 38.0
-100+150 105 127.5 26.0 10.4 72.4 27.6
-150+200 74 89.5 18.5 7.4 79.8 20.2
-200 37 50.5 20.2 100.0
250.0 100.0
Calculated values for particle size distribution

Graphical presentation of particle size distribution data

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Presentation of Particle Size Distribution Data

• Particle size distribution date is best presented for use in the form of graphs. The simplest
method is to plot a histogram of the weight percent of the material in the size interval against
the size interval.
• When the size intervals are small enough, the histogram can be presented as a continuous curve
taking the middle points of the histogram. In other words, a graph is plotted between the weight
percent of the material as ordinate and the arithmetic mean size as abscissa. It is called a linear
scale frequency plot. It gives the quantitative picture of the relative distribution of the material
over the entire size range.
• In many cases, the data is more commonly plotted as cumulative weight percent passing versus
actual size of opening. It is called a linear scale cumulative plot

1.5.1.2Applications of particle size distribution data

I. Comparative efficiencies of comminution units by relating the work done and the product sizes
can be studied.
II. Particle surface areas can be calculated from size analysis.
III. Power required to crush and/or grind an ore for a given feed size to a given product size can be
estimated from size analyses of the feed and the products.
IV. The calculation of the sizing efficiency of a classifier or cyclone can be closely estimated from
size analyses of the feed and the products.

[GATE 2017]

The sieve analysis of ground quartz particles is given in the table below.

Sieve size (mm) Mass fraction of ground product retained on each sieve
4.76 0.0
3.36 0.2
2.38 0.4
1.68 0.3
1.19 0.08
< 1.19 0.02
The cumulative mass fraction of particles of size less than 1.68 mm is ____.
(answer up to two decimal places)

Ans: (0.09 – 0.11)

Explanation:

Sieve size (mm) Mass fraction of ground product Cumulative mass fraction of
retained on each sieve particles
4.76 0.0 1.0
3.36 0.2 1.0 – 0.2 = 0.8
2.38 0.4 0.8 – 0.4 = 0.4
1.68 0.3 0.4 – 0.3 = 0.1
1.19 0.08 0.1 – 0.08 = 0.02
<1.19 0.02 0.02 – 0.02 = 0.0
So, the cumulative mass fraction of particles of size less than 1.68 is 0.1

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1.5.2 Screening
• Screening is an operation used for the separation of particles according to their sizes.
• It is an industrial process.
• In industrial screening, the particles of various sizes are fed to the screen surface. The material
passing through the screen aperture is called underflow (undersize or fines) while the material
retained on the screen surface is called overflow (oversize or coarse).

1.5.2.1 Purpose of screening:

Industrial screening is used:
I. To remove oversize material before it is sent to the next unit operation.
II. To remove undersize material before it is sent to next unit operation which is set to treat.
1.5.2.2 Difference between Screening and Sieving:
Screening Sieving
i. Screening is an operation used for the i. Sieving is a batch process and is used for test
separation of particles according to their sizes. purposes.
Screening is a continuous process and is used
mainly on an industrial scale.
ii. Screens can be manufactured with any ii. Sieves are manufactured with definite
dimension and any aperture sizes as per the dimensions and standard aperture sizes.
requirement.

1.5.2.3 Factors affecting the rate of screening:

Material Factors:
I. Bulk density of the material
II. Size and size distribution of the particles
III. Size of the particle relative to the apertures.
IV. Shape of the particle.
V. Moisture content of the material
Machine factors:
I. Size of the apertures
II. Shape of the apertures
III. Size of the screen surface
IV. Percent opening area
V. Speed at which particles strike the screen surface
VI. Angle of the incidence of the particle on the screen surface.
VII. Type of screening- dry/wet
VIII. Type of motion given to the screen surface.

1.5.2.4 Capacity of an industrial Screen

• The capacity of an industrial screen is defined as the quantity of material screened per unit
surface area of the screen and is expressed as tons/hr/m2.
• The capacity of screen depends upon-
I. Area of the screen surface
II. The size of the screen aperture
III. Characteristics of an ore
IV. The type of screening mechanism used.
• Efficiency and capacity are opposite to each be increased at the expense of efficiency and vice
versa. It means that as the capacity increases, efficiency decreases and as the capacity
decreases, efficiency increases.

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1.6 Density calculation and settling in fluids:

Density is an important consideration next to the size of the particle. It is defined as the mass of the
particle per unit volume.

Most of the mineral beneficiation operations are wet. Water is added to the ore particles to aid
beneficiation.

Important terms:
I. Pulp: The mixture of water and solid particles is known as pulp.
II. Suspension: When the solid particles are held up in water, the pulp is called suspension.
III. Slurry: A mixture of fine solids (slime and water)
IV. Sludge: Thick pulp i.e., pulp with less quantity of water.

1.6.1 Density calculation

• Pulp or slurry density is usually measured in terms of the weight of the slurry per unit volume
(g /cc or kg/cc)
 mass 
 Density = 
 volume 
• The composition of slurry is often represented as the fraction (or percent) of solids by weight.
Now, let
(I) Fraction of solids particles by weight, Xpw
(II) Fraction of solids particles by volume, (Xpv)
weight of particles
X pw =
weight of slurry
Volume of particles
X pv =
Volume of slurry
(III) Density of water 𝜌𝑤
(IV)Density of dry solids particles 𝜌𝑝
(V) Density of slurry 𝜌𝑠𝑙

Volume conservation: -
Now the total volume of the slurry is equal to the total volume of the solids plus the volume of the
water, then for unit volume of slurry.
V p + VW = Vse
X pw 1− X p 1
+ =
p w  Sl
 1 1  1 1
X pw  − + =
  P  w   w  sl
P − w
  Sl =
 p + X pw (  w −  P )
 P (  sl −1)
and X pw =
 sl (  p −1)
g
( w = 1 or 1000 kg / m3 )
cc

1.6.2 Settling of solids in fluids:

One of the most effective techniques used for the separation of fine particles is sedimentation.
(Sedimentation is the act of settling of solid particles in a fluid medium under the force of gravity)

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1.6.2.1Principles of settling
• Consider a single homogeneous spherical particle of diameter ‘d’ density (𝜌𝑝 ) falling under
gravity in a viscous fluid of density ‘(𝜌𝑓 )’ and viscosity ‘𝜇𝑓 ’.Let the particle is falling in a
stationary fluid extending in all directions to infinity in a uniform field of force.
• There are three forces acting on a particle: -
(I) Gravity force (mass of the particle mpg)
(II) Buoyant force (mass of the fluid mfg)
(III) Drag force (R) i.e. resistance to the motion (drag force depends on the velocity of the
particle)
• Now according to Newton’s second law of motion, the equation of motion of the particle is,
Force = mass  acceleration
dv
mp g − m f g − R = mp
dt
Where V is the velocity of the particle
dv
is the acceleration due to gravity
dt
• If the drag, or resistance force becomes equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the
resultant of the other two forces (gravity and buoyancy) acting on a particle in a fluid, the
acceleration of the particle will be zero and the velocity becomes constant. This velocity is the
maximum velocity attained by the particle. It is known as maximum velocity or terminal
velocity.
• When acceleration is zero, the particle attains the terminal velocity.
dv
Hence, =0 (1)
dt
dv
 mpg - mfg - R = mp (2)
dt
mpg - mfg -R = 0 (3)
 R = g (mp - mf)
 
R = g  dp3  p − dp3  f 
6 6 
Since, the particle is assumed to be sphere

R = g d 3p (  p −  f ) (4)
6

Assumptions: -
(a) When dp< 50  m (Viscous force)
Now by Stoke’s law
R = 3 d p  f V (5)
Replace V by Vt
From 4 and 5
Vt = terminal velocity of the particle
3 d p  f Vt =  g d3 ( −  )
6 p p f

→ Vt =
gd 2
p ( P − f ) (6)
18

The nature of the resistance (or drag) depends on the velocity of descent. At low velocity, motion is
smooth because the layer of fluid in contact with the body moves with it, while the fluid, a short
distance away, is motionless. Between these two positions is a zone of intense shear in the fluid all

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around the descending particle. Hence, the resistance to the motion is due to the shear force or
viscosity of the fluid and is called viscous resistance.

(b) When dp< 2 mm (turbulent force)

As the size of the particle increases, settling velocity increases. At high velocity, the main
resistance is due to the displacement of fluid by the particle and is known as turbulent
resistance.
By Newton’s equation
R = 0.055 d p2 V 2  f (7)
Now by replacing V by Vt we get,

0.055 d 2 Vt 2  f = g d 3p (  P −  f )
6
3gd p (  P −  f )
Vt = (8)
f
The coarser, heavier and rounder particles settle faster than the finer lighter and more angular
particles.) If two particles have same specific gravity(𝝆𝒑 ),than the particle having larger diameter
(d p ) has higher terminal velocity (Vt ) . If two particles have the same diameter, then the heavier
particle has higher terminal velocity.

[GATE 2018]

The terminal velocity (v) of a spherical inclusion of diameter D = 50 m rising in liquid steel is ____.
(in mm s–1 to two decimal places)
Assume, Stokes' law, i.e., drag force,
Fd= 3Dv , where  is the viscosity of steel. [Given: Density of liquid steel = 7900 kg m –3,
Viscosity of liquid steel = 0.0079 Pa-s; Density of the inclusion = 2500kg m–3; Acceleration due to
gravity = 9.8 m s–2.]

Ans: (0.9 – 1.0)

Explanation:
It is given that
Drag force (Fd) = 3   D v
Density of liquid steel (  P ) = 7900 Kg m-3
Density of the inclusion (  f ) = 2500 kg m-3
Acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 ms-2
Diameter of spherical inclusion D = 50  m
Viscosity of liquid steel  = 0.0079 Pa – s
According to Stoke’s law,

gD 2 (  P −  f )
Terminal velocity Vt =
18 
9.8  ( 50 10−6 ) ( 7900 − 2500 )
2

➔ Vt =
18  0.0079
➔ Vt = 0.93 mm/s

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1.6.2.2 Types of Settling

Types of Settling

Free Settling Hindered Settling

Fig 1.9 (a) Free settling (b) Hindered Settling

(i) Free Settling (classification is based on size)

• In a large volume of fluid, when the particle settles by its own specific gravity, size and shape
and is not influenced by the surrounding particles as the particles are not crowded. Such a
settling process is called free settling.
• Free setting predominates in well dispersed pulps where the percent of solids by caught is less
than 10%.

(ii) Hindered settling (classification is based on densities)

• When the particles settle in a small volume of fluid, they are crowded in the pulp and are very
close to each other. As a result, the influenced by particles is influenced by surrounding
particles. Such a settling process is called hindered settling.
• In this type of settling, the particles collide with each other during their settling and this collision
affects their settling velocities. Thus, lower settling velocity is predominant and occur.
• Hindered settling predominates when the percent of solids by weight is more than 15%.
• It is evident that heavier or lighter particles can be separated when they settle by hindered
settling. This is possible because hindered settling reduces the effect of size and increases the
effect of specific gravity.
Equal settling particles: Particles are said to have equal settling if they have the same
terminal velocity in the same fluid and in the same fluid of force.

1.6.2.3 Settling ratio

• Settling ratio is the ratio of the sizes of two particles of different specific gravities that falls at
equal rates (same terminal velocity)
• Under free settling conditions settling ratio is known as free settling can be obtained by
equating the terminal velocity of different sizes.

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• Now let dp1 and dp2 be the diameter of lighter and heavier particles and (𝜌𝑝1 ) and(𝜌𝑝2 ) be the
densities of lighter and heaving particles respectively.

(a) By Stoke’s law of settling [when d  50  m (fine particles)]

Vt1 = Vt2 = Vt ( say )
gd p12 (  p1 −  f ) g d p22 (  p 2 −  f )
Vt = =
18  f 18  f
gd 2
P1 ( P1 −f ) =
gd 2
P2 ( P2 −f )
18  f 18  f
d 2
P −  f
 =
P1 2

d 2
2 P −  f
1

Free Settling ratio

1
d P1  P −  f  2

= 2  (9)
d P2  P −  f 
 1 

(b) By newton’s law of settling [When d< 2 mm (coarse particles)]

Vt1 = Vt2 = Vt ( say )

(
3g d P1  P1 −  f ) =
3gd P2  P2 −  P1 ( )
f f
d P1 P −  f
 = 2

d P2 P −  f
1

d P1 P −  f
Hindered Settling ratio = 2

d P2 P −  f 1

(10)

Note:
The general equation deduced from equation (9) and (10) is
n
d P1   P2 −  f 
=  
d P2  P −  f 
 1 
 when n = 1 (for coarse particles → Newton’s law)
 when n = 0.5 (for fine particles Stoke’s law)

1.7 Classification
Classification is a method of separation of different sizes, densities and specific gravities into two or
more products on the basis of the velocity with which the particles fall through a fluid medium i.e.
settling velocity.

The basic principle of classification is:

The more coarse, heavier and rounder particles settle faster than the finer, lighter and more angular
particles.

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Classifiers
The units in which the separation of solids in fluid medium is carried out are known as classifiers.

Types of
Classifiers

Sizing Sorting Centrifugal

Spiral Hydraulic
Rake Classifier Hydrocyclone
Classifier Classifier

(i) Sizing Classifiers

Sizing classifiers employ the free settling conditions to increase the effect of size.

Types of sizing classifier:

(a) Spiral Classifier:
• The spiral classifiers consist of a semi-cylindrical trough (a trough which is semi-circular in
cross-section) inclined to the horizontal.
• The trough is provided with a slow-rotating spiral conveyor and a liquid overflow at the lower
end.
• The spiral conveyer moves the solid upwards (those solids which settle at the bottom) towards
the top of the trough.
• Slurry is fed continuously near the middle of the trough.
• The slurry feed rate is so adjusted that fines do not have time to settle and are carried out with
the overflow liquid.
• Heavy particles have time to settle, they settle at the bottom of the trough and the spiral
conveyor moves the settled solids upward along the floor of the trough towards the top of the
trough from a sand discharge chute.

Fig 1.10 Spiral Classifiers

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(b) Rake Classifiers:

Fig 1.11 Rake classifiers

(Rake classifiers are same as Spiral classifiers; instead of spiral, rakes are placed)

(ii) Sorting classifiers:

Sorting classifiers employ the hindered settling conditions to increase the effect of density rather than
size.

Hydraulic Classifier:

Fig 1.12 Hydraulic Classifier

• The feed slurry is introduced centrally near the top of the first sorting column. A current of
water is introduced at the bottom of the sorting column at a velocity slightly less than the
velocity of the smallest heavy particle among the particles required to be discharge in the first
sorting column.
• All those particles having settling velocity less than the velocity of the rising water velocity
will not settle and rise to the top of the column and fed to the second column.
• The particles having the settling velocity more than that of the rising velocity will fed to the
bottom of the first column and discharge through the spigot.
• The velocity of the hydraulic water in the second sorting column is less than that of the velocity
in the first sorting column so the particles will settle at the bottom of the second column.
• Similarly, the particles with still low velocity will settle in the third column and remaining
particles are obtained as overload from the third sorting column.

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(iii) Centrifugal classifiers

Fig 1.13 Hydrocyclone

• The principle of operation of the Hydrocyclone is based on the concept of the terminal settling
velocity of a solid particle in a centrifugal field. The feed enters tangentially into the
cylindrical section of the Hydrocyclone and follows a circulating path with an inward flow of
fluid from the outside to the vortex finder on the axis.
• The circulating velocities are very high and these generate large centrifugal fields inside the
Hydrocyclone. The centrifugal field is usually high enough to create an air core on the axis
that often extends from the spigot opening at the bottom of the conical section through the
vortex finder to the overflow at the top. In order for this to occur, the centrifugal force field
must be many times larger than the gravitational field
• Particles that experience this centrifugal field will tend to move outwards relative to the carrier
fluid because of their relatively greater density. The larger, heavier particles will migrate
rapidly to the outside walls of the cylindrical section and will then be forced to move
downward on the inside of the conical wall.
• Small, light particles, on the other hand will be dragged inwards by the fluid as it moves toward
the vortex finder. The drag force experienced by any particle will be a complex function of
the hydrodynamic conditions inside the Hydrocyclone and the shape and size of the particle.

1.8Concentration
The process of removal of unwanted material from the ore is known as concentration.

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1.8.1Different methods of concentration

Concentratio
n methods

Gravity Electrostati
Magnetic Froth
concentrati c
Separation flotation
on separation

Heavy
media Jigging Tabling
separation

1.8.1.1Gravity Concentration
(a) Heavy media separation

Fig 1.14 Schematic representation of Heavy media separation

• The sink and float method or separation process is known as Heavy Media Separation.
• This process is used for separating a mixture of two products having differentials in specific
gravity by immersing the sample in a heavy liquid having a gravity intermediate to those of the
products to be separated.
• The medium used is a suspension in water of a finely ground heavy mineral such as magnetite
or ferrosilicon. When ground ores are fed into the suspension, the gangue particles having a
lower density tend to float and are removed as tailings whereas the particles of valuable
minerals having higher density sink and are also removed.

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(b) Jigging

Fig 1.15 Jigging process

• Jigging is a method of gravitational preparation of ores, based on separation of mineral mixture

on density in vertically oscillating water stream of variable direction.
• In this process, a water stream is pulsed or moved by pistons upward and downward, through
the material bed. Under the influence of this oscillating motion, the bed is separated into layers
of different densities, the heaviest concentrate forming the lowest layer and the lightest product
the highest.

(c) Tabling

Fig 1.16 Tabling Process

• In tabling, an inclined flat surface is divided into narrow strips by riffles of wood so as to form
parallel channels.
• The tables are subject to shaking horizontally which are vibrated back and forth at right angles
to the flow of water.
• As the ore suspension flows across the vibrating table, the light particles are carried farther than
the heavy particles across the rifles in the direction of water flow and the heavy particles are
carried length wise, along the rifles to the discharge end. Thus, channels that are closer to the
feed inlet than others receive the coarser particles.

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1.8.1.2Magnetic Separation

Fig 1.17 Magnetic Separation

• This method is used to separate one mineral from the other based on their magnetic property.
• This is used to separate ferromagnetic minerals from paramagnetic minerals or diamagnetic
minerals.
• In this operation, a continuous stream of ore is simultaneously subjected to both magnetic and
gravitational fields.

1.8.1.3 Electrostatic Separation

Fig 1.18 Electrostatic Separation

• The electrostatic method separated particles of different electrical charges.

• When particles of different polarity are brought into an electric field, they follow different
motion trajectories and, in this way, they can be separated.
• Heavy mineral sands such as zircon, rutile and monazite can be concentrated using this method
as well. This method can also be used for the cleaning of iron ore and cassiterite concentrates.

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1.8.1.4 Froth flotation

Fig 1.19 Froth flotation

• Froth flotation is a process for selectively separating hydrophobic materials from hydrophilic.
• This process is extensively used for the concentration of fine particles.
• The majority of the ores mined at present require fine grinding for a high degree of liberation
of valuable minerals and thus, the flotation becomes the only possible means of higher grades
and recoveries.
• Flotation treatment is extensively applied to the concentration of metalliferous minerals, both
sulphides and oxides. Ores of lead, zinc and copper are upgraded by flotation operation.

[GATE 2013]

Match the unit operation in Group I with its corresponding principle in Group II.

Group I Group II
P. Jigging 1. 1. Modification of surface tension
Q. Tabling 2. 2. Difference in density
R. Heavy media separation 3. Differential initial acceleration
S. Flotation 4. 4. Differential lateral movement
a) P-3, Q-4, R-2, S-1 b) P-2, Q-3. R-1, S-4 c) P-4, Q-2, R-3, S-1 d) P-1, Q-3, R-2, S-4

Ans: (a)
Explanation:
Group I Group II
P. Jigging Differential initial
acceleration
Q. Tabling Differential lateral
movement
R. Heavy media Difference in density
separation
S. Flotation Modification of
surface tension

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Contact angle:
• Contact angle (  ) is an angle of contact of an air bubble with the surface of a solid measured
across the water. It is a convenient measure of the forces of adhesion between the bubble and
the solid surface.
• The contact angle marks the position of equilibrium between the solid – water and water – air
surface on a wetted surface i.e., it is the position of equilibrium between three tension forces;
the surface tension of water TWA, surface tension of solid mineral TMA and interfacial tension
TMW between the solid mineral and water.
• If the surface tension of the solid mineral TMA is more, the water is pulled over the solid till an
acute angle  is reached, when the component of water tension TWA together with the
interfacial tension TMW is sufficient to bring about equilibrium. Under these conditions, the
solid shows a preference for water.
• If the interfacial tension TMW is greater, the water will be drawn back and an obtuse angle will
form. Under these conditions, the solid shows a preference for air.
•

Fig 1.20 Contact angle and the three-phase contact in a captive bubble system

When the solid shows affinity for water TMA = TMW + TWAcos 
When the solid shows affinity for air TMW = TMA + TWAcos 

Therefore, TWA cos  is a measure of degree of wetting.

• When the contact angle is nil,  = 0, cos  = 1, the degree of wetting is maximum.
• When the contact angle is 180O,  = 180O, cos  = -1, the water will contract its extent and the
degree of wetting is at a minimum.
• Since there is always some adhesion between solids and liquids in contact, there is no such
thing as complete non-wettability, i.e a contact angle of 180O.
• Adherence of the mineral particle to the air bubble depends on contact angle. As the contact
angle increases, adherence increases and hence floatability increases. Minerals with high
contact angle are called aerophilic (hydrophobic), i.e., they have higher affinity for air than for
water. Most minerals are aerophilic (hydrophobic) in their natural state.
• To make the valuable mineral particles aerophilic, reagents called collectors are added to the
pulp which adsorb on mineral surfaces, increases contact angle and facilitates bubble
attachment. Many freshly formed mineral surfaces exhibit a natural contact angle of a few
degrees. Graphite and some coals have high contact angle to float without aid of a collector.
They are said to have natural floatability.

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[GATE 2015]

In froth flotation, hydrophobic mineral particles ascend with air bubbles preferentially over
hydrophilic mineral particles. The figure below shows a schematic of a water droplet placed on the
surfaces of two minerals P and Q.
Given this information, pick the CORRECT statement from the following:

a) Mineral P ascends with air bubbles preferentially over mineral Q.

b) Mineral Q ascends with air bubbles preferentially over mineral P.
c) Both minerals P and Q ascend with the air bubbles without preference.
d) Both minerals P and Q sink to the bottom.

Ans: (a)

Flotation reagents
Flotation reagents are substances added to the ore pulp prior to or during flotation in order to make it
possible to float valuable mineral particles and not to float the gangue mineral particles.

Flotation
Reagents

Collectors Frothers Modifiers

pH
Depressants Activators
regulators

(i) Collectors
A collector is a chemical reagent, acid, base or salt and is heteropolar in nature, the polar part of it has
an affinity towards a specific mineral and the non-polar part has an affinity towards air bubble.
Collectors are added to the pulp and agitated long enough to improve the hydrophobicity of the surface
of the mineral particles.

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Types of
Collectors

Anionic Cationic Oily Collectors

Collectors Collectors

For Sulphide For non

ores sulphide and Amines (a) Petroleum
non silicate (Used for oxide and Products
ores silicate minerals (b) Blast furnace oils
including quartz)
(a) Xanthates (c) Coal Tar
(Sodium or Potassium (a) Fatty acids (d) Wood tar
Xanthates) creosotes
(b) Soaps
(b)Dithiophosphates (Used in the flotation
(also known as of metalliferrous
aerofloats) ores and gold ores)
(c)Dithiocarbamates

(ii) Frother
• A Frother is a chemical reagent and is heteropolar in nature; the polar part of it has an affinity
for water and the non-polar part of it has an affinity for gas or repulsion for water.
• The Frother acts upon the gas-water interface.
• The addition of Frother decreases the surface tension of water and increases the life of bubbles
produced.
• The main objective of a Frother is to permit the production of a sufficiently stable Froth to hold
the mineral particles that form a network around the bubbles until they are removed from the
flotation unit.
• Examples of Frothers are:
(a) Cresylic acid
(b) Pine oil
(c) Methyl Iso butyl Carbinol (MIBC)
(d) Eucalyptus Oil
(e) Camphor Oil
(f) Sagebrush Oil

NOTE:
To have an independent control, the Frother should not have a collecting property. The reagents
having both frothing and collecting properties are known as Frother-Collectors.
Examples of Frother-Collector:
(a) Kerosene
(b) Fatty acids
(c) Amines
(d) Sulphonates

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(iii) Modifiers
Modifiers are used extensively in flotation to modify the action of the collector, either by intensifying
or reducing its water-repellent effect on the mineral surface. Thus, they make collector action more
selective towards certain minerals. Thus, they make collector action more selective towards certain
minerals.

(a)Depressants:
They are inorganic chemicals. They react chemically with the mineral particle surfaces to produce
insoluble protective coatings of a wettable nature making them non-floatable even in the presence of a
proper collector. Thus, it formed protective coatings to prevent the formation of collector film.

Examples:
• Sodium cyanide (NaCN) or Potassium cyanide (KCN): depressant for sphalerite and pyrite.
• Sodium or potassium dichromate: depressant for Galena
• Lactic acid: depressant for iron-sulphide flotation

(b) Activators:
They are generally inorganic compounds, can modify the surface of non-floatable or poorly floatable
mineral particles by absorption on particle surface so that the collector may film the particle and induce
flotation.

Examples:
• CuSO4 (copper-sulphate) is used as an activator in the flotation of sphalerite
• Sodium sulphide is used to activate oxide mineral of lead, zinc and copper.

(c)pH regulators
It is used to modify the alkalinity and acidity of a flotation circuit or in other words to control the pH
of the pulp.

Examples: Lime, Soda ash

1.9 Dewatering
Dewatering is an important step in mineral processing. Removal of the moisture content enables easy
and cost-effective handling and transportation of minerals.
i. Sedimentation/thickening: Settling of particles
ii. Coagulation: Neutralisation of charge or repulsive forces
iii. Filtration: solid-liquid separation
iv. Drying: removal of moisture from moist solid

[GATE 2018]

In froth floatation, the primary purpose of adding collectors is to:

a) make the surface of the mineral hydrophobic.
b) make the surface of the mineral hydrophilic.
c) stabilize the froth.
d) adjust the pH.

Ans: (a)
Explanation:
- A collector is a chemical reagent, acid, base or salt and is heteropolar in nature, the polar part of it
has an affinity towards a specific mineral and the non-polar part has an affinity towards air bubble.

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- Collectors are added to the pulp and agitated long enough to improve the hydrophobicity of the
surface of the mineral particles.

WHAT NEXT

You should now be ready to answer questions based on the above topics
1. Go to the Online Career Avenues Test Platform.
2. Go to Practice Tests. Search for tests under Extractive Metallurgy.
3. Answer the following test: Introduction to Mineral Processing Tests.
4. Go to GATE Questions. Search for tests under Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy.
5. Answer the following test: GATE – Introduction to Mineral Processing Questions.

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