Excellent Grammar by Abdullahi Suleiman

EXCELLENT GRAMMAR

ABDULLAHI SULEIMAN
[email protected]
BAUCHI STATE, NIGERIA
08051492471, 07068317707

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Excellent Grammar by Abdullahi Suleiman
Excellent Grammar by Abdullahi Suleiman

Copyright (c) 2023 by Abdullahi Suleiman

January, 2024

First published 2024

All right reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any
means without the prior written permission of the publisher and another.

ISBN:000-000-00

Published & Printed in Nigeria by:

MTX Printing Service Kobi Street, Bauchi

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Excellent Grammar by Abdullahi Suleiman

DEDICATION
The book is dedicated to my family members, my past and present students in
Iqamatis Sunnah Nursery, Primary and Secondary School, Gwallaga Bauchi.

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Excellent Grammar by Abdullahi Suleiman

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
My special thanks goes to Almighty Allah for the grace over me in writing this
book. To my beloved wife and children, I am indeed grateful to you all for the
support that leads to the successful completion of this book.
I sincerely appreciate the efforts of everyone who in one form or the other assisted
and encouraged in the production of this book. I am indebted to my English
Teacher (Mal. Saidu Marafa) and others from the English Department for sparing
their real time to proof read this book. Worthy of mention are Adu-Ojo Prnting
Service, Bauchi for their hard work in typing the Manuscript.

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Excellent Grammar by Abdullahi Suleiman

PREFACE
The book “Excellent Grammar” is an introductory text on Grammar made simpler
and having its intricacy generally observed English Grammar reduced so as to help
the reader especially those that do not have solid background in English Language
at Primary and secondary school level.
This book is a simplified textbook which beginner would find helpful and easy to
comprehend. This book treated topics that formed the basic concept and gradually
move on to treat areas where these concepts could be applied in speaking and
Studying. Excellent Grammar text book will be very useful for fresher students of
Primary, Secondary and other related disciplines in Colleges of Education,
Polytechnics and Universities.

Abdullahi Suleiman
2024

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Excellent Grammar by Abdullahi Suleiman

TABLE OF CONTENTS

DEDICATION - - - - - - - - - iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT - - - - - - - - iv
PREFACE - - - - - - - - - - v
TABLE OF CONTENTS - - - - - - - - x
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO GRAMMAR
What is Grammar? - - - - - - - - - 1
Units of Grammar - - - - - - - - - 1
Letter- - - - - - - - - - - 1
Vowels and Consonants -- - - - - - - - 1
What is a Vowel? - - - - - - - - - 2
What is a Vowel Sound? - - - - - - - - 2
Monophthong- - - - - - - - - - 2
Diphthongs - - - - - - - - - - 3
Examples of Diphthongs-- - - - - - - - 3
Long and Short Vowel Sounds- - - - - - - - 3
The List of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)- - - - 4
Consonant Sounds - - - - - - - - - 4
Classification of Consonant Sounds- - - - - - - 5
Place of Articulation- - - - - - - - - 5
Manner of Articulation- - - - - - - - - 5
The 24 Consonant Sounds in English- - - - - - - 7
Consonant Digraphs- - - - - - - - - 7
Consonant Blend- - - - - - - - - - 8
List of Two Letters Blends- - - - - - - - 8
Consonant Clusters- - - - - - - - - 9
Consonants Charts- - - - - - - - - 9
Words - - - - - - - - - - - 9
Two Letter Words- - - - - - - - - 10
Three Letter Words - - - - - - - - - 10
Syllable- - - - - - - - - - - 10
What Is a Compound Word? – Meaning and Definition- - - - 11
Types of Compound Words- - - - - - - - 11
Open Compound Words- - - - - - - - - 11
Closed Compound Words- - - - - - - - 11
Hyphenated Compound Words- - - - - - - - 11
Function of Compound words- - - - - - - - 12
CHAPTER TWO: PARTS OF SPEECH
What is a Part of Speech? - - - - - - - - 15
Parts of Speech Definition- - - - - - - - 15
Noun-- - - - - - - - - - - 15

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Types Nouns - - - - - - - - - - 16
Compound Noun - - - - - - - - - - 16
Types of Compound Noun - - - - - - - - 18
Pronoun- - - - - - - - - - - 21
Types of Pronoun- - - - - - - - - - 22
Adjective- - - - - - - - - - - 24
Types of Adjectives - - - - - - - - - 25
Adverb- - - - - - - - - - - 26
Types of Adverbs- - - - - - - - - - 27
Preposition- - - - - - - - - - 30
Conjunction - - - - - - - - - - 32
Types of Conjunctions- - - - - - - - - 32
Interjection or Exclamation - - - - - - - - 34
Exercise - - - - - - - - - - - 35
Answers - - - - - - - - - - - 35
Verb - - - - - - - - - - - 36
Types of Verbs- - - - - - - - - - 36
Auxiliary Verbs and Modal Verbs - - - - - - 54
Forms of Compound Verbs- - - - - - - - 55
Subject-Verb Agreement Rules, Simplified- - - - - - 58
What are the Rules of Subject-Verb Agreement? - - - - - 58
Finite Verb- - - - - - - - - - - 61
Examples of Finite Verbs- - - - - - - - 61
Conjugated Verb - - - - - - - - - - 63
CHAPTER THREE: VERB TENSES
What is a Verb Tense? - - - - - - - - 67
What are Verb Aspects? - - - - - - - - 67
Main Verb in a Sentence-- - - - - - - - 71
An Infinitive Verb- - - - - - - - - 74
Verbals and Verbal Phrases- - - - - - - - 78
Types of Verbals - - - - - - - - - - 78
Gerunds- - - - - - - - - - - 79
Participles- - - - - - - - - - - 80
Types of Verbal Phrases- - - - - - - - - 80
Infinitive Phrases- - - - - - - - - - 80
Participial Phrases- - - - - - - - - 81
Mood in Grammar - - - - - - - - 81
Imperative Mood- - - - - - - - - - 82
Subjunctive Mood- - - - - - - - - 82
Conditional Mood-- - - - - - - - - 82
Mood Interrogative- - - - - - - - - 83

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CHAPTER FOUR: PHRASE- - - - - - -

What is a Phrase? - - - - - - - - - 84
Noun Phrase - - - - - - - - - - 84
What is an Adverbial Phrase? - - - - - - - - 86
How to Form an Adverbial Phrase? - - - - - - - 86
Components of an Adverbial Phrase- - - - - - - 86
Exercise - - - - - - - - - - - 89
Answers - - - - - - - - - - - 89
What is a Prepositional Phrase? - - - - - - - 90
Definition of a Prepositional Phrase- - - - - - - 90
How to Use Prepositional Phrases in Sentences? - - - - - 90
Examples of Prepositional Phrases- - - - - - - 91
Exercise - - - - - - - - - - - 91
Answers - - - - - - - - - - - 91
Adjectival Phrase- - - - - - - - - - 92
Difference Between an Adjective Phrase and an Adjective Clause- - 93
Examples of Adjective Phrases- - - - - - - - 93
Exercise - - - - - - - - - - - 95
Answers - - - - - - - - - - - 95
Verb Phrase: - - - - - - - - - - 95
Verb Phrase Structure- - - - - - - - - 96
CHAPTER FIVE: CLAUSE
Clauses- - - - - - - - - - - 100
Types of Clauses- - - - - - - - - - 100
Examples of Clauses - - - - - - - - - 100
Difference Between Phrases and Clauses- - - - - - 100
Exercise - - - - - - - - - - - 101
Main Clause or Independent Clause- - - - - - - 101
What is a Main Clause or Independent Clause? - - - - - 101
Definition of a Main Clause or Independent Clause- - - - 102
Examples of Main Clauses- - - - - - - - 102
Difference Between a Main Clause and a Subordinate Clause- - - 103
Exercise - - - - - - - - - - - 103
Answers - - - - - - - - - - - 104
Subordinate Clause - - - - - - - - - 104
What is a Subordinate Clause? - - - - - - - 104
Types of Subordinate Clauses- - - - - - - - 105
Exercise - - - - - - - - - - - 105
Answers - - - - - - - - - - - 105
Gerund- - - - - - -- - - - - 106
linking Verb- - - - - - - - - - 109
What is a Linking Verb? - - - - - - - - 109

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List of Common Linking Verbs- - - - - - - 109

How to Use Linking Verbs with Predicate Nouns? - - - - 110
CHAPTER SIX: SENTENCE
What is a Sentence? – Meaning and Definition- - - - - 113
Formation of Sentences in English - - - - - - 113
Parts of a Sentence- - - - - - - - - 113
Components of a Sentence- - - - - - - - 114
Types of Sentences- - - - - - - - - 114
Types of Sentences According to their Function- - - - - 114
Types of Sentences According to their Structure or Nature of Clauses
in the Sentence- - - - - - - - - - 115
Function of simple sentences- - - - - - - - 116
Function of compound, Complex, and Compound-complex sentences - 117
Exercise - - - - - - - - - - - 117
Answers - - - - - - - - - - - 118
CHAPTER EIGHT: PUNCTUATION OF SENTENCES
Examples of sentence- - - - - - - - - 119
Exercise - - - - - - - - - - - 119
Answers - - - - - - - - - - - 119
CHAPTER EIGHT: SUBJECT OF A SENTENCE
Three Types of Subjects- - - - - - - - - 121
What is a Predicate? - - - - - - - - 123
What is a Predicate in a Sentence? - - - - - - - 123
Subject of a Sentence- - - - - - - - - 126
Predicate of a Sentence- - - - - - - - - 127
Optional Parts of a Sentence- - - - - - - - 127
Direct and Indirect Objects- - - - - - - - 127
Subject and Object Complements- - - - - - - 127
Adjectival and Adverbial Modifiers- - - - - - - 128
CHAPTER NINE: SENTENCE STRUCTURE
What is Sentence Structure? - - - - - - - - 129
Basic Parts and Components of a Sentence- - - - - - 129
Parts of a Sentence- - - - - - - - - 129
Subject- - - - - - - - - - - 129
Predicate- - - - - - - - - - - 129
Components of a Sentence- - - - - - - - 129
Subject- - - - - - - - - - - 130
Verb- - - - - - - - - - - - 130
Object- - - - - - - - - - - 130
Direct Object- - - - - - - - - - 131
Indirect Object- - - - - - - - - - 131
Complement- - - - - - - - - - 131

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Subject Complement- - - - - - - - - 131

Object Complement- - - - - - - - - 132
Adjunct- - - - - - - - - - - 132
The Different Types of Sentence Structures in English Grammar- - 132
Examples of Sentence Structure- - - - - - - 132
Exercise - - - - - - - - - - - 135
Answers - - - - - - - - - - - 135
CHAPTER TEN: PARAGRAPH WRITING
What is Paragraph Writing? - - - - - - - - 137
How to Write a Paragraph? - - - - - - - - 137
Types of Paragraph Writing- - - - - - - - 137
Paragraph Writing Topics - - - - - - - 138

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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION TO GRAMMAR
The systematic study of scientific method which provides us information and guidance
necessary to learn a language is referred to as Grammar. The science of grammar teaches
us how a language is spoken and written correctly and effectively. So, it can be said that
grammar is primarily concerned with the formation and classification of words and
sentences and their practical significance in daily life.

What is Grammar?
Grammar is the study of the classes of wards, their inflections, functions, and relations
in the sentence.

Units of Grammar
A unit is a basic part, which means there are five (5) basic parts in grammar which
bring out the whole. Units make a word or a sentence complete. The five Units of
Grammar are:
1. Letter
2. Word
3. Phrase
4. Clause
5. Sentence
LETTERS

L etters: are written characters or signs used to represent certain sounds of the
human voice. A letter that is not sounded in speaking is called a silent letter.
Letters are the symbolic representation of a language. The letters of any
Language are called its Alphabet.
An alphabet is a standard set of letters (basic written symbols) that is used to write one
or more languages based on the general principle that the letters represent phonemes
(basic significant sounds) of the spoken language. The English Alphabet contains
twenty-six letters. The Alphabets can be written both in:
i. Uppercase or capital letters e.g. A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V
WXYZ
ii. Lowercase or small letters e.g. a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z

VOWELS AND CONSONANTS

The English Language has 44 English sounds. They can be divided into two main
categories:
a. Vowels sound
b. Consonants sound

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WHAT IS A VOWEL?
A Vowel is a speech sound where the mouth is open and the tongue doesn't touch the
top of the mouth, the teeth, etc. so that the flow of air is not limited. A vowel is a sound
made by blowing air out of the mouth without closing your mouth or teeth. It is the
louder sounding part of a word. It is necessary to know that there is a difference between
a vowel sound and a vowel letter in the alphabet.

The English vowel sounds are written with letters in the English alphabet. All English
words have vowel letters. The vowels in English are: A, E, I, O, U, and sometimes Y.
Y is “sometimes” a vowel because the letter Y presents both vowel and consonant
sounds, like 'fry'.

WHAT IS A VOWEL SOUND?

A vowel sound is a sound where the airflow is unstopped when the sound is produced.
The vowel sounds are the rhyme or shift of our language. Monophthongs and diphthongs
are the two categories of vowel sounds. Vowel sounds are also divided into long vowel
sounds and short vowel sounds.
In English, a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes y are the vowel letters. The rest of the letters in
the alphabet represent consonants such as b, d, g, n, r, s, and t. Some consonants produce
more than one sound.

Six vowel letters are used to indicate the vowel sounds in English. This means the vowel
sounds are more than letters in the English alphabet. Monophthongs and diphthongs are
the two main types of vowel sounds.

MONOPHTHONG
A Monophthong is simply a vowel. The word mono represents one and phthong
represents a sound. This means that monophthong represents one vowel sound in the
word. If you notice the position of the tongue, the mouth will stay the same when these
words are uttered.

In English – /i:/, /ɪ/, /ʊ/, /u:/, /e/, /ə/, /ɜ:/, /ɔ:/, /æ/, /ʌ/, /ɑ:/ and /ɒ/ are 12 pure vowels or
monophthongs. let's check the list of 12 pure vowel sounds with some examples
Sound Examples
/i:/ heap, leap, feet, seat, read, beat, peak, seek
/ɪ/ lift, hit, kit, pick, bill, fill, till, him, pin
/ʊ/ Food, Fool, Cool, Cook, look
/u:/ To, You, New, Who
/e/ Bet, Met, Pet, Set, Bend, Lend, Send
/ə/ The, About, Could, Us
/ɜ:/ Earl, Pearl, Sir, Worm, worth
/ɔ:/ Mall, Hall, Shall, Fall, Tall, Wall
/æ/ hand, Land, Sand, Cat, Mat, Pat, Sat

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/ʌ/ But, Up, One, Much

/ɑ:/ Start, Ask, Large, After
/ɒ/ Of, On, From, Not

DIPHTHONGS
A Diphthong is a mix of two vowel sounds or vowel letters, like the sounds /aɪ/ in pipe
/paɪp/ or the letters ou in doubt. The part 'di' represents two and the other part represents
sounds. Although a diphthong has two different vowel sounds, they stay within the same
syllable or unit of sound.
The best way to know if a word has a diphthong with two vowel sounds, or a
monophthong, is to listen to how it sounds when you say it out loud. If the vowel sound
changes within the same syllable, it's most certainly a diphthong.
Examples of diphthongs:

to long U
long A to

long O to

long A to

long O to
long E to
long I to

short A

long U
long E

long E

long E

/oʊ/
/aʊ/
/oɪ/
/eɪ/

/aɪ/

Ur

Ur
/e/
/i/
Play Cry soil Peer Bear clown clow
Eight Pie Enjoy Hear Hair how boat
Clay Eye boy Steer Wear brown Toe

LONG AND SHORT VOWEL SOUNDS

The sounds of the letters of the English alphabet can somehow vary. In some cases, it
can get tricky. Not all letters produce the same sound in all words. The letters can have
different sounds according to how they are used.

The most popular sound for each vowel is its “short” sound.
The short ă, pronounced /æ/ as in hat.
The short ĕ, pronounced /ɛ/ as in bed.
The short ĭ, pronounced /ɪ/ as in silk.
The short ŏ, pronounced /ɑ/ as in crop.
The short ŭ, pronounced /ʌ/ as in mug.
“Long vowels” are the alphabet sounds when the vowel, “says its name”. We call them
'long' because we hold them barely longer than short sounds. Yet, they are totally
different sounds; They are not a longer version of the same sound.
Long A (ā), pronounced /eɪ/ as in hate or fate.
Long E (ē), pronounced /iː/ as in eat or heat.
Long I (ī), pronounced /aɪ/ as in kite or night.
Long O (ō), pronounced /oʊ/ as in coats, note or coat.
Long U (ū), pronounced /juː/ as in cute or /uː/ as in glue.

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There are some rules for what sound the vowels make in different examples.

Vowel Position Vowel Sound Examples

If a word has only one vowel Vowel makes a short sound ‘a’ in ‘jar’
and ends with a consonant ‘e’ in ‘nest’
‘o’ in ‘not’
‘i’ in ‘kit’
‘u’ in ‘sun’
If a word has two vowels The first vowel makes a as in ‘apple’
separated by two or more short sound as in ‘octopus’
letters as in ‘basket’
as in ‘elephant’
as in ‘umbrella’
If a word ends with the letter The first vowel makes a ‘hat’ becomes ‘hate’
‘e’ (magic ‘e’/ silent ‘e’) long sound ‘kit’ becomes ‘kite’
‘cub’ becomes ‘cube’
as in ‘name’
as in ‘lime’
If a word has two vowels The first vowel makes a as in ‘pie’
walking together the first one long sound as in ‘coat’
does the talking The second vowel remains as in ‘grain’
silent as in ‘value’
as in ‘meet’

The list of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA):

IPA Example
/æ/ cat, bad, sad, sand, land, hand
/ɑː/ calm, palm, father, start, dark (British English)
grass, can't, half, bath (American English)
/ɒ/ god, pot, top, spot (British English only)
/ʌ/ but, cut, gun, come, some, glove
/ɛ/ get, bed, set, sell, fell, men
/ɪ/ pit, bin, fill, will, village, bullet
/i/ or /iː/ he, she, see, keep, family, hyperbole
/ɔː/ saw, straw, dawn, fall, call, wall
/ʊ/ put, full, good, wood, could, would
/uː/ you, who, chew, shoe, cool, tool
/ə/ a, syllable, moment, terrible, felony, papyrus
/ɚ/ mister, standard, editor (Am. English only)
/ɜː/, /ɝː/ curve, purge, herd, serve,

CONSONANT SOUNDS
A Consonant sound is a sound where the airflow is stopped, either partially or
completely, when the sound is uttered. On the other hand, a consonant sound is a speech
sound that is produced by a partial or complete obstruction of the airstream by a

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constriction of the speech organs. A consonant sound is also a speech sound that is
produced by the partial or complete obstruction of air by the lips, teeth, tongue or throat.
There are 44 speech sounds in total in the English language. these sounds are classified
as follows: Out of these 26 alphabets, 21 letters are consonant and create 24 consonant
sounds. These 24 consonant sounds are sometime voiced (made by a vibration of the
vocal cords) and some voiceless (no vibration).
CLASSIFICATION OF CONSONANT SOUNDS
English consonant sounds are classified into categories based on two aspects, namely,
a. The place of articulation – with reference to the parts of the mouth that are used
to
pronounce the particular sounds.
b. The manner of articulation – with reference to the movement of air from the lungs
and through and out of the nose and mouth.

Place of Articulation
Place of Articulation refers to the 'where' of pronunciation. It is the location where
sounds are made.
 Bilabial – the upper lip and lower lip come in complete contact with each other.
 Dental – the tip of the tongue touches the teeth mildly.
 Labio-dental – the lower lip and the upper teeth come in contact with each other.
 Palatal – the body of the tongue touches the hard palate.
 Alveolar – the tip or blade of the tongue touches the alveolar ridge.
 Palato-alveolar – the blade/tip of the tongue touches the alveolar ridge, and the
body of the tongue approaches the hard palate.
 Velar – the body of the tongue comes in contact with the soft palate (also called
the velum).
 Glottal – the vocal cords come into contact and produce friction.

Manner of Articulation
Manner of Articulation refers to the “how” of making sounds. There are six different
ways or manners of articulation.
Plosive sounds – a sound produced by the air being blocked inside the vocal tract
followed by the release of air from the mouth. Plosive sounds include those sounds that
are made by full obstruction of air in the vocal tract. These sounds occurs in two steps;
the obstruction of air and sudden release of that air. Examples of stop are p, b, t, d, k,
and g.
Examples of plosive sounds in words:
 /p/ : pin, pair, cup
 /b/ : bin, bad, stab
 /t/ : tin, tall, fit

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 /d/ : dark, din, head

 /k/ : kin, cab, luck
 /g/ : gun, tag, good

Nasal sounds – a sound produced when the air passes and escapes through the nose.
When air from lungs is obstructed at some point of oral cavity and air passes through
nasal cavity, it creates a very different sound. These sounds are known as nasal sounds.
The examples of nasals are m, n, ŋ.
Examples of nasal sounds in words:
 /m/ : man, mail, sum
 /n/ : sun, nose, tan
 /ŋ/ : sung, ring, tongue

Fricative sounds – a sound produced by positioning the mouth in a particular manner so

as to partially block the air coming out of the mouth. When we push air through a narrow
gap to create a hissing noise, we make a fricative sound. Sometimes, this hissing sound
is voiced such as v, ð, z, ʒ, and sometime it is voiceless such as f, θ, s, ʃ, h. Examples of
fricatives are f, v, θ, ð, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, and, h.
Examples of fricative sounds in words:
 /f/ : fine, wife, leaf
 /v/ : vine, above, very
 /θ/ : think, both, thing
 /ð/ : this, father, thus
 /s/ : seal, soon, house
 /z/ : zeal, goes, dozen
 /ʃ/ : sheep, sure, push
 /ʒ/ : measure, pleasure
 /h/ : how, hen, ahead

Affricate sounds – a combination of a plosive and fricative manner, in which sound is

produced by the blocking of air and finally releasing it through a partial passage. The
manner of articulation in affricate is similar to plosive but it does not remain stop for a
long time. Unlike plosive, the air is released slowly in affricate.
Examples of affricate sounds in words:
 /ʧ/ : chain, match, choose
 /ʤ/ : Jane, judge, June
Approximant sounds – a sound produced when the tip of the tongue slightly touches the
alveolar ridge, and the air escapes through the gap between the tongue and the alveolar
ridge. Approximant includes constant sounds that are created by very less obstruction
to the airflow. BBC English has four approximant sounds.
Examples of approximants sounds in words:
 /l/ : light, love, pearl

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 /r/ : right, scary, lower

 /w/ : wet, away, wool
 /j/ : yet, you, yolk--

THE 24 CONSONANT SOUNDS IN ENGLISH

Consonant Place of Manner of Examples
Sound Articulation Articulation
1. /p/ Bilabial Plosive pet, top, pin, pair, cup
2. /b/ Bilabial Plosive bat, tub, bin, bad, stab
3. /m/ Bilabial Nasal mat, palm, man, mail, sum
4. /w/ Bilabial Approximant wind, always, wet, away, wool
5. /f/ Labio-dental Fricative front, leaf, fine, wife, leaf
6. /v/ Labio-dental Fricative vase, advise, vine, above, very
7. /θ/ Dental Fricative think, teeth, thin, both, thing
8. /ð/ Dental Fricative this, with, father, thus
9. /t/ Alveolar Fricative trunk, what, tin, tall, fit
10. /d/ Alveolar Fricative dose, ward, dark, din, head
11. /s/ Alveolar Fricative save, case, seal, soon, house
12. /z/ Alveolar Fricative zest, doze, zeal, goes, dozen
13. /n/ Alveolar Nasal neat, win, sun, nose, tan
14. /l/ Alveolar Lateral like, will, light, love, pearl
15. /r/ Alveolar Approximant rest, torch, right, scary
16. /ʃ/ Palato-alveolar Fricative shoes, cushion, sheep, sure
17. /ʒ/ Palato-alveolar Fricative beige, measure, pleasure
18. /tʃ/ Palato-alveolar Affricate catch, patch, chain, match
19. /dʒ/ Palato-alveolar Affricate badge, judge,
20. /j/ Palatal Approximant yoke, yonder
21. /k/ Velar Plosive keep, poke
22. /g/ Velar Plosive game, bag
23. /ŋ/ Velar Plosive sing, wing
24. /h/ Glottal Fricative heap, cohort

CONSONANT DIGRAPHS
Digraphs are two letters that produce just one sound. These are the seven basic
consonant digraphs; ch, ck, th, sh, ph, ng, wh. Yet, some digraphs have more than one
pronunciation. 'ghosts' are some digraphs like 'wr' and 'gn' because the first letter is not
pronounced. Let's check the list of the digraphs with examples:
Digraph Examples
Ch Makes the sound /t∫/ in Chair , /k/ in chorus and /sh/ in chute
Ck which makes the sound /k/ sound as in click
Ff which makes the sound /f/ sound as in stuff
Gh which makes the sound /g/ sound as in yoghurt or /f/ as in enough
gn which makes the /n/ sound as in reign and foreign
kn which makes the /n/ sound as in know and knot
ll which makes the /l/ sound as in hall
lm which makes the /m/ sound as in calm and palm

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mb which makes the /m/ sound as in dumb and thumb

ng which makes the /ŋ/ sound as in ring and hung
ph which makes the /f/ sound as in photo, and elephant
sh which makes the /ʃ/ sound as in splash and sheet
ss which makes the /s/ sound as in less and grass
ss which makes the /ʃ/ sound as in assure and issue
th which makes the /θ/ sound as in three and myth
th which makes the /ð/ sound as in that and them
wh which makes the /w/ sound as in where and where
wr which makes the /r/ sound as in wreck
zz which makes the /z/ sound as in jazz and buzz
dg Which makes the sound /ʤ/ as in edge and wedge
ng which makes the /nʤ/ sound as angel
nk which makes the /ŋk/ sound as in link

CONSONANT BLEND
Consonant blend occurs when two or more consonants are blended together, yet each
sound may be heard in the blend. The most common beginning consonant blends include:
pl, pr, sl, sm, sp and st, bl, br, cl, cr, dr, fr, tr, fl, gl, gr. Blends can also appear at the end
of words.

Blends are most of the time categorized into r-blends, such as “br” and “cr”, s-blends,
such as “sc” and “sk” and l-blends, such as “bl” and “cl”. There are also blends that
include three consonants. Popular three consonant blends include str, spl, and spr.

LIST OF TWO LETTERS BLENDS

Blends Examples
Bl which make the /bl/ sound as in blend and black
br which make the /br/ sound as in bread and brave
cl which make the /cl/ sound as in clap and clip
cr which make the /cr/ sound as in crab and crew
dr which make the /dr/ sound as in drum and drag
fl which make the /fl/ sound as in flame and flat
fr which make the /fr/ sound as in fresh and frame
gl which make the /gl/ sound as in globe
gr which make the /gr/ sound as in grammar
nd which make the /nd/ sound as in bend
pl which make the /pl/ sound as in please
pr which make the /pr/ sound as in print and prey
sl which make the /sl/ sound as in slim and sleep
sm which make the /sm/ sound as in smash
sn which make the /sn/ sound as in snail
sp which make the /sp/ sound as in spare
st which make the /st/ sound as in strange

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CONSONANT CLUSTERS
Consonant cluster refers to two or more consonants positioned side by side in a word.
They are also called consonant blends. The longest possible cluster in English is three
consonant sounds at the beginning. They can be up to four consonants long at the end
of the word. Let's check the list of consonant clusters.
Examples:
Three-letter blends Examples
Shr which make the /ʃr/ sound as in shrimp
Spl which make the /spl/ sound as in splendid
Spr which make the /spr/ sound as in spread
Squ which make the /sqw/ sound as in squash
Str which make the /str/ sound as in string
Thr which make the /θr/ sound as in threw
Lfths As in twelfths

CONSONANTS CHARTS
Symbol Example
/b,(b)/ Bin, back
/k,(k)/ Cat, key
/ch,(ʧ)/ Check, cheese
/d,(d)/ Dog, doll
/f,(f)/ Fish, fries
/g,(g)/ Goat, great
/h,(h)/ Hotel, hat
/j,(ʤ)/ Bridge. Jigsaw
/l,(l)/ Lemon, ballon
/m,(m)/ Ment, lamb
/n,(n)/ Nest, pen
/ng,(ŋ)/ King, ring
/p,(p)/ Plenty, hippo
/r,(r)/ Rat, wrist
/s,(s)/ Sad, dress
/sh,(ʃ)/ Shine, splash
/t,(t)/ Tent, cart
/th,(θ)/ Thin, length
/th,(ð)/ There, father
/v,(v)/ Vowel, love
/w,(w)/ Where, well
/y,(j)/ Yet, yellow
/z,(z)/ Zero, prize
/zh,(Ʒ)/ Measure, television

WORDS

A
word: is an individual letter or a group of letters which give meaning.
Examples as an individual letter are: A, I,
Examples as a group of letters are: my, in, you, come, go, learn, type, computer,
teach, January, India, America, China, God, etc.

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TWO LETTER WORDS

Two letter words are formed with the combination of either:
 Vowel and consonant
 Consonant and vowel
 Consonant and consonants
Vowel and Consonant
A I O U E
an if of up -
am in on us -
as is or - -
at it ox - -
Consonant and Vowel
B C D F G H J K L M N P Q R
be - do - go he - - - me no - - -

S T V W X Y
- to - we - -
Consonant and consonants e.g. By, My

THREE LETTER WORDS

Three letter words are formed with the combination either:
a. Vowel + Consonant + Vowel e.g. are, air, eye e.t.c.
b. Vowel + Consonant + Consonant e.g. act, art, ant, add, off, old e.t.c.
c. Vowel + Vowel + Consonant e.g. ear, eat, out, our, e.t.c.
d. Consonant + Vowel + Consonant e.g. bag, cat, dig, fan, god, e.t.c.
e. Consonant + Vowel + Vowel e.g. too, tea, you, due, see, sea, e.t.c.
f. Consonant + Consonant + Vowel e.g. who, she, e.t.c.
g. Consonant + Consonant + Consonant e.g. why, shy, dry, cry, fry, fly,

SYLLABLE: A syllable is a word or part of a word which consist of a vowel sound.

Examples:
One syllable word Two syllable words Three syllable words
an vo-wel prac-ti-cal
as ta-ble mor-ni-tor
we stu-dent cus-to-mer
one na-tion tra-di-tion
two spo-ken pri-ma-ry
egg la-ter
four poin-ted
Nine va-lue

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WHAT IS A COMPOUND WORD? – MEANING AND DEFINITION

A compound word, as the name imply, is a combination of two or more root words.
They are combined to form words which mean something different from what the
individual words mean.

Types of Compound Words

Compound words can be formed in three different ways. They are:
 Open compound words
 Closed compound words
 Hyphenated compound words

Open Compound Words

Open compound words are those that are formed by combining two or more words
which can be written as separate words and still be used together as a compound word.
Open compound words are mostly formed by combining an adjective and a noun to
form a compound noun. For example:
 First aid
 Post office
 Living room
 High school
 Ice cream
Closed Compound Words
Closed compound words are those that are formed by combining two words but do not
contain any space between them, unlike open compound words. For example:
 Bedroom
 Keyhole
 Football
 Backspace
 Armchair
Hyphenated Compound Words
Hyphenated compound words, as the name suggests are words formed by combining
two or more words with a hyphen placed between them. Hyphenated compound words
mostly function as compound adjectives. For example:
 In-depth
 Snow-clad
 One-footed
 Sun-dried
 Day-to-day

In most cases, compound nouns are written as a closed compound word, a compound
verb is written as an open compound word and a compound adjective is written as a
hyphenated compound word. However, this is not a rule and is not always the case.

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As far as hyphenated compound words are concerned, they are hyphenated only if they
are placed before the noun it modifies.

Formation of Compound Words

Compound words, as discussed earlier, are formed by combining two words, especially
two parts of speech. Let us look at some combinations of parts of speech that form
compound words.
Noun + Noun
Here is a list of compound words formed by combining two nouns.
 Bedroom
 Music band
 Water tank
 Starfish
 Sunflower
 Girlfriend
 Police woman
 Football
Noun + Verb
Here is a list of compound words formed by combining a noun and a verb.
 Firefly
 Rainfall
 Sunset
 Photoshoot
 Sunrise
 Raindrop
 Haircut
 Snowfall
Verb + Noun
Here is a list of compound words formed by combining a verb and a noun.
 Swim suit
 Typewriter
 Postman
 Post office
 Notebook
 Breakfast
 Proofread
 Babysit
Verb + Preposition
Here is a list of compound words formed by combining a verb and a preposition.
 Takeaway
 Shutdown
 Drawback

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 Checkin
 Checkout
 Lookout
 Takedown
 Breakup
Preposition + Verb
Here is a list of compound words formed by combining a preposition and a verb.
 Intake
 Outdo
 Input
 Output
 Overthrow
 Understand
 Underestimate
 Overlay
Noun + Adjective
Here is a list of compound words formed by combining a noun and an adjective.
 Houseful
 Heartbroken
 Spoonful
 Wireless
 Lifelong
 Snow white
 Sky blue
 Worldwide
Adjective + Noun
Here is a list of compound words formed by combining an adjective and a noun.
 Greenhouse
 Blackboard
 Full-time
 Superhero
 Hot dog
 Blacksmith
 Long-term
 Last minute
Gerund + Noun
Here is a list of compound words formed by combining a gerund and a noun.
 Washing machine
 Dining room
 Swimming pool
 Driving license
 Breaking point

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 Melting point
 Living room
 Working day

Noun + Gerund
Here is a list of compound words formed by combining a noun and a gerund.
 Sightseeing
 Mind-blowing
 Nerve-wrecking
 Nail-biting
 Brainstorming
 Mind mapping
 Air conditioning
 Time-consuming
 Bird watching
Preposition + Noun
Here is a list of compound words formed by combining a preposition and a noun.
 Underworld
 Overview
 Undergraduate
 Oversight
 Bystander
 Afterlife
 Background
 Forehead
 Upstairs

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CHAPTER TWO
PARTS OF SPEECH

I n the English language, every word is called a part of speech. The role a word plays
in a sentence denotes what part of speech it belongs to.

WHAT IS A PART OF SPEECH?

Parts of speech are among the first grammar topics we learn when we are in school or
when we start our English language learning process. Parts of speech can be defined as
words that perform different roles in a sentence. Some parts of speech can perform the
functions of other parts of speech too.

PARTS OF SPEECH DEFINITION

The Oxford Learner’s Dictionary defines parts of speech as “one of the classes into
which words are divided according to their grammar, such as noun, verb, adjective, etc.”
The Cambridge Dictionary also gives a similar definition – “One of the grammatical
groups into which words are divided, such as noun, verb, and adjective”.
The Eight parts of speech include:
1) Noun
2) Pronoun
3) Verb
4) Adverb
5) Adjective
6) Preposition
7) Conjunction
8) Interjection

NOUN

A
Noun: is a name of anything like person, animal, place, thing, abstract, idea,
action, state or quality.
Examples: Maryam, Girl, Abuja, Book, Teacher, Water, Honesty, Happiness,
Family, Sleep, Death, etc.
In Sentence: (Bold words are noun)
 A boy is coming towards us.
 Sarah is a pretty girl.
 The sun shines in daytime.
 Education removes darkness.
 Poverty is curse.
Functions of Nouns
Nouns can be used as a subject, a direct object, and an indirect object of a verb; as an
object of a preposition; and as an adverb or adjective in sentences. Nouns can also show
possession.

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Subject: The company is doing great. Roses are the flowers of love.
Direct object: I finally bought a new mobile.
Indirect object: Maryam gave Kharima another chocolate.
Object of preposition: Roses are the flowers of love.
Adverb: The train leaves today.
Adjective: The office building faces the mall.
Possession: The lion's cage is dangerous. My brother's daughter is adorable.

TYPE OF NOUNS
Nouns describe people, places, things, and ideas — but can you name the different types
of nouns? From plural nouns to possessive nouns, all the way to common nouns and
collective nouns, there are many ways to name that thing (or person, place, or idea) that
you’re trying to describe.
Noun can be classified into eleven categories:
1. Common noun
2. Proper noun
3. Singular Noun
4. Plural Noun
5. Concrete Noun
6. Abstract noun
7. Countable Noun
8. Non-countable Noun
9. Collective noun
10.Compound Noun
11.Possessive Noun

1. Common Nouns: is a noun that is not the name of a particular thing or class but that
represents one or all of the members of that class or thing.
A common noun can be preceded by articles (a, the).
Examples:
 Sunusi is a smart boy. (Here boy is common noun while Sunusi is a proper
noun)
 Rabi is a clever girl. (Here girl is common noun while Rabi is a proper noun)
Examples without sentence:
 People: boy, girl, mother, father, baby, child, teacher, student, man, woman, etc.
 Things: book, table, computer, pen, pencil, etc.
 Animals: bird, dog, cat, cow, goat, wolf, tiger, etc.
 Place: city, country, state, capital, beach, forest, etc.
2. Proper Nouns: Is the name of some particular person, place or thing., which are
always capitalized.

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 Abuja is the capital of Nigeria. (Abuja is the name of a particular capital)

 Sunusi is a smart boy. Sunusi is the name of a particular boy)
 Rabi is a clever girl. (Rabi is the name of a particular girl)
 Aisha joined me for dinner at Giovanni’s Pizza.
 Musa graduated from ATBU.
 Rabi bought a new veil.
3. Singular Nouns: A singular noun refers to one person, place, or thing.
 My brother lives in Oregon.
 This meal was very delicious.
 I stayed at a hotel last night.
4. Plural Nouns: A plural noun refers to more than one person, place, or thing. You can
make a noun plural by adding -s or -ies to the end (unless it’s an irregular noun).
 I have lived in three different apartments.
 Fiona is planning to take at least two vacations this summer.
 Please list two more articles in your research paper.
5. Concrete Nouns: Concrete nouns exist physically. You can actually touch, see, feel,
smell, or taste them.
 Can I pet your dog?
 Please pass the salt.
 Those cookies smell delicious.
6. Abstract Nouns: An Abstract Noun is usually the name of a quality, action, state or
concept.
Abstract nouns are the names of such things that can’t be touched, tested, smelt or
heard. Such as:
 Quality- honesty, beauty, bravery, wisdom, heroism, stupidity, darkness,
kindness, goodness, brightness, etc.
 Action- Judgment, movement, laughter, hatred, theft, etc.
 State- Childhood, boyhood, youth, death, poverty, slavery, sickness, sleep, etc.
 The names of Arts and Science such as grammar, chemistry, physics, music, etc.
are also abstract noun.
7. Countable Nouns: Countable nouns are nouns that you can count. They can be
singular or plural, depending how many they are. They can also be modified by
numbers or quantifying determiners, such as many, most, more, or several.
 There is a bike in that garage. (The word bike is singular because it refers to one
bike.)
 There are six bikes in that garage. (The plural noun bikes refers to six bikes.)
 There are several bikes in that garage. (The quantity of bikes is more than one, so
bikes is plural.)

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8. Uncountable Nouns: Uncountable nouns, also known as mass nouns, include nouns
that can be measured but not counted (such as intelligence or milk). They also include
all abstract nouns and usually do not take plural forms (you’d say milk, not milks).
 The garage is full of clutter. (clutter isn’t countable)
 I'm eating oatmeal for breakfast. (oatmeal isn’t countable)
 I value our friendship. (friendship isn’t countable)
9. Collective Nouns: are the names of a collections or numbers or group of things or
persons taken together and considered of as one whole.
Example:
 The navy is ready for the voyage.
 Public was not aware of the incident.
 The proposal was approved by the cabinet.
Example without sentence:
Crowd, class, army, mob, gang, team, jury, family, herd, committee, audience,
council, public, navy, cabinet, group, company, society, troupe, corporation, senate,
faculty, board, etc.

10. Compound Nouns: A compound noun contains two or more words that join together
to make a single noun. They can be one word (closed form), joined with a hyphen
(hyphenated form), or two words (open form).
 This new toothpaste is too minty. (closed form)
 My son-in-law is so kind and considerate. (hyphenated form)
 Can you stop by the post office on your way home? (open form)

Types of Compound Nouns:

 Closed compound
 Nouns, hyphenated compound nouns,
 Open compound nouns.

Closed Compound Noun Examples

Many compound nouns are closed, meaning that there is no space or hyphen between
the two parts. Examples of closed form compound nouns in sentences include:

 The lighthouse directs ships away from the rocks.

 Watch the butterfly on the flower over there.
 You should secure your furniture in case there's an earthquake.
 I’ll call my grandmother and ask for her recipe.
 Where is the bathroom?
 If you still have a headache, you should get some rest.

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Hyphenated Compound Noun Examples

Certain compound nouns can also be in hyphenated form. These include:
 Janice works out so much that she has a six-pack.
 Give a balloon to the five-year-old in line.
 You're such a sweet son-in-law for giving me this card.
 How old is your great-grandfather?
 Marcos was the runner-up in the spelling bee.
 Let’s ride on the merry-go-round after the show is over.

Open Compound Noun Examples

You'll also find compound nouns in open form with a space between the words. Some
examples are:
 Can we stop by the post office later today?
 This tax cut is just for the middle class.
 She is the first female attorney general of our state.
 Please trim the apple tree before you leave.
 Can you bring the plates to the dining room?
 I met my best friend when we were in high school.

How to Form Compound Nouns

While many compound nouns consist of two nouns, you can use any parts of speech to
create a compound noun — as long as it functions as a noun in the sentence. The other
parts of speech used to create compound nouns may be adjectives, prepositions or verbs.
Typical compound noun rules include:
Parts of Speech Examples Typically Closed, Hyphenated or
Open?
noun + noun toothpaste, doughnut, fish tank Closed, but sometimes open
(depending on the word)
adjective + noun top hat, bluebird, redhead closed, but sometimes open
(depending on the word)
noun + adjective spoonful, truckload, wireless closed
preposition + noun underworld, bystander, afterlife closed
noun + preposition hanger-on, passer-by hyphenated
noun + prepositional ten-year-old, father-in-law, lady-in- hyphenated
phrase waiting
verb + noun chopstick, swimsuit, washing machine closed, but sometimes open
(depending on the word)
noun + verb haircut, snowfall, photo shoot closed, but sometimes open
(depending on the word)
adjective + adjective turquoise blue, golden yellow open
adjective + verb dry-cleaning, public speaking, wet hyphenated or open (depending
sanding on the word)
preposition + verb output, backbone, overthrow closed

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verb + preposition touchdown, check-in, drawback closed or hyphenated

(depending on the word)

Why Are Some Compound Nouns Hyphenated?

Just because a compound noun is hyphenated today doesn’t mean it will stay that way.
As compound nouns become more commonplace, they tend to lose their hyphens.
Consider these words that once were rare, but now may be part of your daily
conversation:
 on-line is now online
 take-out is now takeout
 e-mail is now email
 health-care is now healthcare
Another rule of thumb is that British English typically uses a hyphen more than
American English (such as in pre-school vs. preschool). Also, common words are more
often closed than uncommon words.

Plural and Possessive Rules for Compound Nouns

How do you make these compound nouns plural or possessive? There are no hard and
fast rules concerning the plural form of compound words, especially since some
hyphens are omitted over time. However, some of the more common patterns include:
 In hyphenated words, the "s" usually goes at the end of the noun, as in daughters-
in-law or mayors-elect.
 Sometimes the “s” is at the end, as in go-betweens and higher-ups.
 In the open form, the "s" is often added to the noun, as in bills of fare, secretaries
of state, notaries public, and full moons.
To make a compound word possessive, you usually add apostrophe + s to the end of the
word, as in mother-in-law's car or five-year-old's birthday.

Compound Noun vs. Noun Phrase

Compound nouns are slightly different than noun phrases, which are modifier + noun
phrases. For example, a hot dog is a type of sausage typically eaten on a bun. It may be
hot, but it's certainly not a dog.

The combination of these two words means something entirely different than the mere
combination of the adjective "hot" and the noun "dog," which would refer to an
overheated canine. Observe the difference below:
 I want to eat a hot dog when we go to the county fair.
 The hot dog was grateful to find a shady spot for a nap.

The first sentence uses "hot dog" as a compound noun, but the second does not. You
can usually tell the difference by carefully reading the sentence context and by listening

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to the pronunciation. Compound nouns typically have a stress on the first word ("HOT
dog" — the food) while noun phrases have no stress on either word ("hot dog" — a dog
that is hot.)
11. Possessive Nouns: Possessive nouns show that a person, place, or thing owns
something. Singular possessive nouns end in an apostrophe and “S”. Some plural
possessive nouns that already end in an “S” just have an apostrophe at the end.
 Melissa's imagination ran wild as she daydreamed about her upcoming trip.
 Ireland's landscape is truly breathtaking.
 The puppies’ favorite toy is the squeaky newspaper.

Words That Act Like Nouns

A few other types of words can function like nouns when they appear in sentences.
Pronouns: Personal pronouns take the place of nouns when referring to people, places
or things.
 Amy works at a flower shop. She enjoys her job.
 The Greeks invented democracy. They sought freedom and equality.
 Marley loves pepperoni pizza. The last slice of pizza is hers.
 Jennifer is paying for the tickets. Give the money to her.
 Things don't look good for John and Ray. The police are looking for them.
Gerunds: Gerunds are -ing verbs that function as nouns. At first glance, gerund examples
appear to be verbs. But if you look a little closer, you’ll find that they’re the subjects or
objects of their sentences, not the action words.
 Do you mind my borrowing these shoes?
 Rowing is Juan’s favorite exercise.
 I don’t like studying when there’s a test coming up.
 Paula enjoys reading on a rainy day.
 My nephew likes performing, especially in front of a lot of people.

PRONOUN

A
Pronoun is a word that is used instead of a noun-equivalent. It is the
replacement of noun.
Common pronouns are I, me, he, she, him, his, her, they, them, it, we, us, etc.
Example:
 I went to the store yesterday
 She is so nice
 They are my favorite animal
 He lives in this house next door
 I have my own car
 She may go Hawaii next month
 The man who helped us is my brother is
 They are here somewhere

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 They played for years before he became famous.

Role of Pronoun in a Sentence: Pronouns are usually short words and they are used
to make sentences less cluttered and less repetitive.

Types of Pronoun:
There are many different types of pronouns; such as:

 Personal Pronoun
 Possessive Pronoun
 Reflexive Pronoun
 Intensive Pronoun
 Indefinite Pronoun
 Demonstrative Pronoun
 Relative Pronoun
 Interrogative Pronoun
 Reciprocal Pronoun.

i. Personal Pronoun: A personal pronoun is used instead of a person. Such as I, you, he,
she, we, they and who. When a personal pronoun is the subject of a verb, it is called
Subjective Pronoun (I, we, he, she, they, and you). E.g. I love this book.

When a personal pronoun is not a subject and acts as the object, then it is called
Objective Pronoun (me, you, her, him, it, us, them and whom). E.g. Give it to him.

ii. Possessive Pronoun: A Possessive Pronoun shows ownership of something. Such as

his, hers, its, mine, yours, ours, and theirs.
Example: -
 This pen is mine.
 Yours one is not real.
 Take hers from the room.

iii. Reflexive Pronoun: Reflexive Pronoun refers back to the subject in the sentence.
They are myself, himself, herself, ourselves, themselves, yourselves and itself.
Example:
 I ask myself when I take a decision.
 He spoke to himself.
 We learn about ourselves every day.

iv. Intensive Pronoun: An Intensive Pronoun is used for emphasis. Intensive pronouns
are myself, himself, herself, yourself, itself, yourselves, ourselves and themselves.
Example:

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Excellent Grammar by Abdullahi Suleiman

 I myself have done the job.

 The president himself visited the area.
 He himself can't do it.

v. Indefinite Pronoun: An Indefinite Pronoun refers to an indefinite or non-specific

person or thing. Indefinite pronouns are any, anything, some, someone, somebody,
everybody, everything, everyone, nobody, none, one, several, some, few, many and each.
An Indefinite pronoun may look like an indefinite adjective, but it is used differently in
sentences by taking the place of a noun.
Example:
 All people gathered here for the same purpose.
 Does anyone know anything about the matter?
 Anybody can play the game easily.
 None but the brave deserves the fair.
 Each must do his best.
 One must do one's duty.

vi. Demonstrative Pronoun: A Demonstrative Pronoun particularly point out a noun.

This, these, that and those are demonstrative pronouns to point out a noun. A
Demonstrative pronoun stands alone but a demonstrative adjective qualifies a noun.
Example:
 You can smell that from here.
 This smells good.
 Those were bad days.
 Look at that.
 Would you deliver this

vii. Relative Pronoun: A Relative Pronoun is a pronoun that introduces or links one
phrase or clause to another in the sentence.
Relative Pronoun are that, who, whom, where, when, whoever, whichever and whomever.
Example:
 The person who called me is my uncle.
 I know where I am going.
 The pen which I lost was red.
 You should buy the book that you need for the course.
 Robii Thakur is a poet who wrote the National Anthem.

Who and whom refer only to people.

Which refers to things, qualities and ideas.
That and whose refer to people, qualities, things and ideas.

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Excellent Grammar by Abdullahi Suleiman

viii. Interrogative Pronoun: An Interrogative Pronoun is used to ask question. It helps to

ask about something.
Interrogative Pronouns are who, which, what, whom, whose; as well as whoever,
whomever, whichever and whatever.

It is used in the beginning of the sentence.

Who and whom refer to person.

What refers to thing.

Which refers to person or thing and whose refers to person as possessive.

Example:
What's happened?
What do you expect from me?
Who designed this website?
Whose mobile is this?
Whatever did you want?

ix. Reciprocal Pronoun: A Reciprocal Pronoun refers the relations between two or more
persons or things. Each other and one another are Reciprocal Pronouns. We use
Reciprocal Pronouns when there are two or more persons or things doing the same thing.
Example:
 Rimi and Raju like each other.
 Why don't we believe each other?
 They do not tolerate each other.
 We should help one another.

ADJECTIVE

A
n adjective: is a part of speech (word) that modifies a noun or a pronoun by
qualifying, specifying or describing it.

Generally, an adjective modifies a noun by answering one of these following questions:

Which? What kind? How many?
Example:
 Foxes are cunning animal. (Answer the question “What king of animal?”)
 Five or six gunmen attack the area. (Answer the question “How many gunmen?”)
 The one eyed man tells him the story. (Answer the question “Which man?”)
Example in a Sentence
 She is the kindest person in the class
 I need new dress for the party
 This is the coldest winter we have ever had
 The tree was full of green leaves

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Excellent Grammar by Abdullahi Suleiman

 The fox was funny with its big bushy tail

 The large conference table was Perfectly suited for the big Conference room.
 The small desk was perfectly suited for the small office.

Types of Adjectives
i. Qualitative Adjective or Descriptive Adjective or Adjective of quality
ii. Quantitative Adjective or Adjective of quantity
iii. Numeric Adjective or Adjective of Number
iv. Demonstrative Adjective
v. Distributive Adjective
vi. Possessive Adjective
vii. Interrogative Adjective

i. Qualitative Adjective or Adjective of quality: Expresses the qualities of something or

someone. Such as great, good, bad, wise, poor, nice, happy, pretty, angry, blue, etc.
Example:
 He gives me a great idea.
 Mr. Rahim is a good person.
 He is a bad guy.
Adjective of quality answer the question: what kind?

ii. Quantitative Adjective or Adjective of quantity: Expresses or indicates the quantity of

a noun or pronoun. Such as some, little, much, enough, whole, sufficient, all, none, more,
half, no, etc.
Example:
 I have enough money to but he car.
 The whole countrymen congratulated the president.
 She wants all the money.
Adjective of quantity answer the question: How many or much?

iii. Numeric or Adjective of number: Express the number or order of something or

someone. Such as one, two, three, ………., first, second, third, ……………, single,
double, triple, quadruple, twofold, threefold, fivefold, ………… etc.
Example:
 He can eat ten eggs at a time.
 She is the first girl in the class.
 The house owner does not rent the room to the single person.
Adjective of number is two types Definite and Indefinite.

Definite Numeric adjectives are of three kinds.

Such as
- Cardinal (one, two, ….),

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Excellent Grammar by Abdullahi Suleiman

- Ordinal (first, second, ……),

- Multiplicative (Single, double, …….)

iv. Demonstrative Adjective: Specifies noun or pronoun. Such as this, that, those, these
etc.
Example:
 This boy is good.
 That is her room.
 These are the book to follow.

v. Distributive Adjective: Express the distributive state of nouns. Such as every, each,
neither, either, both etc.
Example:
 Every movie in the series is popular.
 Both the boys are appreciated by them.
 Each person will get the reward.

vi. Possessive Adjective: Shows the possession or belongingness in the sentence. Such
as his, her, him, my, our, your, their, etc.
Example:
 This is her cell phone.
 I have seen their house.
 Our house is tow stored house.

vii. Interrogative Adjective: Interrogative Adjective modifies nouns in interrogative

sentence. Such as which, what, whose, etc.
Example:
 What kind of man he is?
 Whose phone is this?
 Which program are you listening?

ADVERB

A
n adverb is a word which modifies or qualifies the meaning of a verb,
adjective, other adverb or any other word(s) or phrase(s) in a sentence; such
as quickly, firmly, lightly, carefully, extremely, etc.
Example:
 The leopard runs quickly. ( Here quickly modifies the verb)
 He works extremely hard. (Here extremely modifies the adverb)
 Most of our countrymen are very poor. (Here very modifies the adjective)
 I absolutely have no idea about the matter.
 Steve will always say what he thinks
 I am waiting patiently for my pay rise

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Excellent Grammar by Abdullahi Suleiman

 She left very quickly

 The bill was paid promptly
 I will definitely complete it soon
 And they did it immediately
 Lisa presently earns more money
 It is finally finished

Function of Adverb in a sentence

Adverb adds information and impression about time, manner, place etc. in a sentence.
Form of Adverbs:
Many adverbs that express how an action is performed, end in 'ly'. However, there are
many exceptions, like fast, well, never, least, more, far, now, very, just, still, etc.

Types of Adverbs
There are different types of adverbs according to their functions in a sentence.

i. Adverb of Time: Indicates the time of an action, and answer the question 'when'?
Such as now, soon, still, then, today, yet, since, back, ago, already, before, after, recently,
today, lately, tomorrow, once, someday, early, etc.

Example:
 I have already finished my job.
 I will do it now.
 The result will be published tomorrow.
 He arrived late for the party.
 She was already there.
 She has been waiting for an hour.
 I will be waiting in the bus stop until 6pm.
 They came before 9am.

ii. Adverb of Manner: Expresses the manner of an action, and answer the question 'How'?
Such as happily, slowly, quickly, carefully, loudly, easily, fast, bravely, hard, well,
badly, etc.
Example:
 Rafat is speaking quietly.
 He is doing the job carefully.
 The boy is crying loudly.
 She dances gracefully on the stage.
 He was severely brushed up by the corps.
 She delivered her speech felicitously.
 The criminal was cruelly beaten.
 He was only mildly punished.

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Excellent Grammar by Abdullahi Suleiman

iii. Adverb of Place: Indicates the place of an action, and answer the question 'Where'?
Such as here, there, up, down, in, out, by, hither, thither, where, anywhere, somewhere,
everywhere, nowhere, etc.
Example:
 Go out.
 I love to be here.
 People still live there.
 We gathered there.
 The bus will stop here as soon as it arrives
 It was raining outside.
 We were having a game of chess indoors.
 He must be wandering somewhere.
iv. Adverb of Degree or Quantity: Expresses quantity, and answer the question 'How
much/ How far/ to what extent'? Such as extremely, fully, quite, almost, very much, too,
a lot, totally, absolutely, fairly, hardly, etc.
Example:
 He is quite wrong.
 She is fully cured.
 He is bad enough to kill you.
 He was working very fast.
 He felt extremely sorry for her misbehaviour.
 My octogenarian grandma is too week to walk even with a stick.
 This medicine has completely gone out of order.
 He rarely comes to Mumbai.
 We seldom go there.
v. Adverb of Affirmation and negation: Indicate assertion and express the one's reaction
to question. Such as yes, no, yeah., never
These adverbs are used to answer the questions raised by others.
Adverbs such as YES and YEAH are called Adverbs of Affirmation.
Adverbs such as NO and NEVER are called Adverbs of Negation.

Example:
 Do like Sweets?
• Yes. I like sweets.
• No. I do not like sweets.
 Would you come with me?
• Yes. I would come with you.
• No. I would not come with you.

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Excellent Grammar by Abdullahi Suleiman

 May I call you now?

• Yes. You may call me now.
• No. You should not call me now.
 Are you ok?
• Yes. I am ok.
• No. I am not ok.
 Have you taken your exams?
• Yes. I have taken my exams.
• No. I have not taken my exams.

vi. Adverb of Frequency: Expresses the frequency of an action and answer the question
“How often”? Such as never, ever, always, often, seldom, every day, sometimes, usually,
normally, frequently, rarely, hardly, scarcely, once a week, etc.
Example:
 He always helps the poor.
 The barking dog seldom bites.

vii. Adverb of reason: Expresses the reason and make the conclusion.
Such as hence, therefore, thence etc.
Example:
 He therefore resigned the job.

Conjunctive Adverb: Conjunctive adverb is used to join two clauses together.

Such as also, finally, furthermore, consequently, hence, however, incidentally, indeed,
instead, likewise, nevertheless, meanwhile, next, nonetheless, otherwise, then, still, thus,
and therefore.

N.B: Conjunctive Adverb joins two independent clauses with a semi-colon.

Example:
 The people waited for an hour; finally, the train comes to the station.
 The policemen searched the market; indeed, the gunman has escaped through the
basement door.

Position of Adverb: General positions of adverbs are as follows:

i. Adverbs of time usually come at the end of a sentence or at the beginning of sentence.
Example:
 It may rain today.
 Last night I dreamt a sweet dream.

ii. Adverbs of place usually follow the verb.

Example:
 The doctor is in.

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Excellent Grammar by Abdullahi Suleiman

 They were everywhere.

iii. Adverbs of Degree or Quantity come before the verb, adjective or adverb.
Example:
 He is fairly good.
 You are quite wrong.
 He can run very fast.

PREPOSITION

A
preposition is a word placed or positioned before a noun or a pronoun or it
shows the relationship between a noun or pronoun and other words in a sentence.

The following are the words used as preposition in English- For, of, on, at, in, to, off,
by, up, with, from, into, within, like, until, above, about, against, under, before, after,
among, along, across, around, behind, bellow, beneath, beside, between, beyond, down,
during, except, inside, near, since, toward, through and upon.

Role or Function of Preposition in a sentence:

A preposition sits before a noun or a pronoun to show noun's or pronoun's relationship to
another word in the sentence. Preposition helps to construct a sentence.
Example:
 He is looking for papers.
 Nafisat lives in Bauchi.
 Place the book on the table.
 I will go there after breakfast.
 Look at the sky clearly.
 You should stand by him.

Prepositions are of five different kinds:

i. Simple Preposition such as in, at, by, of, for, on, over, under, up, to, from, out, about,
under, with, etc.
 He goes to school.
 Musa is about seven.
 These people are coming from abroad.

ii. Double Preposition such as into, onto, within, without, from, among, toward, behind,
etc.
 He will be back within three days.
 We cannot do this job without you.
 She is different among the girls.

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Excellent Grammar by Abdullahi Suleiman

iii. Compound or Phrasal or Complex Prepositions are made of two or more words. Such
as instead of, in front of, in between, out of, in behalf of, in place of, except for,
throughout, underneath, on account of, according to, etc.
 Abdul is talking in behalf of his team.
 Musa is playing in place of Abdullahi.
 They carried on rescue mission in spite of bad weather.
 Her GPA is 3.50 out of 4.00

iv. Participial Preposition.

Present or Past Participles can be used as Prepositions. Such as concerning, regarding,
considering, pending, etc.
Example:
 What does he know regarding this proposal?
 Considering the quality, the price is not high.

The specific area to use prepositions.

i. Preposition of Place, Position and Direction (in, at, on, by, next, to, beside, )
In In the room.
At At the window. At the office.
On On the table.
By Sitting by the woman.
Above Above the sky.
To Go to university.
Towards Towards east.
From Fled from home.
Into Jumped into the well.

ii. Preposition of time

At At 10 a.m., at dawn, at noon, at night, at an early age.
After After 3 O'clock, after his arrival.
Before Before the 15th July.
By By 4 p.m.
During During five years. During the whole day/summer, during five years.
From From 1st January.
For For a week/month.
In In June, in 2010, in the morning/evening/afternoon.
On On Sunday.
Since Since he comes.
Within Within three days.
throughout Throughout the year.

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Excellent Grammar by Abdullahi Suleiman

iii. Preposition of Reason or Purpose

For For the good of the people, died for the country.
Form Died from fatigue, suffering from fever/cold.
Of Died of cancer.
Through Lost his pen through negligence
With Trembles with fear shivers with fever.

CONJUNCTION

A
conjunction: is a part of speech or word that connects –
- One word to another word.
- One word to another clause.
- One sentence to another sentence.

The conjunctions are and, but, or, for, nor, so, yet, because, if, whether, lest, unless, as,
since, how, when, where, while, why, till, until, after, before, however, as soon as,
though and than.
Example:
One word to another word:
 Rabiu and Rufai are two brothers. (noun to noun)
 Ramlat and you have done this work. (Noun to pronoun)
 You and I will go there. (Pronoun to pronoun)
 The old man sat down and wept. (verb to verb)
 We are sad but hopeful. (adjective to adjective)
 A cat moves slowly and silently. (Adverb to adverb)
 The bird flies through and through the sky. (preposition to preposition)
One word to another clause:
 He is so weak that he cannot walk.
 Such was her beauty that everybody loved her.
One sentence to another sentence:
 I trust him because he is honest.
 He says that he will do it.
 They will come if they are allowed here.
 It is a long time since I saw you last.
 You must wait here until your father comes back.
 I wish to know whether he will come or not.

Types of Conjunctions
 Coordinate Conjunction
 Subordinate Conjunction
 Correlative conjunction

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Excellent Grammar by Abdullahi Suleiman

Coordinate Conjunction: Coordinate conjunctions such as and, but, or, nor, for, so, or
yet are used to join individual words, phrases and independent clauses.
Example:
 She stood first and got a prize.
 He is sad but hopeful.
 The snake is small but dangerous.
 You must read or you may fail in the examination.

Subordinate Conjunction: The subordinate clause such as since, because, although, as,
until etc. are used to join an independent clause to a dependent clause.
The subordinate conjunctions are used before the dependent clauses. Dependent clause
can be placed before or after the independent clauses.
Example:
 He never gives up until he wins.
 Since she had the headache, she did not go to work.
 Though he loved her cousin, he married another one.
 Despite calling several times, she never received a replay.

Correlative conjunctions: Correlative conjunctions are pairs of conjunctions such as

both…and, either…..or, neither……nor etc. They are used in the sentences to link
words, phrases and clauses.

Correlative conjunctions connect two words or phrases or clauses that have the similar
structure and are grammatically similar. That means nouns are linked to nouns,
adjectives to adjectives, prepositional phrases to prepositional phrases.

Correlatives conjunctions are: Both….and, either….or, neither….nor, not only….but

also, so….that, such….that, no sooner….than, hardly….when, scarcely….when,
else….than, else….but.
Example:
 He is both a fool and a knave. (noun to noun)
 She is both wise and good. (adjective to adjective)
 He must either work or go. (verb to verb)
 He behaved neither wisely nor kindly. (adverb to adverb)
 He is so tired that he cannot run.
 Such was her beauty that everybody loved her.
 No sooner had I sat down than they left the room.
 Hardly had I left the room when it began to rain.
 Scarcely had I left the room when it began to rain.
 She has none else than her mother.
 She has none else but her mother.

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Excellent Grammar by Abdullahi Suleiman

INTERJECTION OR EXCLAMATION

I nterjection or Exclamation: is a part of speech used to convey or express a strong

feelings or sudden emotions. There are no particular rules as to where interjections
should be placed in a sentence, but most often, they are seen to appear in the
beginning of a sentence. They are used to form exclamatory sentences. In order to
develop a clearer idea of what interjections are exactly, take a look at how different
dictionaries define an interjection.

Definition of an Interjection or Exclamation:

An interjection or exclamation, according to the Oxford Learner’s Dictionary, is defined
as “a short sound, word or phrase spoken suddenly to express an emotion.” The
Cambridge Dictionary defines an interjection as “a word that is used to show a short
sudden expression of emotion.” According to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, an
interjection is defined as “a word or phrase used in exclamation” and according to the
Macmillan Dictionary, an interjection is “a word or phrase used for expressing a strong
emotion such as surprise or anger.” The Collins Dictionary defines an interjection as “a
word or expression which you use to express a strong feeling such as surprise, pain, or
horror.”

Examples of Interjections
Here are some examples of interjections to show you how they can be used in sentences
effectively.

Hurray! We won the match.

Ouch! That really hurt badly.
Wow! That is a beautiful dress indeed.
Oh my God! That was unexpected.
Whoa! That guy is unbelievably huge.

List of Interjections for Everyday Communication

Now, here is a list of interjections or exclamation that you can use in your daily
communication.

Examples of Interjections or Exclamation

Interjection Purpose Example
Alas To express sadness or pity Alas! That was so unfortunate.
Ah To express realization or Ah, the magic show at the end was a total surprise!
surprise
Eh To enquire or ask for Eh! I didn’t quite get it. Can you please repeat it?
something to be repeated
Dear To express pity or Oh dear! I feel really bad for what happened to you.
surprise

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Excellent Grammar by Abdullahi Suleiman

Hey To express surprise or call Hey! Look out for the car.
for attention
Hurray To express joy Hurray! We finally cleared the test.
Oh To express pain or Oh! I have a really bad headache.
surprise
Ouch To express pain Ouch! You stepped on my toes.
Phew To express relief, Phew! That was an extremely long presentation.
exhaustion, disgust
Uh To express hesitation Uh! I don’t think I want to be a part of this.
Well To introduce a remark Well, what you just did was wonderful.
Wow To express your Wow! Your new bike is amazing.
admiration for something
Yippee To express joy Yippee! Tomorrow is a holiday.

How and When to Use Interjections?

When using interjections, there are some very important punctuation rules that you
should keep in mind. Given below are the points you have to remember.

 When a short interjection is used in the beginning of a sentence, it should be

followed by a comma.
 When an interjection forms a sentence by itself, the interjection can be followed
by a full stop, a question mark or an exclamation mark.
 When an interjection is used in the middle of a sentence, the interjection has to
be preceded and followed by a comma.
 In a conversation, interjections are sometimes allowed to stand alone.
 It is better if you do not use too many or any interjections in a formal context.
Excises
Fill in the blanks with the most suitable interjection in the following sentences. (Ouch,
yippee, bravo, alas, my God, well, uh, ah, wow, oh no)
1. ______that is new!
2. ______ That hurt me more than I thought it would.
3. ______ We got the tickets to the movie premier night.
4. ______ I don’t want to do it this way.
5. ______ You did a really great job with that piece of furniture.
6. ______ now I understand what you were trying to say.
7. ______ That should have really upset you.
8. ______ I have not cleared the internal assessment.
9. ______ That was a really brave thing to do.
10._______ The waiting list for the reservation seats is too long; I don’t think we
would get a seat.
Answers
1. Well, that is new!
2. Ouch! That hurt me more than I thought it would.

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Excellent Grammar by Abdullahi Suleiman

3. Yippee! We got the tickets to the movie premier night.

4. Uh, I don’t want to do it this way.
5. Wow! You did a really great job with that piece of furniture.
6. Ah, now I understand what you were trying to say.
7. Oh no! That should have really upset you.
8. Alas! I have not cleared the internal assessment.
9. Bravo! That was a really brave thing to do.
10.My God! The waiting list for the reservation seats is too long; I don’t think we
would get a seat.

VERB

J umping, eating, sneezing, and sleeping are all verbs you likely perform in a single
day, though hopefully not at the same time (that could get messy). While most verbs
show the action in a sentence, some verbs are a little harder to spot. However, every
sentence needs one — or it’s not a sentence at all.
What is a Verb?
Verbs are words that show action in a sentence. Just like nouns and adjectives, they’re
one of the eight parts of speech.
Verbs also show:
 the tense (time period) of a sentence
 agreement with the subject of a sentence
 a noun’s state of being
 more information about a noun
Examples of Verbs in a Sentence
Verbs are the first part of a sentence predicate, and often the first word after a noun or
pronoun. For example:
 Bob walked down the street.
 I love that movie.
 We sang all night.
 The family drove to the mountains.

TYPES OF VERBS
With all the jobs verbs have, it’s not surprising that there is more than one type. In fact,
there are nine types of verbs — and understanding them can help you make your writing
more interesting.
1. Action Verbs: Action verbs describe an actions that someone or a subject of a
sentence can do or demonstrate. Most verbs are action verbs. Typically, action verbs
follow nouns or pronouns in a sentence.
Examples of action verbs include:
 Naomi accepted the job offer.
 We baked a carrot cake.

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Excellent Grammar by Abdullahi Suleiman

 She ironed her dress.

 Mark drinks vanilla lattes.
An action verb shows what the subject of a sentence is doing
 Jamila works at the fire station.
 Susan poked Ian in the eye.
 Michael smiled with relief.
 We traveled to Italy last summer.
Words like smiled are action verbs because someone can perform them. However,
action verbs don’t have to be visible — they include mental tasks as well (such as think,
wonder, or dream).
Action Verbs vs. Linking Verbs
While action verbs create movement in a sentence by showing what the subject is doing,
linking verbs establish a connection between words. Nouns don’t perform these verbs.

Linking Verb Examples Action Verb Examples

 Lami is angry. Lami shouted at her brother.
 I look terrible in this dress. I frowned at my appearance in the
mirror.
 The cookies were delicious. The kids smelled the cookies baking
 Rabiu and his girlfriend seemed happy. Rabiu and his girlfriend hugged
affectionately.

While strong writing does involve both linking verbs and action verbs, most readers
prefer sentences with action verbs, since they are more interesting to read.

Action Verb Examples

Action verbs, also called dynamic verbs, express an action whether it be physical or
mental. An action verb explains what the subject of the sentence is doing or has done.
Looking at action verb examples helps make it clear the function of action verbs in
sentences and what purpose they serve.

Common Action Verbs

There are endless action verbs used in the English language. An action verb can express
something that a person, animal or even object can do. To determine if a word is an
action verb, look at the sentence and ask yourself if the word shows something someone
can do or something someone can be or feel. If it is something they can do, then it is an
action verb (if it is something they can be or feel, it is a non-action, or stative, verb).

Below is a list of commonly used action verbs:

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Act Buy Dream Give Read Smile Turn

Agree Call Drink Go Ride Spend Visit
Arrive Climb Eat Grab Run Stand Vote
Ask Close Enter Help Send Talk Wait
Bake Come Exit Hit Shout Think Walk
Bring Cry Fall Hop Sing Throw Write
Build Dance Fix Insult Sit Touch Yell
Examples of Action Verbs in Sentences
The following are examples of how action verbs are used in sentences, keep in mind
that you can use more than one action verb in a sentence. The action verb is in bold in
each sentence. Remember that action verbs don't have to describe movement; the action
can be mental.

 Anthony is throwing the football.

 She accepted the job offer.
 He thought about his stupid mistake in the test.
 John visited his friend for a while and then went home.
 The dog ran across the yard.
 She left in a hurry.
 She yelled when she hit her toe.
 The cat sat by the window.
 I'll play this song on my guitar.
 He hit a home run at the last game.
 In the summer, we will swim in our pool.
 Will you help me with the laundry?
 He rode his new bike around the block for hours.
 The horse trotted along the trail.
 We ate dinner then walked around the park.
 Did you fix the mistake in your homework?
 She waited for her friend at the mall.
 She lay on the couch and slept there all night.
 Close the door!
 The bird sings a cheery song every morning.
 The teacher reads a book to her students then asks them questions about the story.
 The roof on the house leaks.
 The lightning struck the tree.
 They bought a new house.

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TYPES OF ACTION VERBS

Action verbs fall into two categories:
1. Transitive verbs
2. Intransitive verbs.
Depending on which one you use, your sentence may provide even more
information and detail to the reader.

Examples of Transitive Verbs

Transitive Verbs transfer their action to another noun in the sentence, known as the direct
object. These action verbs directly affect things and people around them.
 My dog chewed his toy. (What did he chew?)
 Jonathan chose me to be his best friend. (Who did he choose?)
 Why did your grandmother call my house? (What did she call?)
 Rick painted the fence green. (What did he paint?)
 Ellie married her best friend. (Who did she marry?)

Examples of Intransitive Verbs

Intransitive verbs don't act upon another noun or pronoun in the sentence. They only
describe something the subject of the sentence does. Intransitive verbs may come before
other phrases and clauses, but they don’t take a direct object.
 Aminu swam in the pool.
 My dog barked at the mail carrier.
 The twins whispered instead of sleeping.
 The elephant sleeps soundly.
 Two shoes fell in the lake.

Examples of Verbs That Are Both Transitive and Intransitive

Some verbs in English can be transitive or intransitive, depending on their context. You
can add a direct object after them and they make sense, or you can leave a direct object
off and they also make sense.
Action Transitive Intransitive Verb
eats Charles eats breakfast in the morning. Charles eats quickly in the morning.
met My family met my girlfriend. My family met for dinner.
walk Let’s walk the dog. Let’s walk to the store.
drive I’ll drive the RV to the campsite I’ll drive to the campsite this weekend
this weekend. .
Notice how each transitive verb acts upon an underlined direct object. If you remove
the direct object, it completely changes the meaning of the sentence. However, each
verb does work as both a transitive and an intransitive verb.

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Action Verb Tenses

What separates action verbs from non-action verbs (stative verbs) is that they can be
used in continuous tenses, meaning they have a present, past and future tense. The
following are examples:
Action verb: eat
 Present tense: I eat when I am hungry.
 Past tense: She ate dinner last night at six.
 Future tense: We will eat lunch tomorrow at noon.
Action verb: swim
 Present tense: We swim when it is hot outside.
 Past tense: Last week, we swam in the pool.
 Future tense: We will be swimming at the lake next month.

Action verb: sleep

 Present tense: The baby sleeps in the nursery.
 Past tense: She slept all night.
 Future tense: We will be sleeping in tents at summer camp.
Action verb: play
 Present tense: The kids play basketball at recess.
 Past tense: We played the last game on Monday.
 Future tense: The girls will be playing at the park this weekend.

The Importance of Action Verbs

Action verbs are used to deliver important information in a sentence and add impact and
purpose. These verbs play a vital role in grammar and signals to the reader what action
the subject is performing in the sentence.
2. Stative Verbs: Stative verbs describe a position or state of being that you can’t see,
but exists anyway. While they don't perform any visible action, notice that they're
typically followed by a direct object.
 You deserve a prize.
 Jane hates humidity.
 Henry loves billiards.
 I remember you.

Stative Verb Examples

When we think of verbs, we tend to run to action verbs. Those are, you guessed it, verbs
that show action such as, “She ran to the grocery store.” But, a stative verb (also known
as state verbs) perform a different function.

They express a state, rather than an action. These verbs tend to be less tangible such as,
“She feels exhausted” or “He believes she's right.” These verbs often point to emotions,

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relationships, the senses, or thoughts. Let’s review some stative verb examples for
further clarification.

List of Stative Verbs

As you enjoy this comprehensive list of stative verbs, notice these verbs don’t express
a moving action, like running, walking, reading, or eating. Rather, they allude to
somewhat intangible emotions or inanimate states of being.
 agree - He agrees with her thoughts on the novel.
 appear - She appears to be lost.
 appreciate - I appreciate your understanding.
 believe - Do you believe in life after love?
 belong - You don't belong to this world.
 concern - This conversation doesn't concern you.
 consist - The protein shake consists of raw eggs, milk, and vanilla extract.
 contain - This box contains all my bowling trophies.
 deny - How can you deny your love for him?
 depend - We're depending on you.
 deserve - You don’t deserve this token.
 disagree - Do you disagree with me?
 dislike - He dislikes his sister.
 doubt - I doubt we'll hear from him again.
 equal - Correlation does not equal causation.
 feel - I feel dead inside.
 fit - Can you fit this appointment into your schedule?
 hate - I hate sleeping in late.
 have - We have a problem.
 imagine - Imagine no possessions; it's easy if you try.
 impress - You've impressed us all with your talent.
 include - Her hatred of eating contests includes hot dogs and pizza.
 involve - Eating contests involve open-mouthed chewing.
 know - I know what you said.
 lack - If any of you lacks anything, ask for it.
 like - I like to shop for purses.
 loathe - I loathe a scratchy sweater.
 look - He looks fat on TV.
 love - I love books.
 matter - Nothing else matters.
 mean - What do you mean?
 mind - I don’t mind if you don’t mind.
 need - I don't need my TV.

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 owe - Her brother owes her an apology.

 own - We own this house.
 please - You can’t please him.
 possess - The dark witch possesses her soul.
 prefer - I prefer vanilla over chocolate.
 promise - I promise I’m not lying.
 realize - Do you realize the damage you’ve done?
 recognize - I didn't recognize you with that beard.
 remember - You don't remember me, but we've met previously.
 resemble - That bird resembles a raven.
 satisfy - Snickers satisfies.
 see - I see clearly over the horizon.
 seem - She seems nervous.
 smell - The beach smells terrible at low tide.
 sound - It sounds great!
 suppose - I suppose you’re right.
 surprise - He surprised me with tickets to New York.
 taste - The food tastes delicious.
 think - I think she's the best singer.
 understand - I don't understand.
 want - I want to live forever.
 weigh - He weighs 150 pounds.
 wish - I wish for more time.

STATE VERBS
Verbs are one of the most powerful parts of speech in the English language whether
that’s into sudden action or an obvious state of being. They take the subject of the
sentence and propel it forward, whether that’s into sudden action or an obvious state of
being.
3. Regular Verbs
Regular verbs — are verbs that only add -d or -ed in their past tense form.
 We walked to the concert. (walk becomes walked)
 Pauly lied to his friends. (lie becomes lied)
 The kids performed in the school play. (perform becomes performed)
 I smelled smoke in the hallway. (smell becomes smelled)

Regular Verb List

A regular verb is conjugated in a traditional form. For example, "bake" is a regular verb
because the past tense is "baked" and the future tense is "will bake." However, a word

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such as "write" is an irregular verb, because the past tense form is not "writed," but is
rather "wrote."

List of Regular Verbs in Sentences

Gain a better understanding of regular verbs and how they function in English with
sentences in different tenses. As long as you follow the rules for conjugation, it’s easy
to change the tense of these verbs.
 Maria accepts the award on his behalf.
 Maria accepted the award on his behalf.
 Maria will accept the award on his behalf

 I advise you to slow down.

 I advised you to slow down.
 I will advise you to slow down.

 The dogs amuse the baby.

 The dogs amused the baby.
 The dogs will amuse the baby.

 George begs for your forgiveness.

 George begged for your forgiveness.
 George will beg for your forgiveness.

 They bolt out the door.

 They bolted out the door.
 They will bolt out the door.

 Nothing compares to freshly squeezed orange juice.

 Nothing compared to freshly squeezed orange juice.
 Nothing will compare to freshly squeezed orange juice.

 Fido destroys all the furniture.

 Fido destroyed all the furniture.
 Fido will destroy all the furniture.

 Diane dresses for success.

 Diane dressed for success.
 Diane will dress for success.

 The hamster escapes from his cage.

 The hamster escaped from his cage.
 The hamster will escape from his cage.

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 Horace gazes out the window.

 Horace gazed out the window.
 Horace will gaze out the window.

 Stella heats up her dinner in the microwave.

 Stella heated up her dinner in the microwave.
 Stella will heat up her dinner in the microwave.

 Andy and Angela hug in a warm embrace.

 Andy and Angela hugged in a warm embrace.
 Andy and Angela will hug in a warm embrace.

 The off-color jokes offend the audience.

 The off-color jokes offended the audience.
 The off-color jokes will offend the audience.

 The heroes plug into the Matrix.

 The heroes plugged into the Matrix.
 The heroes will plug into the Matrix.

 The newlywed couple sail away on their honeymoon.

 The newlywed couple sailed away on their honeymoon.
 The newlywed couple will sail away on their honeymoon.
4. Irregular Verbs: is any verb that does not add -ed or -d to its past tense form is
considered an irregular verb. The word "irregular" makes it sound like these verbs
are rare, but you see them all the time in writing and conversation.
Examples of irregular verbs include:
 go (went)
 is (was)
 swim (swam)
 drink (drank)
 bring (brought)
Irregular verbs, sometimes known as strong verbs, are very common in English.
Example in a sentence
 I spoke to my neighbor. (speak becomes spoke)
 We saw the new action movie last night. (see becomes saw)
 The community felt nervous. (feel becomes felt)
 Nora made a beautiful speech at the wedding. (make becomes made)

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Excellent Grammar by Abdullahi Suleiman

TYPES OF IRREGULAR VERBS

Unlike regular verbs, irregular verbs don't follow patterns when changing tenses. They
don't follow the same rules for conjugation. However, there are four main types of
irregular verbs, and knowing these types might help you memorize them faster.
a. Irregular verbs with different forms in every tense
b. Irregular verbs with the same past tense and past participle
c. Irregular verbs that only change in past tense
d. Irregular verbs that never change

a. Irregular Verbs with Different Forms in Every Tense

To English learners, the trickiest irregular verbs are the ones that have different present
tense, past tense and past participle forms, which include the word "have" and the verb.
For example, the verb to be is the most irregular verb in the English language. It becomes:
 is/are in present tense (We are on vacation.)
 was/were in past tense (We were on vacation.)
 been in past participle (We have been on vacation.)
More examples of these irregular verbs include:
Present Tense Past Tense Past Participle
do did done
eat ate eaten
go went gone
have has had
see saw seen

It's hard to remember these verbs because each form is so different. However, native
English speakers and those who have been studying for a long time can choose the
correct form without thinking about it too much.
b. Irregular Verbs with the Same Past Tense and Past Participle
Some irregular verbs only change once. Their past tense and past participle forms are
the same, making it a little easier to decide how to conjugate them. For example, the
verb to keep becomes:
 keep in present tense (I keep my old yearbooks.)
 kept in past tense (I kept my old yearbooks.)
 kept in past participle (I have kept my hold yearbooks.)
More examples of these irregular verbs include:
Present Tense Past Tense Past Participle
buy bought bought
find found found
make made made
say said said
win won won
Once you know the past tense forms of these verbs, learning their past participle forms
is simple. The trick is knowing which verbs fall into this category.
c. Irregular Verbs That Only Change in Past Tense

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Several irregular verbs have the same present tense form and past participle form, but
not the same past tense form. For example, the verb to run becomes:
 run in present tense (They run together every day.)
 ran in past tense (They ran together last Saturday.)
 run in past participle (They have run together for years.)
The only other three examples of this type of irregular verbs are:
Present Tense Past Tense Past Participle
become became become
come came come
overcome overcame overcome
Because this type of irregular verb is not as common, you only need to memorize these
four verbs and their changes. Most of the time, the past participle doesn't match the
present tense form of a verb.
d. Irregular Verbs That Never Change
Finally, there are some irregular verbs that never change form. Most of these verbs end
in -t, so they're easier to identify when you're confused. For example, the verb to cut
remains:
 cut in present tense (I cut the carrots while she stirs.)
 cut in past tense (I cut the carrots yesterday.)
 cut in past participle (I have cut the carrots before.)
More examples of these irregular verbs include:
Present Tense Past Tense Past Participle
fit fit fit
hurt hurt hurt
let let let
put put put
set set set
The third-person present tense form of these verbs adds an -s (such as bets or fits), but
other than that, they don't change form in conjugation. That's why readers need to use
context clues with these verbs to make sure they know when an action is taking place.

Irregular Verb Exceptions

While the majority of irregular verbs fall into these categories, a few don't quite fit.
These verbs are:
 beat (becomes beat in past tense and beaten in past participle)
 read (still spelled the same, but pronounced "red" in past tense and past participle)
With the exception of these two, irregular verbs follow the above types. That's good
news for English learners — once you know which verbs go where, you can easily
memorize their conjugations.

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5. Transitive Verbs: Transitive verbs are a type of action verb that transfer their action
to another noun. This second noun is called a direct object, which receives the action
from the transitive verb.
 The teacher taught a lesson. (A lesson receives the action from taught.)
 We ordered a plate of nachos. (A plate of nachos receives the action from ordered.)
 Suzanne helped Michelle move. (Michelle receives the action from helped.)
 I met my husband ten years ago. (My husband receives the action from met.)

Examples of Transitive Verbs

Any verb that can take a direct object is a transitive verb — and transitive verbs always
take direct objects.
For example, the sentences “Alex sent” and “Marina put” don’t make sense, because
sent and put are both transitive nouns. They need a direct object to make sense. (“Alex
sent a postcard” and “Marina put the keys down” sound much better.)
More examples of transitive verbs include:
 My father took me to the movies for my birthday.
 Maimuna pushed Jamila when the teacher turned.
 My dog ate carrots off the floor.
 Aisha washed the dishes after dinner.
 Grandpa loaded the dishwasher for my mom.
 The cat caught the mouse before we could stop her.
 We learned German before our trip to Europe.
 My grandmother hugged me tightly.
 The clowns entertained the audience.
 Can you describe the suspect?
 I love you so much.
 We researched marine life before writing our report.
 Did we surprise Dad?
 I bought a car with my first paycheck.
 Rachel writes poetry.
 Let’s adopt a dog.
A sentence with a transitive verb may also have an indirect object — a noun that receives
the direct object. The indirect object might appear between the transitive verb and the
direct object (as in “Let’s adopt Joey a dog” or “Rachel wrote me a letter”), but the verb
is still transitive in these cases.
Transitive Verbs with Adjectives
You can add an adjective or modifier to the direct object, and the verb in the sentence is
still transitive.
 Did we surprise your dad?
 I bought a new car with my first paycheck.
 Rachel wrote beautiful poetry.
 Let’s adopt two dogs.

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Transitive vs. Intransitive Verbs

If a sentence doesn’t have a direct object at all, it’s an intransitive verb — a verb that
does not transfer its action to a noun. Examples of intransitive verbs include:
 Mark smiled.
 Taylor lived.
 I agree.
 The professor talked.
Intransitive verbs might come before prepositional phrases or adverbs, but they don’t
come before direct objects. That’s how you know they’re intransitive.
Mark smiled at his girlfriend. (At his girlfriend is a prepositional phrase, not an object)
Tajudeen lived in New York City.
The professor talked quickly. (Quickly is an adverb, not an object)
I agree completely. (Completely is an adverb, not an object)
Can Transitive Verbs Also Be Intransitive?
Some verbs can only be transitive (such as get, borrow, or bring), while some verbs can
only be intransitive (such as cry, live, and laugh). But many verbs can actually be both
transitive and intransitive — depending on their context.
 Transitive - She left the books on the table.
 Intransitive - She left at 6:00.

 Transitive - Delia walked the dog to the park.

 Intransitive - Delia walked to the park.

 Transitive - I play the piano.

 Intransitive - I play outside.

 Transitive - The class read a new book this afternoon.

 Intransitive - The class read this afternoon.

Tip for Remembering Transitive Verbs

The key to remembering transitive verbs is in the word transitive — specifically, its
prefix trans, which means “extending across.” The action from a verb extends across the
sentence, stretching from the verb to the direct object.
You can always test for a direct object by asking “What?” or “Whom?” after the verb.
If there’s an answer, it’s a transitive verb.
 She carried the bag home. (Carried what? The bag — so carried is transitive.)
 After the presentation, Joseph thanked Tatyana. (Thanked whom? Tatyana — so
thanked is transitive.)
 My train arrived late. (You can’t ask arrived what or arrived who — so arrived is
intransitive.)

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 The track team jogged down the street. (You can’t ask jogged what or jogged who
— so jogged is intransitive.)

6. Intransitive Verbs: An intransitive verb is a type of action verb that does not transfer
its action to another noun. That’s why it’s called intransitive — “not transferring.”
Intransitive verbs only need a subject to be a complete sentence.
 Maryam cried.
 We smiled.
 The baby laughs.
If you added a direct object (a noun that receives the action) to the ends of these
sentences, they wouldn’t make sense. They stand alone as full sentences.
For example, “The baby laughs the dog” isn’t correct. You need the preposition at to
make the sentence correct — “The baby laughs at the dog.”

Examples of Intransitive Verbs

Intransitive verbs make sense without direct objects. While some intransitive verbs also
make sense with direct objects, they don’t need them to function correctly.
Common examples of intransitive verbs include:
 agree
 arrive
 continue
 cry
 die
 exist
 float
 happen
 leave
 lie
 listen
 panic
 smile
 speak
 talk
 work

How to Use Intransitive Verbs in a Sentence

An intransitive verb only needs a subject to be a full sentence.
But you can also add adverbs to modify an intransitive verb, or you can add
prepositional phrases to include more detail. Because adverbs and prepositional phrases
aren’t nouns, the verbs are still intransitive.
Subject + Intransitive Verb With Adverb With Prepositional Phrase
She ran. She ran quickly. She ran across the street.

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Excellent Grammar by Abdullahi Suleiman

It rained. It rained a lot. It rained in Florida.

The car arrived. The car arrived late. The car arrived at 3:00.
Joshua lied. Joshua lied again. Joshua lied to me.
My store opened. My store opened last week. My store opened on Main Street.
We talked. We talked happily. We talked in the hallway.
The girls sang. The girls sang well. The girls sang with the choir.
My teacher listens. My teacher listens intently. My teacher listens to her students.
Her phone rang. Her phone rang frequently. Her phone rang at midnight.
Intransitive Verbs vs. Transitive Verbs
Unlike intransitive verbs, transitive verbs do transfer their action. Without direct objects,
they don’t make sense.
For example:
 That toy costs.
 Tanya got.
 I borrowed.
 Thomas put.
When you add nouns after these transitive verbs, the sentences are now correct.
That toy costs fifty dollars.
Tanya got a new car.
I borrowed Maria’s perfume.
Thomas put his pencil down.

Verbs That Can Be Transitive or Intransitive

Some verbs can be both intransitive and transitive, depending on their context. They can
take a direct object in some cases, but don’t need it in others.
 Intransitive - I ran to school.
 Transitive - I ran the mile at the track meet.

 Intransitive - The author writes at the coffee shop.

 Transitive - The author writes novels.

 Intransitive - Ava moved over the weekend.

 Transitive - Ava moved her purse out of the way.

 Intransitive - You should sing professionally.

 Transitive - You should sing the solo.

Tip for Remembering Intransitive Verbs

When trying to determine whether a verb is transitive or intransitive, just look at the
word after the verb.
 Is it a noun (or pronoun)?
 The verb is transitive.

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 Is it an adjective?
 The verb is transitive.
 Is it an adverb?
 The verb is intransitive.
 Is it a preposition?
 The verb is intransitive.

For example, in the sentence “I can’t see Susan through the crowd,” the noun Susan
follows the transitive verb see.
However, in the sentence “Susan waved at me,” the preposition at follows waved, so
waved is intransitive.

7. Linking Verbs: A linking verb connects the subject of a sentence with a word that
gives information about the subject, such as a condition or relationship. They do not
show any action; they simply link the subject with the rest of the sentence. For
example, in the sentence "They are a problem," the word are is the linking verb that
connects they and problem to show the relationship between the two words. The
most common linking verbs are forms of the verb "to be": am, is, are, was, were,
being, been. See more linking verb examples to fully understand the concept.

Linking Verb Examples Sentences

Since we've answered the question of "What is a linking verb?" Here are some examples
of linking verbs used in sentences with the linking verbs in bold:
 William is excited about his promotion.
 She seems upset about the announcement.
 The eggs smell rotten.
 He went red after tripping on the rug.
 Your wedding plans sound nice.
 You look exhausted after studying all night.
 I am putty in his hands.
 Maria might have been forthcoming with the news.
 Tom acted nervous when the teacher found the note.
 The audience fell silent when the conductor walked on stage.
 Dreams come true when we believe in them.
 The crowd stayed calm in spite of the imminent threat.
 All the children seem satisfied with the bouncy castle.
 Bob felt sleepy after eating the whole pizza.
 The cinnamon rolls taste heavenly.
 Building the house was difficult for them.

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Using Linking Verbs

Adding linking verbs to your writing is important for a sentence to make sense. Could
you imagine sentences without them? To learn more about this type of verb and its usage,
read all about linking verbs. Get the basics of what they are and how to identify them.

8. Auxiliary Verbs
Auxiliary verbs, also known as helping verbs, help the main verb of the sentence (known
as a participle) by extending its meaning. You’ll see them in verb phrases where one
verb doesn’t form a complete thought, or in perfect verb tenses.
 I have been there before.
 Paul doesn’t know his way home.
 He didn’t run for president.
 The dogs are playing in the yard.
Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs that show possibility or necessity. They always
accompany other action verbs.
 We will find the perfect pumpkin.
 Tiffany might want another helping of pie.
 I must finish this project tonight.
 The whole team should be there.

What Is an Auxiliary Verb?

Auxiliary verbs are a type of helping verb that establish verb tense. Unlike action verbs,
auxiliary verbs aren’t the only verb in the sentence. They always accompany other verbs.
The three main auxiliary verbs — the forms of be, have, and do — come before verbs
to show different verb tenses.
 Jamil is coming to my party.
 We were studying until midnight last night.
 My family has traveled to Iceland before.
 Oliver had been driving for six hours.
 I did vote for him in the last election.
Depending on which auxiliary verb you use, you can create the progressive aspect to
show current actions or the perfect aspect to show actions that are already finished.
Conjugating the Three Main Auxiliary Verbs
You’ll find be, have, and do in their conjugated forms to form different verb tenses.
Forms of “Be” Form of “Have” Forms of “Do”
be/being have do
am/is/are has does
was/were had did

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Excellent Grammar by Abdullahi Suleiman

How to Use “Be” in a Sentence

Forms of be appear in progressive verb tenses — tenses that show an action is happening
right at this moment. The action verb in these sentences is in the present participle form
(-ing).
 I am having another piece of pizza.
 Marissa is making dinner for us.
 Steve is starting a new personal training business.
 Christopher and Bernadette were traveling to Baton Rouge.
 We were planning our next vacation.
 It will be raining almost every day.

How to Use “Have” in a Sentence

You’ll find forms of the auxiliary verb have alongside verbs in the perfect verb tenses
to show actions that have been completed. The main verbs in these sentences are in their
past participle form.
 I have grown tomatoes before.
 Who has traveled to Colorado?
 He had asked if he could take that blanket.
 She had stolen the car by then.
 Beth has worked here for a long time.
 We have seen that movie before.
In perfect progressive sentences, you use both be and have with the main verb.
 He has been running for over an hour.
 I had been dreaming about you when you called.
 Dave has been working on the task all day.
 The plants will have been growing a month by the time the stakes arrive.

How to Use “Do” in a Sentence

The auxiliary verb do doesn’t set verb tense. Instead, it shows emphasis on the main
verb in the sentence, makes the main verb negative, or changes the sentence into a
question.
 I do find that show amusing. (Emphasis)
 Shirley does want to come over. (Emphasis)
 I do not find that show amusing. (Negative)
 Shirley doesn’t want to come over. (Negative)
 Do you find that show amusing? (Question)
 Does Shirley want to come over? (Question)

Auxiliary Verb vs. Modal Verb

Modal verbs, also called modal auxiliary verbs, are another type of helping verb that
express conditionality, necessity, obligation, ability, and wishful desire. Unlike the main

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auxiliary verbs, you can’t conjugate modal verbs, and they can’t establish verb tense
(unless there’s also an auxiliary verb in the sentence).
The modal verbs in English are:
 shall
 should
 will
 would
 may
 might
 can
 could
 must

Auxiliary Verbs and Modal Verbs in a Sentence

When you add auxiliary verbs to a sentence with a modal verb, you can show that the
main verb in the sentence happens in different time periods.
 Present tense - You should dance.
 Present progressive - You should be dancing.
 Past perfect - You should have danced.
 Past perfect progressive - You should have been dancing.

 Present tense - Erik must sing in the show.

 Present progressive - Erik must be singing in the show.
 Past perfect - Erik must have sung in the show.
 Past perfect progressive - Erik must have been singing in the show.

Auxiliary Verbs in the Passive Voice

You can also use auxiliary verbs (particularly be) in the passive voice. Sentences in the
active voice use the subject + verb + object (SVO) formula.
However, you can use auxiliary verbs to create the passive voice formula, which is
object + form of be + past participle verb + subject (OVS), or sometimes no subject at
all.
 Active voice - I moved the chair to the other side of the room.
 Passive voice - The chair was moved to the other side of the room.
 Active voice - Mrs. Martin canceled the field trip.
 Passive voice - The field trip was canceled.

Auxiliary Verbs for Questions

In English, you change a sentence into a question by putting the auxiliary verb first,
before the subject and the main verb of the sentence.
 Muhammad speaks Japanese.
 Does he speak Japanese?

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 Yakubu is graduating this year.

 Is Yakubu graduating this year?

Auxiliary Verbs in Answers

Auxiliary verbs often appear in the answers to questions as well as the questions
themselves. In casual speech or writing, they often replace the main verb in the question.
 Does Marco speak Japanese?
 Yes, he does.
 Is Yvonne graduating this spring?
 No, she isn’t.

Auxiliary Verbs in Tag Questions

We also use auxiliary verbs in tag questions, which are short questions added to the end
of a statement. If the statement is negative, the tag question is affirmative, and vice versa.
 Sheila has been to Japan twice, hasn't she?
 You're writing a book, aren't you?
 Bob doesn't bake a lot, does he?
 Your dad works at the bank, doesn't he?

9. Compound Verbs: When it comes to the parts of speech, nouns and verbs are among
the best known and intuitively understood. However, there are complications worth
discussing, as things aren't always as straightforward as you might expect. Keep
reading for the definition of compound verbs and examples of the four different
types of compound verbs.

What Is a Compound Verb?

A compound verb is made up of one or more words. They’re sometimes called serial
verbs because one verb follows another. You’ll often find compound verbs that share a
subject, such as in these examples.
 John swims and runs for exercise.
 I cook and clean when I get home from work.
 The children write their name and read the instructions on the worksheet.
In these sentences, the verbs are joined by the conjunction and. But there are four forms
of compound verbs that do not use conjunctions at all. These compound verbs use
multiple words to form a single verb.

Forms of Compound Verbs

Compound verbs are formed in several ways such as:
 Add a preposition in prepositional verbs,
 Make a phrase with a phrasal verb,
 Add a "helping" verb in a verb with auxiliaries,
 Make a phrase or combine two words together into a compound single-word verb.

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Each of these operate a little differently and the best way to understand them is to study
a variety of compound verb examples.

Adding a preposition in prepositional verbs

When a preposition combines with a verb to form a new verb, the result is a prepositional
verb. Prepositional verbs usually follow a noun and precede another noun or verbal
phrase.
Some examples include: Believe in, ask for, rely upon, laugh at and listen to e.t.c
 I believe in respecting our elders.
 Why does Timmy always ask for more ice cream?
 The success of this campaign relies upon voter turnout.
 Don’t laugh at my dad’s new haircut.
 Listen to my question before coming up with a response.

Make a phrase with a phrasal verb,

When a verb combines with an adverb, the result is a phrasal verb. Words like up, in,
out, and down are common adverbs in phrasal verbs, even though they can also be used
as prepositions in other contexts. Unlike prepositional verbs, phrasal verbs are idiomatic
and aren’t translated literally.
Some examples of phrasal verbs include:
 Sharon looks up to her older sister.
 Can you throw out the garbage?
 Try to get along with your brother.
 Most people take down their holiday decorations by January 1.
 Let’s turn off the television after this show.

Add a "helping" verb in a verb with auxiliaries,

In this form, a verb combines with another verb called a helping, or auxiliary, verb.
Common helping verbs are have, has, had, am, be, been, is, are, was, or were, and modal
helping verbs include can, could, may, should, and will. Together with another verb,
they form a compound verb.
For example:
 Joe was walking down the street last night.
 The council will meet to discuss the issue tomorrow.
 Jack and Jill are running up the hill.
 My friends are planning a big surprise party for me.
 I should start my homework soon.

Make a phrase or combine two words together into a compound single-

word verb.
Sometimes a single verb is a combination of multiple words. Both words might be verbs
or one of the words might be a descriptor word. The words may run together as one

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word or they may be joined by a hyphen. Regardless of the spelling, when used together,
the words function as a single verb.
For example:
 Jessica babysits Carson and his sister Stella on Saturday nights.
 Gerald really wants to waterproof the deck this weekend.
 Can you have someone proofread your essay before turning it in?
 It’s important to check your facts and not become brainwashed by misinformation.
 The airline overbooked our flight, so we received vouchers for the next one.

Sentences with Compound Verbs

An even better way to illustrate how compound verbs function is to see them in action
in example sentences.
 Mary will take off her makeup before bed.
 The town was destroyed by the tornado.
 Everything will work out eventually.
 I had water-proofed the boat, but not well enough.
 We opted for the cheaper room without a view.
 He was looking for a nice place to camp.
 Someone will need to proofread my manuscript.
 The meeting will reconvene in an hour.
 Egg cartons can soundproof a room.
 We really need to air-condition the house.
 John will babysit for us tonight.
 Sometimes we second guess the outcome.
 I really want to test-drive that sports car.
 Dad will be waiting at the train station.
 The cashier shortchanged me fifty cents.
 You will be amazing in the role.

Compound Verbs in Quotes

You can also see compound verbs in action via these quotes.
 "I look forward to an America which will not be afraid of grace and beauty." -
President John F. Kennedy
 "Although all three musicians had been playing earlier that night, they had not
been together." - Erik Nisenson, Open Sky: Sonny Rollins And His World Of
Improvisation
These examples of compound verbs show the many ways that this grammar tool can be
used to further enhance the verb in a sentence. When you're ready to learn more, check
out our resources on helping verbs and linking verbs too.

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SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT RULES, SIMPLIFIED

Subject-verb agreement means that you’re using singular verbs with singular nouns and
plural verbs with plural nouns. The verbs then “agree” with the subject of the sentence,
which can be a noun or a pronoun.
Examples of subject-verb agreement include:
 Mike plays the guitar. (Mike is singular, plays is singular)
 My friends play the guitar. (My friends is plural, play is plural)
 She laughs at everything. (She is singular, laughs is singular)
 They laugh at everything. (They is plural, laugh is plural)

What Are the Rules of Subject-Verb Agreement?

Most times, you can tell if a sentence has proper subject-verb agreement by reading it
out loud. “The children laugh at the clown” doesn’t sound correct to English speakers,
so the subject-verb agreement error is easy to spot and fix.
However, there are specific subject-verb agreement rules to follow in case the answer
isn’t obvious in a specific sentence.
Seven common rules for subject-verb agreement with examples from the article.

a. Subjects and Verbs Must Agree in Number

Singular subjects, specifically third-person singular nouns and pronouns (he, she, it),
get singular verbs. Everything else gets plural verbs.

 My dog growls when he is angry. (Singular)

 My dogs growl when they are angry. (Plural)

 She doesn’t like watermelon. (Singular)

 They don’t like watermelon. (Plural)

b. Don’t Use Singular Verbs with “I” or “You”

Even though the pronouns I and you are singular, they don’t agree with singular verbs.
Make sure you conjugate first and second-person sentences correctly as well.

 He doesn’t like lobster. (Correct — he is singular)

 I doesn’t like lobster. (Incorrect — I uses a plural verb)
 I don’t like lobster. (Correct)

 She has a beautiful home. (Correct — she is singular)

 You has a beautiful home. (Incorrect — you uses a plural verb)
 You have a beautiful home. (Correct)

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c. Subjects Agree with Verbs, Even When They Are Separated

When phrases or clauses come between the subject and verb, don’t make the last word
of the phrase agree with the verb. Find the actual subject of the sentence (which might
be far from the verb) to follow subject-verb agreement.

 People who live in Wisconsin are used to cold weather. (The subject is people,
not Wisconsin)
 The colors of the rainbow are beautiful. (The subject is colors, not rainbow)

d. Use Plural Verbs for Compound Subjects Using “And”

Treat compound subjects as plural nouns, and use plural verbs for subject-verb
agreement.
 The cow and the pig make a lot of noise.
 Billy and Jake go to the same school.
e. Use Singular Verbs for Singular Compound Subjects Using “Or”
If singular subjects are connected by the conjunctions or, neither/nor, or either/or, the
verb is singular. (Try to remove one subject and see if the verb still works.)
 A hamburger or a hot dog sounds great for lunch.
 Either Jessica or Christian drives a Toyota.
 Neither my mom nor my dad wants to go to the movies.
f. Use Plural Verbs for Plural Compound Subjects Using “Or”
If subjects connected by or, neither/nor, or either/or are both plural, the verb is also
plural. (Same rule as above — remove one subject and see if it works.)
 Spiders or cockroaches live under the house.
 Either my sisters or my cousins bring soda to the party.
 Neither our team nor our rival team like to play in the rain.
g. If Compound Subjects Have Both Singular and Plural Nouns, Match the Second
One to the Verb
When compound subjects joined by or, neither/nor, or either/or have both a singular and
a plural noun, use the verb form of the second subject — the one that is closest to the
verb.
 Either my friends or my mom drives me to school.
 Either my mom or my friends drive me to school.
“Each” and “Every” Get Singular Verbs
If the singular determiner each or every comes before the subject, the verb is singular.
 Every employee arrives on time.
 Each cat meows in a different way.

Indefinite Pronouns Must Agree with Verbs

Most indefinite pronouns use singular verbs, including pronouns that end in -one, -body,
and -thing.

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 Everything feels better after a good conversation.

 Nobody understands how I feel.
 Anyone is welcome at the carnival.
However, plural indefinite pronouns (including few, many, and several) also must agree
with these verbs, so use plural verbs when using these pronouns.
 Few know the truth of the hidden treasure.
 Many choose a different career path than their parents.
 Several request help with the new computer system.

Treat Collective Nouns Like Singular Nouns

In American English, collective nouns (such as team or family) are treated as singular
nouns, so they require singular verbs.
 The herd heads south to find more water.
 My basketball team needs to find a new place to practice.

Use Singular Verbs for Units of Measure

When the subject is a unit of measurement, use singular verbs (since units of
measurement are considered collective nouns).
 Four quarts of milk costs twelve dollars.
 Ten minutes is enough time to get there.

Use Singular Verbs for Gerunds

When gerunds (-ing words that function as nouns) or gerund phrases act as the subject
of a sentence, they take the singular form of the verb. If more than one gerund appears
as the subject, treat it like a compound subject.
 Studying with friends helps me prepare for the test.
 Swimming in the ocean and playing drums are my hobbies.

Use Singular Verbs for Titles of Published Works

Titles of books, movies, novels, and other similar works are treated as singular and take
a singular verb — even when the last word of the title is plural.
 The Hunger Games is my favorite book.
 Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs was the first full-length animated movie.

Verbs Don’t Agree with “Here” or “There”

When sentences start with here or there (known as dummy subjects), the subject comes
after the verb. Don’t match the verb with here or there in these cases; find the word that
here or there refers to when choosing a verb form.
 There is a problem with the balance sheet. (Problem is the singular subject)
 Here are the papers you requested. (The papers is the plural subject)

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Match the Subject with the Verb in Questions

Subjects don't always come before verbs in questions. Make sure you accurately identify
the subject before deciding on the proper verb form to use.
 Where are the pieces of this puzzle?
 Where is the key I left on the desk?

FINITE VERB
A sentence needs a subject and a verb to be complete. But why does that verb need to
be finite, and what’s the difference between finite and non-finite verbs? Keep reading
to find the meanings and examples of both types of verbs, and why you’ll never mistake
them again.

What is a Finite Verb?

A finite verb is the main verb in a sentence. It’s the root word that drives the rest of the
sentence. Almost every verb in the English language can be used as a finite verb as long
as it has these qualities in a sentence:
 a subject
 agreement with the subject
 a tense (present or past)
Every sentence must have a finite verb – even sentences that are not in the present or
past tenses. Finite verbs can stand alone in a sentence or as part of a verb phrase. If there
is more than one verb in the sentence, the finite verb is usually the one closest to the
subject.

Examples of Finite Verbs

It’s easier to find finite verbs in a sentence than it seems. No matter how long or short
the sentence is, there is always at least one finite verb.
 Orlando swims three times a week.
 I cooked dinner last Thursday.
 Shawna is a teacher.
 We had a chemistry lesson yesterday.
 Our study group worked really late last night.
The rest of the sentence depends on the finite verb. Finite verbs can be action verbs or
helping verbs. They can appear in both dependent and independent clauses, as long as
they have a subject, agree with that subject, and are set in either present or past tense.

Finite Verbs vs. Non-Finite Verbs

Non-finite verbs are as easy to understand as finite verbs. If a verb doesn’t have a subject
or a tense, or is part of a verb phrase, it’s a non-finite verb. Examples of verbs that can
function as non-finite verbs include verbal’s, such as:
 infinitives (“to” + verb)
 participles (verbs that function as adjectives)

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 gerunds (“ing” verbs that function as nouns)

Verbals function as parts of speech other verbs, so they can’t be the finite verb in a
sentence. They also can’t be the only verb in a sentence; finite verbs must accompany
non-finite verbs to establish both the subject and tense of a sentence.

Examples of Finite Verbs vs. Non-Finite Verbs

Most sentences that include a phrase have both finite and non-finite verbs. The trick is
telling them apart, which you can do by identifying the subject and tense of the sentence.
Combining finite and non-finite verbs creates the 12 different verb tenses.
Here are some examples of sentences written with only finite verbs, and then again with
both finite and non-finite verbs. The finite verbs are bolded and the non-finite verbs are
underlined.
 Paul wrote a story. (past tense; finite verb only)
 Paul was writing a story. (past progressive tense; past-tense finite verb and present
participle)
 Paul had written a story. (past perfect tense; past-tense finite verb and past
participle)
 My family celebrates birthdays together. (present tense; finite verb only)
 My family likes to celebrate birthdays together. (present tense; present-tense
finite verb and infinitive)
 My family has always celebrated birthdays together. (present perfect tense;
present-tense finite verb and past participle)
 Charlie wants a puppy. (present tense; finite verb only)
 Charlie is wanting a puppy. (present progressive tense; present-tense finite verb
and present participle)
 Charlie has been wanting a puppy. (present perfect progressive tense; present-
tense finite verb and present participle)
Sentences can (and usually do) include both finite and non-finite verbs.
 My sister went to college to become a doctor.
 The class was reprimanded for behaving badly at the assembly.
 I was raking the leaves when I saw a caterpillar on the ground.
 We have been working on the school musical for months.
Basically, if a word ends in -ing, comes after “to,” or follows a finite verb in a verb
phrase, it’s a non-finite verb. These verbs are important when filling out the larger
picture of a sentence, but not in establishing subject or present vs. past tense.
Modal Verbs
Verbs such as will, would, shall, should, might, must, ought to, could, and can are known
as modal auxiliary verbs. Modal verbs do not change their tense, but when they are in a
sentence, they are the finite verbs. There are no non-finite forms of modals because they
are not parts of verb phrases.
For example:

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 You should clean your room.

 My professor might give us an extension on our project.
 Can you tell me the time?
 I will pack Javier’s lunch later this afternoon.
It may seem odd that modal verbs are actually finite verbs. Keep in mind that the verbs
that follow modal verbs are known as bare infinitives – infinitives without the word “to”
but that are still used as an infinite would be. Modal verbs can be used in several sentence
moods, including indicative, subjunctive, and conditional sentences, but are always
finite verbs whenever they appear.

CONJUGATED VERB
A conjugated verb is a verb that has been altered from its base form; but, as with all
things grammar-related, it's a little more complicated than that. Let's take a look at how
verbs are conjugated and the different things they communicate when they are.

What is Conjugated Verb?

C onjugated Verbs are verbs which have been changed to communicate one or more
of the following: person, number, gender, tense, aspect, mood, or voice. Those
will be explained in detail in just a moment: but first, here's an example of the
irregular verb "break" conjugated in several different ways.

Present Tenses
Present tense tells us what is happening at the current moment. There are three main
present tenses: present simple, present progressive (continuous), and present perfect.
Present Simple Present Progressive Present Perfect
I break I am breaking I have broken
you break you are breaking you have broken
he, she, it breaks he, she, it is breaking he, she, it has broken
we break we are breaking we have broken

Past Tenses
Past tense indicates that an action has already occurred, and is no longer occurring. Past
simple, past progressive, and past perfect are the main past tenses.
Past Simple Past Progressive Past Perfect
I broke I was breaking I had broken
you broke you were breaking you had broken
he, she, it broke he, she, it was breaking he, she, it had broken
we broke we were breaking we had broken

Future Tenses
Future tenses tell us that something will happen in the future. The main future tenses are
future simple, future progressive, and future perfect.

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Future Simple Future Progressive Future Perfect

I will break I will be breaking I will have broken
you will break you will be breaking you will have broken
he, she, it will break he, she, it will be breaking he, she, it will have broken
we will break we will be breaking we will have broken
As you can see, each different conjugation changes "break" from its base form to tell us
when and by whom the action takes place. Conjugated verbs give us a lot of information!

Conjugated Verbs Communicate

A verb conjugation can communicate a lot of detail about a verb. When a verb is
conjugated properly, it can tell us:
 who is performing the action
 how many people are performing the action?
 the gender of the person performing the action (not in English)
 when the verb is happening
 whether the action is still happening
Conjugated verbs also tell us about the sentence’s mood and voice, which is important
for reader comprehension. Take a look at the different ways conjugated verbs help
writers communicate.
Person
It's a bit redundant in English because we almost always state a subject explicitly in our
sentences, but still, our conjugated verbs often go with specific subjects. For example,
"am" is a present tense conjugation of the verb "be," and it is the form that goes with the
subject "I." Using "I" (or "we") also indicates that the speaker is speaking in first person
as opposed to second person ("you") or third person ("he," "she," "it," "they").
Number
It is clearer in other languages, but conjugated verbs in English can also sometimes tell
us something about how many people are participating in the action of the verb. This is
called subject-verb agreement.
For example, singular subjects (he, she, it) in the present simple tense have an "s" added
to them when conjugated:
 He sings.
 She reads.
 It rains.
Plural subjects (you, we, they) do not have an "s" on the end:
 You sing.
 We read.
 They play.

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Excellent Grammar by Abdullahi Suleiman

English is a little tricky here because "you" can be singular or plural, but in other
languages, the differentiation between singular and plural subjects is very clear in the
conjugated verb endings.
GENDER
In some languages, though not English, conjugated verbs can indicate the gender of the
subject. Languages that use gender in their conjugation include Russian, Tamil, Arabic,
Hebrew, and Bantu languages. Romance languages, such as Spanish, French and Italian,
use grammatical gender in their nouns but not their verb conjugations.
TENSE
The verb tense indicates the time at which the action of the verb takes place. Past tense
verbs, for example, tell us that the action took place in the past. Present tense indicates
the action is happening at this very moment, or that it happens regularly in the present
state of things, or that it is true up to the present moment.

ASPECT
The aspect of a verb tells us the degree to which it is completed. There are continuous
(or progressive) aspects that tell us the action is in progress, there are perfect aspects
that tell us the action is complete up to a certain point in time, and there are simple
aspects that are just that: simple.
Examples of different aspects include:
 present simple - I bake.
 present progressive - I am baking.
 present perfect - I have baked.
The action is the same, but the conjugation lets us know whether the baking is still
happening or has already happened. Present, past and future tenses each have four
possible aspects.

MOOD
The sentence mood is like the purpose of the sentence in which a verb is used. The
stative (or indicative) mood, for example, is used to make a statement. The interrogative
mood is for questions, and the conditional mood is for sentences that pose possible
scenarios and the outcomes that depend on them. The imperative mood gives commands
or instructions, and the subjunctive mood creates hypothetical situations.
For example:
 Stative mood - Juan did his homework.
 Interrogative mood - Has Juan done his homework?
 Conditional mood - Juan should do his homework or he’ll fail the class.
 Imperative mood - Do your homework!
 Subjunctive mood - If I were Juan, I would do my homework.

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VOICE
You've probably heard people talk about active and passive voice. In active voice, the
verb indicates that the subject of the sentence is the one doing the action. In passive
voice, the subject is the recipient of the action done by someone/something else.

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CHAPTER THREE
VERB TENSES

A
ctions can take place in the past, present, or future. So does that mean there are
three verb tenses? Sort of. Each of those three verb tenses can take four different
aspects — which means there are actually 12 verb tenses. That may sound
overwhelming (who has time to memorize 12 verb tenses?!), but you probably use each
of these verb tenses on a regular basis already.

1. Simple Present Tense

2. Simple Past Tense
3. Simple Future Tense
4. Present Continuous Tense
5. Past Continuous Tense
6. Future Continuous Tense
7. Present Perfect Tense
8. Past Perfect Tense
9. Future Perfect Tense
10.Present Perfect Continuous Tense
11.Past Perfect Continuous Tense
12.Future Perfect Continuous Tense

What Is a Verb Tense?

A verb tense is the way you change a verb based on the time period when it happened
(known as conjugation).
The three main verb tenses are past, present, and future.
Past tense actions that happened before this moment I visited my grandmother.
Present tense actions that are happening at this moment I visit my grandmother.
Future tense actions that will happen after this moment I will visit my grandmother.

What Are Verb Aspects?

Verb aspects show the state of an action, including whether it is ongoing or completed.
If you’d like to get more precise with your timing, you use one of the four aspects within
each verb tense.
Simple aspect simply expresses an I visit my grandmother
action
Progressive (Or shows a current ongoing I am visiting my
Continuous) Aspect action grandmother
Perfect Aspect shows a completed action I have visited my
grandmother.

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Perfect progressive aspect shows an ongoing action I have been visiting my

that spans more than one grandmother.
time period
All of the above examples are in present tense (simple present, present progressive,
present perfect, present perfect progressive). But you can also add these aspects to past
and future tenses.
English verb tense chart with examples in each tense.
Past tense Perfect tense Future tense
Simple I walked to the I walk to the store I will walk to the
store store
Progressive I was walking to I am walking to the I will be walking
the store store to the store
Perfect I had walked to the I have walked to I will have walked
store the store to the store
Perfect I had been walking I have been I will have been
progressive to the store walking to the walking to the
store store

Past Tense Verb Tenses

When you use the past tense, you’re talking about an action that happened before this
moment. It could have been yesterday, last week, or a hundred years ago — it’s all in
the past.

Simple Past Tense

Simple past tense is the most basic form of past tense.
For regular verbs, add -ed or -d to the end of a verb (play becomes played, use becomes
used).
For irregular verbs, you’ll need to change the word’s spelling in the past tense ( hide
becomes hid, see becomes saw).
 I walked to work yesterday.
 Jamilu danced with her sisters.
 Nusaiba traveled to Maduguri.
 My alarm rang at seven o’clock.
 Ele ate a candy bar.

Past Progressive Tense

Past progressive tense (also called past continuous tense) indicates that an ongoing
action occurred in the past.
Form it with the helping verb was or were and the main verb’s present participle (ending
in -ing).
 I was walking to work yesterday.

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 Jamilu was dancing with her sisters.

 Nusaiba was traveling to Mexico.
 My alarm was ringing at seven o’clock.
 Ele was eating a candy bar.

Past Perfect Tense

In past perfect tense, the action was completed before another action began. Use it by
adding had to the main verb’s past participle.
 I had walked to work many times before.
 Jamilu had danced with her sisters before the music stopped.
 Nusaiba had traveled to Mexico in 1999.
 My alarm had rung before eight o’clock.
 Ele had eaten a candy bar before dinner.

Past Perfect Progressive Tense

Past perfect progressive tense combines the progressive and perfect aspects to show an
ongoing action that was completed before another action.
Use had been and the present participle form of the verb to form the past perfect
progressive tense.
 I had been walking to work when I lost my phone.
 Jamilu had been dancing with her sisters when she saw John walk in.
 Nusaiba had been traveling to Mexico when he heard the news.
 My alarm had been ringing for several minutes before I woke up.
 Ele had been eating a candy bar when she began to feel sick.

Present Tense Verb Tenses

Present tense shows that an action is happening right now, or that it happens constantly.
Unlike the past tense, present tense verbs require subject-verb agreement (singular
subject gets singular verbs, plural subjects get plural verbs).
Simple Present Tense
Simple present tense uses the basic form of a verb in the simple present, unless the
subject is in the singular third person (he, she, it).
 I walk to work every day.
 Jamilu dances with her sisters.
 Nusaiba travels to Mexico.
 My alarm rings at seven.
 Ele eats a candy bar.

Present Progressive Tense

Like past progressive tense, present progressive tense shows an ongoing action — but
verbs in the present progressive tense are still ongoing in the present moment.

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Add am, is, or are to the present participle of the main verb.
 I am walking to work.
 Jamilu is dancing with her sisters.
 Nusaiba is traveling to Mexico.
 My alarm is ringing.
 Ele is eating a candy bar.

Present Perfect Tense

Verbs in present perfect tense show actions that started in the past and continue up to —
or into — the present.
Use has or have with the past participle (yes, it’s still present perfect, even if you’re
using the past participle).
 I have walked to work for 10 days in a row.
 Jamilu has danced at every family wedding.
 Nusaiba has traveled to Mexico many times.
 My alarm has rung at seven o’clock every morning.
 Ele has eaten a candy bar after school every day.

Present Perfect Progressive Tense

Combine the perfect and progressive aspects in present perfect progressive tense, which
shows ongoing actions that began in the past, continued in the present, and will still
continue in the future.
Use has been or have been with the present participle of the main verb.
 I have been walking every day.
 Jamilu has been dancing with her sisters for two hours.
 Nusaiba has been traveling to Mexico all afternoon.
 My alarm has been ringing since seven o’clock.
 Ele has been eating a candy bar while we’ve been talking.

Future Tense Verb Tenses

A future tense verb tells you an action that will take place at some point, but hasn’t
happened yet. You can use the modal verb will in front of your verb, or you can use the
verb phrase is going to.
Simple Future Tense
The simple future tense describes a single event that has yet to occur. Just add the verb
will (or is/am/are going to) in front of the basic verb.
 I will walk to work tomorrow.
 Jamilu will dance with her sisters.
 Nusaiba will travel to Mexico next week.
 My alarm will ring at seven o’clock.
 Ele is going to eat a candy bar tonight.

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Future Progressive Tense

Future progressive tense shows an ongoing action that will occur in the future. Use will
be and the present participle of the verb.
 I will be walking to work tomorrow.
 Jamilu will be dancing with her sisters at the wedding.
 Nusaiba will be traveling to Maduguri next week.
 My alarm will be ringing at seven o’clock.
 Ele is going to be eating a candy bar tonight.

Future Perfect Tense

Future perfect tense indicates that an action will be completed in the future before
another action begins.
Form it with will have and the past participle form of the main verb.
 I will have walked to work by the time the meeting starts.
 Jamilu will have danced with her sisters by the time the wedding ends.
 Nusaiba will have traveled to Mexico several times by his 50th birthday.
 My alarm will have rung before the sun comes up.
 Ele will have eaten a candy bar by the time dinner is ready.

Future Perfect Progressive Tense

The future perfect progressive tense suggests an ongoing action that will continue to
sometime in the future (usually indicated by context clues in the sentence).
Use will have been and the present participle form of the verb.
 After today, I will have been walking to work for 10 days straight.
 By the time the wedding ends, Jamilu will have been dancing with her sisters for
four hours.
 Nusaiba will have been traveling to Mexico for three days by the time he gets
there.
 My alarm will have been ringing for several minutes by the time I finally hear it.
 By the time we finish talking, Ele will have been eating a candy bar for a half
hour.

Main Verb in a Sentence

Verbs show the action that occurs in a sentence. They're easy enough to find when a
sentence only has one verb, but how can you find the main verb in a longer sentence?
Learn more about identifying the main verb in the context of a sentence with several
main verb examples.

Main Verb Basics: What Is a Main Verb?

To understand main verbs, you need to know the parts of a sentence. Sentences consist
of a few main parts:

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 Subject (who performs the action)

 Main verb (the action)
 Object (who or what receives the action)
Sometimes you'll also find a helping verb before the main verb. Main verbs, also known
as principal verbs, lexical verbs or finite verbs, have several functions. First, action verbs
carry out the action of the sentence. Main verb examples include:
 I worked at the beach yesterday.
 Isaac travels to Europe.
 My sister played on the football team.
Forms of the verb "to be" and other linking verbs can be main verbs that express a state
of being. For example:
 Pedro is a college freshman.
 Grandma was the best basketball player at her school.
 We are ready to make a decision.
Other main verbs are transitive verbs that connect nouns to more information. These
verbs require an object to make sense. For example:
 Those flowers smell good.
 The weather seems fine today.
 Paul borrowed the car.
When there's only one verb in the sentence, it's pretty easy to identify it as the main verb.
But what happens when you start using verb phrases?
Identifying the Main Verb in a Verb Phrase
If you're putting your sentence in a verb tense besides past or present, you're using a
verb phrase. Verb phrases consist of a helping verb (usually forms of "to be," "to have"
or "will") that place the main verb in the proper time period.
In the present-tense sentence "I study Spanish," study is the main verb because it
conveys the action. Check out how adding helping verbs (which are italicized) changes
the timing of the sentence, but not the action.

Progressive Tenses Perfect Tenses Perfect Progressive

Tenses
Present: I am studying Present: I have studied Present: I have been
Spanish. Spanish. studying Spanish.
Past: I was studying Past: I had studied Past: I had been studying
Spanish. Spanish. Spanish.
Future: I will be studying Future: I will have studied Future: I will have been
Spanish. Spanish. studying Spanish.
You can change the helping verbs to establish when the action takes place, but the main
verb (study) is always the same. That's one way to identify the main verb: if the timing
of the sentence changed, which action would remain the same?

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Identifying the Main Verb with Verbal Phrases

Verbals are verbs that function as nouns, adjectives or adverbs. When you use verbals
or verbal phrases in a sentence, finding the main verb can be confusing because it looks
like there is more than one verb in the sentence. However, this is not the case.
In "The kids played outside," played is the main verb. But what happens when the
sentence includes a verbal phrase (in italics)?
 Gerund phrase - The kids loved playing outside.
 Infinitive phrase - The kids loved to play outside.
 Participial phrase - The playing kids loved being outside.
The action verb play is no longer the main verb; it's part of the verbal phrase. The main
verb in each sentence is now the transitive verb loved. Be sure that the main verb is
actually conveying what the subject of the sentence is doing, not just what the most
interesting part of the sentence is.
Identifying the Main Verb with Modal Verbs
Many readers think that a modal verb, such as should, must or can, is the main verb in a
sentence. However, like helping verbs, modal verbs only exist to support main verbs.
For example, the sentence "I should to the store" doesn't make sense; should is not a
main verb.
Take a look at example sentences where the main verb is bolded and the modal verb is
italicized.
 She would swim in the pool.
 You may run to Fairy Hill.
 I might go to the party.
Modal verbs have no tense, but they express different shades of meaning in a sentence.
While they're an important part of a verb phrase, modal verbs are never the main verb.
Identifying the Main Verb in Compound Predicates
Sometimes a subject performs more than one action in a sentence. These verbs, known
as compound predicates or compound verbs, hold equal importance to the sentence's
meaning and are both considered main verbs. For example:
 Shamu runs and plays in the field.
 We talked and laughed until the sun came up.
 I've been cooking and cleaning all day.

These types of compound verbs are separated by coordinating conjunctions, typically

"and." Both verbs need to be the same type of verb, so they both should be action verbs,
linking verbs, or transitive verbs. For example, the sentence "Shamsu is and plays in the
field" doesn't make sense because is is a state of being and plays is an action verb.

Identifying the Main Verb in Longer Sentences

Now that you know how to find the main verb in a simple sentence, you can identify the
main verb in other types of sentences. There is usually one main verb per independent
clause.

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 In compound sentences, there are two independent clauses, so the sentence has
two main verbs. (For example, in "I ordered a coffee and Safiyya asked for an
iced tea," both ordered and asked are main verbs.)
 In complex sentences, there is one independent clause and one dependent clause,
so the main verb will be in the independent clause. (For example, in "I ordered a
coffee because I needed to wake up," ordered is the main verb because it's in the
independent clause; "needed" is in the dependent clause.)
 In compound-complex sentences, there are at least two independent clauses and
one dependent clause, so there will be a main verb in each independent clause.
(For example, in "I ordered a coffee and Safiyya asked for an iced tea, since we
both wanted a drink," only ordered and asked are main verbs because "wanted" is
in the dependent clause.)
If you're having trouble identifying which clause is the independent clause, just
consider which action is the most important in the sentence. When both verbs are
equally important, you're probably looking at two independent clauses, so both verbs
would be main verbs.

Examples of Infinitive Verbs

An infinitive verb is the word "to" followed by a verb. If you are going to study, or to
drive, or to cook, you are using infinitive verbs. Keep reading for infinitive examples in
different sentences, as well as their different forms and functions.
Examples of Common Infinitive Verbs
You can form an infinitive verb by adding "to" in front of any base verb. Infinitive verbs
are not conjugated like other verbs; they stay in their infinitive forms in a sentence.
Examples of common infinitive verbs include:
 to be (I want to be an astronaut.)
 to dream (James dares to dream about getting the job.)
 to have (We're going to have a baby.)
 to hold (Do you want to hold the puppy?)
 to look (I'm afraid to look at the messy room.)
 to read (The first graders are learning to read this year.)
 to write (I'm planning to write a letter to the company.)
 to sleep (It's time to sleep.)
 to throw (If Gina doesn't get her way, she's going to throw a tantrum.)
 to want (It's natural to want your team to win.)
Even though infinitives include verbs, they are not verbs. Infinitive verbs are verbals,
which means they can be used as nouns, adjectives or adverbs. Depending on the words
they follow, infinitives can function as different parts of a sentence, but not verbs.

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Examples of Infinitive Verbs as Nouns

Infinitives can function as nouns when they follow particular verbs. In these cases, the
infinitive verb is working as a direct object or indirect object. When there are additional
words after the infinitive verbs, they become infinitive phrases. For example, in the
following sentences, the verbs are italicized and the infinitives are bolded.
 We decided to go out.
 I want to swim in the pool.
 Mom loves to give gifts.
 Do you swear to tell the truth?
 I'd prefer to see an action movie.
 He reminded her to go downtown.
 To dance is my little girl's dream.
 I would like to thank you for coming out tonight.
 He does not like to drink soda from a can.
 I forgot to take my vitamins today.
These infinitive verbs and phrases answer the questions "What?" posed by the verbs in
the sentences. For example, in the first sentence, "We decided to go out," the infinitive
phrase "to go out" answers the question "What did we decide?"
Examples of Infinitive Verbs as Adjectives
Infinitives can also modify nouns in a sentence. When infinitive verbs act as adjectives,
they describe the noun that they follow.
 Do you have any laundry to wash?
 My favorite meal to make is macaroni and cheese.
 The best method to use is the hands-on method.
 The Superbowl is the game to watch.
 Peter is a difficult guy to understand.
 He certainly gave me something to think about.
 That watch is a valuable heirloom to pass down.
 This is the most important thing to know.
 You'll always have a sister to confide in.
 History is my least favorite subject to study.
Unlike infinitives that act as nouns in the sentence, adjectival infinitives answer the
question "What kind?" For example, in the sentence "Do you have any laundry to
wash?" the infinitive "to wash" clarifies why kind of laundry you're looking for.

Examples of Infinitive Verbs as Adverbs

When infinitives follow an adjective, they're functioning as adverbs. They can also
modify the verb in the sentence to answer the question "Why?" For example:
 Billie is finally ready to go.
 I climbed the mountain to see the view.

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 Read the manual to understand more about repairing the stereo.

 Cameron travels to see the world.
 I bought a patch to stop smoking.
 My dad will be so happy to meet you!
 You are so easy to talk to.
 Kelly went to the store to buy apples.
 Let's buy snow gear to go skiing.
 I went to college to become an engineer.
Notice that any of these infinitives can appear in any sentence. It all depends on how
they're functioning and what they're modifying. No matter what, infinitives are a great
way to add more detail to a sentence.

Examples of Bare Infinitives

You've seen several examples of infinitive verbs that include the word "to" — but not
every infinitive does. These are known as bare infinitives, which function exactly the
same way as infinitive verbs do. They follow modal auxiliary verbs (can, should, shall,
would, will, could, may, might, and so on) in a sentence. For example:
 I can wait for the results. (NOT "I can to wait for the results")
 Should we call our parents? (NOT "Should we to call our parents?")
 Henry might lend us his truck. (NOT "Henry might to lend us his truck.")
 Our family will be okay. (NOT "Our family will to be okay.)
These infinitives function as objects to the modal verbs (I can what? I can wait) in the
sentences. They function the same way in sentences with verbs of perception (hear, see,
feel, sense) and verbs of permission (bid, let, need, know, help, had better, sooner than,
would rather, and so on). For example:
 Oliver made me share my lunch with him.
 You'd better tell me the truth.
 Hunter would rather go to school.
 I saw her swim ten laps.
 Lola does like you.
 Can you help me carry this upstairs?
It may seem difficult to memorize these rules and verbs. However, you are the best
judge of when to use bare infinitives. If a sentence sounds awkward with the word "to,"
go ahead and try the bare infinitive.

Infinitive Verbs in Literature and Quotes

Now that you've seen several examples of infinitives in sentences, check out these
famous examples of infinitive verbs. Soon you'll be able to spot infinitives in everything
you read!
 "I love to eat. I love to read about food. I love to look into shop windows at food."
- The Grand Surprise by Leo Lerman

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 "It is better to keep your mouth closed and let people think you are a fool than to
open it and remove all doubt." - Mark Twain
 "Half our life is spent trying to find something to do with the time we have rushed
through life trying to save." - Will Rogers
 "Until the advent of television emptied the movie theaters, it was from a weekly
visit to the cinema that you learned (or tried to learn) how to walk, to smoke, to
kiss, to fight, to grieve." - The Decay of Cinema by Susan Sontag
 "A celebrity is a person who works hard all his life to become well known, then
wears dark glasses to avoid being recognized." - Fred Allen
 "To educate a man in mind and not in morals is to educate a menace to society."
- President Theodore Roosevelt
 "An enormous relief had come upon us now that the job was done. One felt an
impulse to sing, to break into a run, to snigger." - A Hanging by George Orwell
 "To walk beside my father down Sixth Street was to hear the asphalt sing." - The
Centaur by John Updike

Participle Examples
A participle is a word formed from a verb. Usually, this occurs by adding a suffix to the
verb, but sometimes there are irregular formations. In these participle examples, you'll
see they can be used as adjectives, nouns, or as part of a compound verb in English.
Participles as Parts of Verbs
There are two types of participles in English: past and present.

Present Participle
The present participle is always formed by adding the suffix -ing to a verb. When used
with an auxiliary verb like "is," "am," "are," "was" or "were," the present participle forms
a compound verb that describes an action that is in progress. For example:
 She is babysitting tonight.
 I am singing a song.
 You are sharing your toys very nicely.
 It was raining a little yesterday.
 They were talking too much and got a detention.

Past Participle
The past participle is often, but not always, formed by adding the suffix -ed to a verb. It
can also be paired with an auxiliary verb like "was," "were," "has" and "had" to show
that an action has been completed. For example:
 He was finished with the project.
 The cookies were baked fresh this morning.
 She has burned dinner before.
 I have lived an interesting life.

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 He has lied to me too many times!

Note that many past participles in English are irregular and don't use the -ed suffix. For
example:
 The song was sung well by the rising opera star.
 The new bed was brought into the house carefully by the deliverymen.
 The dog has dug a big hole in the back yard.
 The doctor said that you have broken your arm.
 We have been very worried about you.

Participles as Adjectives
Both present and past participles can be used as participial adjectives to describe nouns
and pronouns. In this case, the descriptive word is placed before the noun in the sentence.
For example:
 The going rate for freelancers is more than minimum wage.
 He took a gardening class at the community college.
 My baked beans come from an old family recipe.
 The dyed fabric should not be washed in hot water.
 The broken record isn't worth keeping.

Participles as Nouns
It's also possible to use present participles as nouns in English. In these cases, only
participles with -ing endings will work. For example:
 Sewing is easy once you know how.
 His batting is better than his fielding.
 He hated sitting in the backseat of the car.
 The teacher acknowledged Sally's studying with extra credit points.
 Lying under oath is a crime.
Once you understand how past and present participles are formed, it's easier to pick
them out in sentences. By studying these examples, you should be able to use participles
as verbs, nouns, and adjectives with ease.

VERBALS AND VERBAL PHRASES

Verbals are verbs that act as another part of speech, such as adjectives, adverbs or nouns.
Verbal phrases contain verbals and a couple of modifiers. Key factors such as sentence
placement and suffixes can help you identify these amorphous verbs. Keep reading for
explanations and examples of the three types of verbals: gerunds, infinitives and
participles.
TYPES OF VERBALS
Using single-word verbals is an effective way to vary your sentence structure and add
descriptive details to your writing. Take a look at the three types of verbals, and see if
you can identify them in example sentences.

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GERUNDS
A Gerund is a verbal that ends in -ing and functions as a noun. In the sentence "Reading
is my favorite hobby," the -ing word reading is the gerund. You could replace the gerund
with another noun, such as "baseball" or "gymnastics," and the sentence would still
make sense.
Gerunds often appear as the subject of the sentence. For example:
 Cooking helps me relax at the end of the day.
 Practicing will only help you get better.
 Smoking is dangerous for everyone.
 Cheating has become much easier with technology.
 Winning isn't the most important part of the game.
You'll also find gerunds as the object of a sentence:
 I think cooking is a relaxing activity.
 Even though you don't like practicing, it will help you get better.
 Never start smoking because it's dangerous for everyone.
 Technology has led to an increase in cheating.
 We don't believe that winning is the most important part of the game.
Notice that in all of these examples, the gerund is functioning as a noun. Whether it's
the subject or the object of the sentence, a gerund always ends in -ing.
Infinitives
An infinitive is a verbal that includes "to" and a present-tense verb. In the sentence "Now
is the best time to start," the infinitive is to start. Infinitives can function as adjectives,
adverbs or nouns in a sentence.
When an infinitive modifies a noun, it's functioning as an adjective. For example:
 Let's find a game to play. ("to play" modifies "game")
 France is my favorite country to visit. ("to visit" modifies "country")
 Your ability to dance is incredible. ("to dance" modifies "ability")
Infinitives function as adverbs when they modify verbs, adjectives or other adverbs:
 To play, we all draw a card. ("to play" modifies "draw")
 I traveled to France to visit. ("to visit" modifies" traveled")
 Did you go to Julliard to dance? ("to dance" modifies "go")
Finally, infinitives can function as nouns, either as subjects or objects in a sentence. For
example:
 I'd like to play. ("to play" is the direct object)
 This is a movie that we really want to watch. ("to watch" is the direct object)
 To dance is to express yourself with your body. ("to dance" is the subject)

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PARTICIPLES
A participle is a verbal that functions as an adjective. Like all adjectives, you'll either
find participles right before the noun they modify, or you'll find them functioning as
predicate adjectives after a linking verb. There are two kinds of participles: present
participles (ending in -ing) and past participles (ending in -ed or -en).
Like gerunds, present participles end in -ing. However, unlike gerunds, they only act as
adjectives. For example:
 This depressing movie makes me feel sad.
 Tyler is so charming and thoughtful.
 Did you understand that confusing book?
 The ending to that episode was surprising!
 These gloves warm up my freezing fingers.
Examples of past participles in a sentence include:
 This movie makes me feel depressed.
 Wendy was immediately charmed by Tyler's thoughtfulness.
 That last math problem left me so confused.
 Were you surprised by the ending of the episode?
 These gloves warm up my frozen fingers.

Types of Verbal Phrases

Verbal phrases include verbals and their modifiers. They’re exactly the same as verbals,
except they have a few added words. Just like verbals, there are three kinds of verbal
phrases: gerund phrases, infinitive phrases, and participial phrases.
Gerund Phrases
A gerund phrase contains a gerund along with some modifiers. The phrase then
functions as a noun. Remember, gerunds always end in -ing.
Examples of gerund phrases include:
 Cooking dinner helps me relax at the end of the day.
 Even though you don't like practicing the trumpet, it will help you get better.
 Smoking in public is dangerous for everyone.
 Technology has led to an increase in cheating among students.
 Winning trophies isn't the most important part of the game.
As you can see, gerund phrases can appear as subjects or objects in a sentence. Like
gerunds, you can replace these phrases with another noun and the sentence will still
make sense.

INFINITIVE PHRASES
When you add modifiers to an infinitive, you create an infinitive phrase. The whole
phrase acts as an adjective, adverb or noun. These verbals always begin with the word
“to" and a present-tense verb.
Examples of infinitive phrases in sentences include:

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 Let's find a game to play while we wait.

 I traveled to France to visit my grandmother.
 To dance on stage is to express yourself with your body.
 I'd like to watch the new action movie.
 To be a firefighter, you must go through a lot of physical training.
As long as the phrase begins with "to" and a verb, it's an infinitive phrase. If the phrase
begins with "to" and a noun, you're looking at a prepositional phrase.

PARTICIPIAL PHRASES
Adding modifiers to a participle results in a participial phrase. These verbal phrases act
as adjectives to describe nouns in the sentence. You can put participial phrases at the
beginning or end of a sentence.
Examples of present and past participial phrases include:
 Depressed from the movie, I decided to watch something else.
 Tyler, charming as always, complimented Wendy's outfit.
 Confused by the book, we asked the teacher for help.
 Surprised by the episode's ending, I sat on the couch in shock.
 My fingers, frozen from the snow, shivered as I put on gloves.

Participial phrases are a nice way to start a sentence. However, make sure that the noun
they're describing is very close to the phrase, or you may have a misplaced modifier to
edit later.
Verbals: The Alternate Identities of Verbs
Verbals and verbal phrases are multi-faceted parts of writing. While they are technically
verbs, they can function as completely different parts of speech to get the point across.
Enjoy expanding the standard definition of verbs as you work on sentence variety in
your writing. You can also learn more about the difference between verbal phrases and
verb phrases to ensure you're using each type of phrase correctly.

MOOD IN GRAMMAR
Mood doesn't always mean "feelings." Grammatical mood refers to the quality or form
of a verb in a sentence. It denotes the tone of a verb in a sentence so the intention of the
writer or speaker is clear. There are three basic verb moods: imperative, indicative and
subjunctive. Take a closer look at each verb form with these explanations and examples
of grammatical moods in English.
Indicative Mood
A sentence with an indicative mood expresses a factual statement, at least from the
perspective of the speaker. Most sentences are written in the indicative mood, sharing
facts or details that we perceive to be correct. In these sentences, the verb will express
some sort of action, as a statement of fact.
Here are some examples of the indicative mood:
 Marie laughs whenever she sees him.

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 Their new puppy walks quickly.

 Charlie read that book in less than a day.
 He enjoyed his dinner.
 She travels to Ireland frequently.

IMPERATIVE MOODA sentence with an imperative mood makes a request or a

command. These sentences don’t make mild suggestions. Rather, they issue a direct
command, telling someone what to do.
In these sentences, the verb will express a direct call to action. Sometimes the subject
“you” will be understood, as in the first example. Other times, it’ll be clear who the
subject is.
Here are some examples of the imperative mood:
 [You] Move that book.
 Make sure Irene calls the store tomorrow.
 When you get home from school, walk the dog.
 At five o’clock, peel the potatoes for dinner.
 When you arrive at the airport, walk to Gate 52.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
A sentence with a subjunctive mood expresses a condition that is doubtful, hypothetical,
wishful, or not factual. The subjunctive verb in these sentences will show action, but it
may not be based on reality.
Sentences in the subjunctive mood often include the phrase "If I were." The verb tends
to express a doubt, wish, request, demand, proposal, or hypothetical situation.
Here are some examples of the subjective mood:
 If I were in your position, I’d never leave.
 Jane wishes her sons were faster at getting ready in the morning.
 The teacher requires all students be present for Thursday's event.
 Dr. Chandy suggested that Jerry run three times a week.
 She demanded Sean work the night shift.
Other Verb Moods
Although indicative, imperative and subjunctive moods are the main verb moods, there
are several more you may encounter in English. Some reference guides would include
conditional mood and interrogative mood as well as the three main moods.

CONDITIONAL MOOD
A sentence with a conditional mood contains an auxiliary verb (a helping verb) and a
main verb. You’ll be able to spot the conditional mood if you see the auxiliary verbs
“would” or “should." Sentences in the conditional mood explain that one action is
dependent on another.

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Another telltale sign of the conditional mood is the “if this, then that” construct. “If/then”
clearly indicates one action is dependent upon another. For example, “If she wasn’t so
mean, then he would have helped her.”
Here are a few more examples of the conditional mood:
 We would live in Ireland if we secured the proper documents.
 If he wasn’t so late, then we would have had time for an afternoon snack.
 Knowing his history of bad behavior, she should have said no.
 After we go for a run, I would like some tea.
 If I lived in Ireland, then I would write a book.

MOOD INTERROGATIVE
A sentence with an interrogative mood asks a question. This may make you think of
interrogative sentences, which also ask a question.
When dealing with the interrogative mood, there will typically be two verbs. One will
be an auxiliary verb. Again, you can think of an auxiliary verb as a helping verb to the
main verb. It provides further clarification for the main verb of the sentence. Common
auxiliary verbs include are, be, do, and have. In sentences with an interrogative mood,
the auxiliary verb often comes before the subject of the sentence, and a question mark
ends it for proper punctuation.
Here are some examples of the interrogative mood:
 Are you coming to the mall?
 When is your mother-in-law leaving?
 Where does he work?
 Did you bake a pie for Thanksgiving?
 Where have the students gone?

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CHAPTER FOUR
PHRASE

I n any language, a sentence can be divided into various parts. Phrases and clauses are
one among the divisions that can be done. In this book, you will learn what phrases
and clauses are, how they can be used and the difference between them. The book
also gives you a number of examples to give you a clearer idea of the topic.

What Is a Phrase?
A phrase is a part of a sentence which consists of a group of words that give more
information about the subject, action or event in a sentence. A phrase cannot stand on
its own and will not convey meaning if separated from the sentence. According to the
kind of function it does, it can be classified into various types and they include the
following.
 Noun Phrase
 Adverbial Phrase
 Prepositional Phrase
 Adjectival Phrase
 Verb Phrase
Examples of Phrases
To understand how phrases can be used, take a look at the following sentences.
 Aisha and Fatima (noun phrase)
 Have been searching (verb phrase)
 Beside the trees (prepositional phrase)
 Extremely well (adverb phrase)
 The house on 6th street (noun phrase)

NOUN PHRASE

A
noun phrase is a group of two or more words headed by a noun that includes
modifiers. In these examples of noun phrases, the noun is bolded and underline.
All the other words are modifiers.
 the dog
(In this example, "the" is a modifier.)
 a cat
(Here, "a" is a modifier.)
 a group of them
("A" and "of them" are modifiers.)
 the man with her
("The" and "with her" are modifiers.)

A noun phrase plays the role of a noun. In a noun phrase, the modifiers can come before
or after the noun.

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A phrase has at least two words and functions as one part of speech. We can test this
because we know that a noun can be replaced by a pronoun (e.g., he, she, it, them).
Looking at the examples above, we can replace each noun phrase with a pronoun.
 It relaxes me.
 I know them.
 She was him.
Here are some real-life examples of noun phrases as subjects, objects, and complements:
 This man has a nice smile, but he's got iron teeth. (Soviet Foreign Minister Andrei
Gromyko on Mikhail Gorbachev)
("This man" is the subject of the verb "has." The phrase "a nice smile" is the direct object
of "has." The noun phrase "iron teeth" is the direct object of the verb "got." Here's the
"pronoun test": He has one, but he's got them.)
 I never learned from a man who agreed with me. (Science-fiction writer Robert
Heinlein)
(The noun phrase "a man who agreed with me" is the object of the preposition "from."
Here's the "pronoun test": I never learned from him.)
 Every man of courage is a man of his word. (French dramatist Pierre Corneille)
("Every man of courage" is the subject of the verb "is." The noun phrase "a man of his
word" is a subject complement following the linking verb "is." Here's the "pronoun test":
He is one.)

Note: A noun phrase can also be headed by a pronoun. For example:

 the dog with fleas
(This is a noun phrase headed by a noun.)
 the one with fleas
(This is a noun phrase headed by a pronoun.)

Examples of Noun Phrases

In normal writing, nouns nearly always feature in noun phrases. It is rare to find a noun
functioning by itself (i.e., without any modifiers) in a sentence.
 Man proposes, but God disposes. (German canon Thomas a Kempis)
(This example features two nouns without any modifiers. That's rare. In other words,
there are no noun phrases in this example.)

In real life, it is far more common for nouns to feature in noun phrases, i..e, to be
accompanied by modifiers. Here is a list of noun phrases. In this list, every noun phrase
consists of a head noun (highlighted) and at least one modifier.
 People: the soldier, my cousin, dopey Alan, the lawyer with the big nose
 Animals: that aardvark, one rat, a shark, funny Mickey
 Places: the house in the corner, inner London, dirty factory, no shelter
 Things: this table, our London Bridge, the sharp chisel, that nitrogen, last month,
an inch, her cooking

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 Ideas: utter confusion, some kindness, your faith, the Theory of Relativity, a joy
So, a noun with any sort of modifier (even it's just "a" or "the") is a noun phrase.

ADVERBIAL PHRASE

T wo or more words that perform the role of an adverb, when put together, can be
identified as an adverbial phrase. Like an adverb, an adverbial phrase will also
answer questions such as ‘when’, ‘where’, ‘why’, ‘how’ and ‘how often’. An
adverbial phrase modifies or provides extra information about a verb, a phrase, an
adjective or another adverb in the sentence.

What is an Adverbial Phrase?

An adverbial phrase, according to the Oxford Learner’s Dictionary, is defined as a
phrase that can be used for “adding more information about place, time, manner, cause
or degree to a verb, an adjective, a phrase or another adverb.” “An adverb phrase or
adverbial phrase is a group of words based on an adverb, such as ‘very slowly’ or
‘fortunately for us.’ An adverb phrase can also consist simply of an adverb”, according
to the Collins Dictionary.

How to form an Adverbial Phrase?

To be able to form an adverbial phrase, you should know the different components that
constitute an adverbial phrase. Take a look at the points given below to learn how an
adverbial phrase can be formed.

Components of an Adverbial Phrase

There is no particular rule that an adverbial phrase should definitely contain at least one
adverb. Adverbs can be a part of the adverbial phrase; however, there are some other
components that constitute an adverbial phrase. They include,
 Nouns – words used to classify a person, place, animal, thing or idea
 Pronouns – words that substitute a noun
 Adjectives – words used to describe a noun
 Prepositions – words that describe the position of a particular noun or pronoun
 Articles – words such as ‘a’, ‘an’, ‘the’ used to determine the noun

Points to Remember When Forming and Using an Adverbial Phrase

You can easily form an adverbial phrase if you know how the different components that
constitute an adverbial phrase can be used. Let us take a look at some points that you
have to keep in mind when forming and using adverbial phrases.
 The very first point that you have to bear in mind is that there can be more than
one adverbial phrase in a sentence.
 Secondly, remember that you can position the adverbial phrase in any part of the
sentence according to its importance. You can place it in the beginning of the

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sentence if that is what governs the action done by the subject. In other cases, you
can place the adverbial phrase at the end if that is just some extra information and
does not drive the sentence.
 As far as the punctuation is concerned, use a comma immediately after the
adverbial phrase if it is placed in the beginning. If the adverbial phrase is
positioned somewhere in the middle of the sentence, make sure you place the
adverb phrase within commas or, in other words, use a comma before and after
the adverbial phrase. There is no particular need for a comma or any other
punctuation mark if the adverbial phrase is placed towards the end of the sentence.

Now, let us look at how an adverbial phrase can be formed. An adverbial phrase can be
formed using the following combinations:
 A preposition, an article and a noun
 A preposition, a pronoun and a noun
 An adjective and an adverb
 An adverb, a preposition and a noun or a pronoun
 A preposition, an article, an adjective and a noun
 Multiple adverbs and an adjective
 Multiple adverbs – one adverb describing another

What Makes an Adverbial Phrase Different from an Adverbial Clause?

It is possible that you might get confused between an adverbial phrase and an adverbial
clause as their functions are very similar. Take a look at the table given below to help
you perceive the factors that make an adverbial phrase different from an adverbial clause.
Adverbial Phrase Adverbial Clause
An adverbial phrase is just a part of a An adverbial clause is a group of words
sentence that is employed to provide that gives some extra information about
more information about the action done another clause and aids in the completion
by the subject, an adjective, another of the idea or thought being
adverb or even another phrase. communicated.
An adverbial phrase need not necessarily An adverbial clause should contain a
have a subject or a verb. subject and a verb.
Examples: Examples:
In the spring season, travelling can be a As soon as I reach the spot, I will give
pleasant and satisfying activity. you a call.
Unfortunately for him, it started raining She decided not to go to work tomorrow
the moment he left home. because she was too sick.

Examples of Adverbial Phrases

Going through a number of adverbial phrases can help you in comprehending the
formation and usage of adverbial phrases in a much better manner.

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Examples of Adverbial Phrases Referring to Time

Adverbial phrases referring to time answer the question ‘when’.
 My mom was angry with me for getting home really late.
 Around noon, we all had completed the tasks for the day.
 My aunt told me that she will be coming to India in the month of September.
 Until last year, Devi struggled to adapt to the city and its culture.
 Everyone started losing their interest towards the end of the show.

Examples of Adverbial Phrases Referring to Place

Adverbial phrases that refer to the position or place in which the action is taking place
answer the question ‘where’. Adverbial phrases of this type also include prepositional
phrases which function like an adverb.
 There is a new supermarket right in front of my house.
 My father asked us to remember that he had parked the car right next to the
overbridged.
 We walked over the bridge.
 Children play in the park.
 Adults and teenagers are seen walking on the pavements.

Examples of Adverbial Phrases Referring to the Manner in Which an Action is Taking

Place
Adverbial phrases that represent the manner in which an action is being carried out by
the subject can be identified by asking the question, ‘how’.
 Ahmad waited silently and patiently.
 Luckily for my sister, she always got her way.
 Everything went on surprisingly well.
 The teacher asked the students to fill in the evaluation forms very carefully.
 We were able to finish it quite easily.

Examples of Adverbial Phrases Referring to the Frequency of an Action

Adverbial phrases that refer to the frequency of an action can be identified by asking
the question, ‘how often’.
 Almost every year, we take a trip to the North.
 Naima and her family visit her grandparents very often.
 Maimuna bakes a new set of cookies every week.
 Only rarely do we get an opportunity to take a break and go somewhere.
 Every alternate weekend, my friends and I get together for dinner.

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Examples of Adverbial Phrases Referring to the Reason behind an Action Taking Place
Some adverbial phrases refer to the reasons why a particular action is taking place. This
type of adverbial phrase can be identified by asking the question ‘why’.
 Due to the sudden rains, we had to cancel our plans.
 All schools will be closed for a week owing to the heavy snow storms.
 To keep up with the developments in the field of technology, my brother read every
single blog on the technological advancements around the world.
 The little boy’s mother scolded him for breaking the glass bowl.
 I went to Chennai just to visit my friend.

Exercise
Now that you know how an adverbial phrase is formed and the difference between an
adverbial phrase and an adverbial clause, try working out the following exercise.
Identify the adverbial phrases in the following sentences.
1. On the way to the hospital, I met my friend from school.
2. Owing to the pandemic, my sister’s batch was exempted from writing exams.
3. Shuaib’s friends reached the hilltop exactly in an hour.
4. Probably, by the end of June, we can expect heavy rains.
5. The science teacher asked us to do our records neatly and carefully.
6. All of them did it exactly as informed.
7. All of a sudden, there was a fire in the building.
8. Throughout the year, the residents of the area faced difficulties with power and
water supply.
9. The children were seemingly quiet.
10.Garba’s friends could not make it to the wedding in time due to the traffic jam.

Answers
1. On the way to the hospital, I met my friend from school.
2. Owing to the pandemic, my sister’s batch was exempted from writing exams.
3. Shuaib’s friends reached the hilltop exactly in an hour.
4. Probably, by the end of June, we can expect heavy rains.
5. The science teacher asked us to do our records neatly and carefully.
6. All of them did it exactly as informed.
7. All of a sudden, there was a fire in the building.
8. Throughout the year, the residents of the area faced difficulties with power and
water supply.
9. The children were seemingly quiet.
10.Garba’s friends could not make it to the wedding in time due to the traffic jam.

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PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

I n the English language, prepositional phrases are used in order to modify nouns or
verbs. According to the part of speech they modify, they are categorized into
different types. This article will provide you with the meaning, definition, usage and
examples of prepositional phrases. Also, try out the practice questions to check how
well you have understood the topic.

What Is a Prepositional Phrase?

A prepositional phrase is a combination of a preposition, a modifier and its object. A
prepositional phrase can be placed in the beginning, middle or end of a sentence based
on its role in that particular sentence. Prepositional phrases are just a part of the sentence
it modifies and cannot stand alone.

Definition of a Prepositional Phrase

The Collins Dictionary defines a prepositional phrase as “a structure consisting of a
preposition and its object. Examples are on the table and by the sea.”
According to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, a prepositional phrase is “a phrase that
begins with a preposition and ends in a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase.”

Another definition of a prepositional phrase is given by the Macmillan Dictionary.

According to it, a prepositional phrase “consists of a preposition followed by a noun
group, pronoun, or ‘-ing’ form. A prepositional phrase is often an adjunct in a clause,
for example in the sentences ‘I called about your advert’, and ‘I learned a lot from
reading crime fiction’, ‘about your advert’ and ‘from reading crime fiction’ are
prepositional phrases.”

How to Use Prepositional Phrases in Sentences?

As discussed earlier, prepositional phrases can be employed in the beginning, middle
and end of a sentence according to what word or part of speech they are modifying.
There are a few points you have to keep in mind when using prepositional phrases. They
are:
 Each sentence would require a different preposition to form a prepositional phrase.
 Remember that using a wrong preposition can alter the meaning of the sentence
completely and sometimes make no meaning at all.
 If the prepositional phrase modifies a noun, it functions like an adjective and is
therefore considered as an adjectival phrase.
 Sometimes, a prepositional phrase is seen to modify the verb or action in the
sentence and is considered as an adverbial phrase as it plays the role of an adverb
in the sentence.

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Examples of Prepositional Phrases

Let us now take a look at some examples of prepositional phrases to understand how
they can be used in sentences.
Using Prepositional Phrases in the Beginning of the Sentence
 After trying multiple times, Halima finally cleared the equation.
 Before we start class, I would like to talk to you about something.
 According to the weather forecast, the next two days are expected to be very sultry.
Using Prepositional Phrases in the Middle of the Sentence
 The girl in the second row is the one who has recently joined.
 The cafe on the fourth street has really good muffins.
 The man with the big moustache had come to the store today morning.
Using Prepositional Phrases in the End of the Sentence
 The box was kept under the table.
 We were planning to order food during the break.
 I went to the grocery store across the street.

Exercise
Identify the prepositional phrases in the following sentences and mention if they are
adjectival phrases or adverbial phrases.
1. He gave up without trying.
2. The boy in the white t-shirt is my cousin.
3. The little girl jumped with excitement when she saw the new bicycle her father
bought her.
4. The book in the last shelf is the one I read last week.
5. At the end of the event, Mrs. Smitha thanked everyone for making time and being
there.
6. The apartment on the left has just been vacated.
7. During the pandemic, many people lost their jobs.
8. The seat near the window is mine.
9. From there, we went to the vintage car museum.
10.Jerry, unlike many others, likes to read historical books.

Answer
1. He gave up without trying. - Adverbial phrase
2. The boy in the white t-shirt is my cousin. – Adjectival phrase
3. The little girl jumped with excitement when she saw the new bicycle her father
bought her. – Adverbial phrase
4. The book in the last shelf is the one I read last week. – Adjectival phrase
5. At the end of the event, Mrs. Smitha thanked everyone for making time and being
there. –Adverbial phrase

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6. The apartment on the left has just been vacated. – Adjectival phrase
7. During the pandemic, many people lost their jobs. – Adverbial phrase
8. The seat near the window is mine. – Adjectival phrase
9. From there, we went to the vintage car museum. - Adverbial phrase
10.Jerry, unlike many others, likes to read historical books. – Adjectival phrase

ADJECTIVAL PHRASE

A
n adjective phrase, as the term suggests, is a phrase that functions just like an
adjective in a sentence. It is a group of words that are put together in order to
qualify the noun or pronoun that acts as the subject or object of a sentence. It is
also referred to as an ‘adjectival phrase’.
According to the Collins Dictionary, an adjective phrase is defined as “a group of words
based on an adjective, such as ‘very nice’ or ‘interested in football.’ An adjective phrase
can also consist simply of an adjective.” The Macmillan Dictionary defines an adjective
phrase as “a group containing at least one adjective (the head), and often other items
such as adverbs and prepositional phrases.”

Forming, Identifying and Using an Adjective Phrase – Tips and Points to Remember
To learn how to form an adjective phrase, you should first know what the different
components that can make up an adjective phrase are. So, here is what you need to know.
An adjective phrase can consist of,
 Adjectives
 Adverbs
 Prepositions/Prepositional phrases
 Articles
 Modifiers/Determiners
Now, take a look at the points you have to bear in mind when forming and using
adjective phrases:
 See that the phrase performs the role of an adjective.
 Also, remember that removing the adjective phrase from the sentence will not
change the meaning of the sentence as they are only required to give extra
information about the subject or object in the sentence.
 When multiple adjectives are used to form an adjective phrase, make sure you
follow the order of adjectives; otherwise, the sentence will look faulty and might
also alter the meaning of the sentence. This will also shift the priority you are
giving to a particular quality of the subject or object.
 Punctuating a sentence containing an adjective phrase is not that tricky. You just
have to follow three simple rules.
 If an adjective phrase is positioned at the start of a sentence, use a comma after
the phrase.

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 If an adjective phrase appears in the middle of a sentence, make sure you

enclose it within commas, and
 If an adjective phrase is found towards the end of a sentence, you need not use
any punctuation mark.
 One last point that you should know is that there can be more than one adjective
phrase describing the same noun in a sentence.

Here are some tips to aid you in identifying the presence of an adjective phrase in a
sentence.
 The first thing that you can do is locate the nouns/pronouns/noun phrases in the
sentence.
 Once you do that, try to identify adjectives or other groups of words that describe
the subject/object in the sentence.
 Check out phrases rendering descriptive details, which, even if removed, makes
the sentence look complete and does not change the meaning. You might wonder
why there should be an adjective phrase in the sentence at all, if it does not change
the meaning of the sentence even when removed. Adjective phrases give extra,
but valuable information about the subject/object, and that is the reason we use
them in sentences.

Difference between an Adjective Phrase and an Adjective Clause

One other thing that will help you master the use of adjective phrases is knowing what
makes an adjective phrase different from an adjective clause. Have a look at the table
below to find out.
Adjective Phrase Adjective Clause
An adjective phrase is a group of words An adjective clause is a larger chunk of
(consisting of an adjective and either of words (consisting of a relative pronoun
the already discussed components) that and a verb form) that describes a noun or
qualify a noun or pronoun in a sentence. pronoun in a sentence.
An adjective phrase should contain at An adjective clause does not necessarily
least one adjective. require an adjective.
Example: Example:
The girl, from India, has been chosen as The girl, who is from India, has been
the Vice President. chosen as the Vice President of the
English Literary Association.

Examples of Adjective Phrases

Taking a look at some sentence examples will help you better, now that you know how
to form and identify an adjective phrase. So here they are. Go through them.

Adjective Phrases with Multiple Adjectives

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When using multiple adjectives to form an adjective phrase, make sure you follow the
order of adjectives. The determiner should come first, followed by adjectives that
describe the quantity, opinion, size, age, shape, colour, origin, material and
purpose/qualifier, respectively and then the noun. Take a look at the following examples
to see how this works.
 The five young Japanese students have shifted here for the exchange programme.
 I really loved your new pink georgette saree.
 My mom decided to give away my old and unused school uniforms.

Adjective Phrases with Compound Adjectives

Forming adjective phrases with compound adjectives can be done by using just a
compound adjective or a compound adjective along with other adjectives.
 We decided to stay in a newly-built house on 6th street.
 Hani said that she enjoyed watching the Spanish coming-of-age series.
 The bright-eyed Indian girl became popular after she participated in the Indian
Idol Dance competition.

Adjective Phrases with the Comparative and Superlative Degrees of Comparison

The comparative and superlative degrees of comparison can be considered as adjective
phrases. Take a look at the examples given below.
 Darren is taller than his brother, Chris.
 Reports have said that it is this year’s most unexpected event.
 Fatima said that it is not easy for her to choose which one is her most favourite
movie.

Adjective Phrases Using Prepositions/Prepositional Phrases

Adjective phrases can be formed with the use of prepositions such as like, from, of,
about, with, on, in, under, above, across, before, at, after, behind, over, etc. To identify
if a prepositional phrase functions as an adjective phrase, you have to first find out the
object of the preposition and other words related to the object of the preposition. In case
the other word related to the object of the preposition is a noun or pronoun, then the
prepositional phrase qualifies as an adjective phrase. The object of a preposition is the
noun or pronoun that follows the preposition.
 Merin, the girl with long hair, visited our store today.
 The man, on the bike, is my uncle.
 My father gifted me a box of my favourite Ferrero Rocher chocolates.
 Adjective Phrases Containing Adverbs

Adjective phrases can be formed by making use of adverbs of manner.

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 A few very helpful tips were given by the volunteers.

 We had to perform some extremely tiring routines to become an expert in this
field.
 My brother, absolutely terrified, did not know what to do and was zoning out.

Exercise
Read through the exercise given below. Analyse them and identify the adjective phrases
in the following sentences.
1. The boy in the red shirt is new here.
2. Which one of your trips would you describe as the most adventurous one?
3. Is the bag by the table yours?
4. Are you shorter than your brother?
5. The boy with the Porsche was noticed by everyone.
6. Can you buy me a box of white homemade chocolates when you come back?
7. The red-haired Portuguese boy impressed all his teachers in no time.
8. All the children have read the play about the poor man and the king.
9. The city is expecting very few sunny days this month.
10.The tall Egyptian building is one among the wonders of the world.

Answer
1. The boy in the red shirt is new here.
2. Which one of your trips would you describe as the most adventurous one?
3. Is the bag by the table yours?
4. Are you shorter than your brother?
5. The boy with the Porsche was noticed by everyone.
6. Can you buy me a box of white homemade chocolates when you come back?
7. The red-haired Portuguese boy impressed all his teachers in no time.
8. All the children have read the play about the poor man and the king.
9. The city is expecting very few sunny days this month.
10.The tall Egyptian building is one among the wonders of the world.

VERB PHRASE:

V erb phrases are one of the eight types of phrases in a sentence. They include the
helping verb and main verb in a sentence.
For example:
 The author is writing a new book.
 I must make an "A" in this class.
 The dog might eat the cake.
 He was walking to work today.
 We got married after college.

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You can also create verb phrases without helping verbs at all. These sentences can only
be set in present or past verb tenses.
For example:
 The author wrote a new book.
 I made an "A" in this class.
 The dog eats the cake.
 He walked to work today.
 We married after college.
Like all phrases, verb phrases express an idea but cannot stand alone as a sentence. They
can also include modifiers, complements, and direct or indirect objects as complete verb
phrases.

Verb Phrase Structure

Proper sentence structure requires both a subject and a verb. But unless that verb is in
the past or present tense, sentences use verb phrases. Using the correct verb phrase
structure depends on the verb tense, the subject and the mood of the sentence. When
forming verb phrases, it’s helpful to know which verbs go in each position.

Helping Verbs in Verb Phrases

Helping verbs are also known as auxiliary verbs or linking verbs. They are short words
that connect the subject with the rest of the sentence. Some examples of helping verbs
include:
 forms of “to be” (am, is, are, was, were)
 forms of “to have” (have, has, had)
 forms of “to do” (do, does, did)
In verb phrases, these short verbs function as finite verbs, which establish tense, speaker
and mood, but don’t make sense on their own. They use nonfinite verbs to indicate what
is happening in the sentence. For example:
 Tom is tutoring his brother.
The verb phrase “is tutoring” contains the finite verb “is.” It indicates that the sentence
is in present tense, the speaker is singular, and that the mood is indicative. The word
“tutoring” is a participle, which is a verb used as an adjective (“tutoring” describes Tom
in this sentence).
More examples of helping verbs in verb phrases include:
 I don’t know what channel the game is on.
 Are you going to the dance tonight?
 The doctor has taken an oath to protect her patients.
 Do you understand the essay question?
 My friends are planning a surprise party for me.
Forms of the helping verb “to be” create verb phrases for progressive verb tenses.
Similarly, forms of “to have” create verb phrases for perfect verb tenses. When you

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combine forms of “to be” and “to have” in a verb phrase, you establish perfect
progressive tenses. Notice that even in the question examples above, a helping verb
appears before the main verb.

Modal Verbs in Verb Phrases

Modal verbs are another kind of helping verb. These verbs express possibility,
obligation and suggestions. They include:
 can
 could
 ought
 may
 might
 must
 should
 will
 would
Modal verbs are also finite verbs. They aren’t conjugated in different tenses, but they do
establish the speaker and mood. Examples of sentence verb phrases that have modal
verbs are:
 You may finish your homework tomorrow.
 Should we drive to the concert together?
 The team must raise enough money for new uniforms this year.
 Beth will buy a gift for Stephanie before the party.
 Can everyone hear my instructions?
The modal verb “will” appears in sentences set in the future tense. Other modal verbs
let listeners know that they have permission or obligation to complete the other verb in
the verb phrase.

Main Verbs in a Verb Phrase

Now that you know how helping and modal verbs work, it’s time to look at the other
part of the verb phrase. Main verbs establish the action of the sentence. They can
function on their own or with a helping verb in a verb phrase.
Examples of the main verb from the sentences above include:
 I don’t know what channel the game is on.
 Are you going to the dance tonight?
 The doctor has taken an oath to protect her patients.
 Do you understand the essay question?
 My friends are planning a surprise party for me.

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Unlike helping verbs, main verbs provide more details about what the subject is doing.
They work with the helping verbs in their verb phrases to create a full picture of the
sentence’s action.
How to Use Verb Phrases
Identifying verb phrases is simple enough. But can you use them effectively in a
sentence? Check out the different ways you can use verb phrases as sentence predicates
and modifiers.

Verb Phrases as Sentence Predicates

A verb phrase can be the predicate of a sentence or a clause. In this case, there will
usually be a helping verb in addition to the verb. Here are some examples of a verb
phrase as a predicate:
 Your teachers have finished your report card.
 My sister hasn’t decided what dessert she wants.
 The shoes don’t fit his feet.
 I should ask the director his opinion.
 We aren’t allowed to go in there.
These verb phrases follow the subject of the sentence and function as the action in the
sentence. Verb phrases can include all of these words in the predicate, or the helping
and main verb only. It depends on how the phrase is used.

Verb Phrases vs. Verbal Phrases

Verb phrases can only be used as verbs in a sentence. This might be confusing when
you see verbal phrases, which are phrases that use verbs and the words that follow them
as nouns, adverbs and adjectives. These verbals do not show the action of the verb;
that’s the verb phrase’s job.
Verbal phrases include infinitive phrases, participial phrases and gerund phrases.
Definitions and examples of these verbal phrases include:
1. Infinitive Phrases
Infinitive phrases – These phrases start with an infinitive plus a simple form of a verb.
They can act like a noun, adjective or adverb.
Example: She wanted to show off her new dress. (The phrase is the direct object of the
verb “wanted,” so it is acting like a noun.)
2. Participial Phrases
Participial phrases – This phrase will act as an adjective and begins with a participle. A
participle is an adjective that has been made from a verb, like “talked” or “swimming.”
Example: We have to replace the window broken by the hail. (The phrase modifies the
noun "window", so it is functioning like an adjective. “Have to replace” is the verb
phrase.)

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3. Gerund Phrases
Gerund phrases – These phrases act like a noun and start with a verb ending with an
"ing". They can be subjects or objects.
Example: Lying to the IRS is never a good idea. (The phrase acts as the subject in this
sentence. “Is” is the only verb in this sentence.
Don’t be fooled by these tricky verbals. Just because they use verbs doesn’t mean they
are verb phrases. Understanding the difference between verb phrases and verbal phrases
is especially helpful when diagramming sentences or proofreading writing.

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CHAPTER FIVE
CLAUSE

A
Clause is a combination of words that makes up a sentence. It consists of a
subject and a predicate. It can also be said that a clause should have a subject
and a verb. Now, take a look at the definitions of clauses given by different
dictionaries to understand what a clause is.
According to the Oxford Learner’s Dictionary, a clause is defined as “a group of words
that includes a subject and a verb, and forms a sentence or part of a sentence.” The
Cambridge Dictionary defines a clause as “a group of words, consisting of a subject and
a finite form of a verb.” “A clause is a group of words containing a verb”, According to
the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, a clause is defined as “a group of words containing a
subject and predicate and functioning as a member of a complex or compound sentence.”
Types of Clauses
According to how a clause behaves in a sentence, they can be classified into two types.
They are:
a. Main Clause or Independent Clause
b. Subordinate Clause or Dependent Clause
Examples of Clauses
 As soon as I reach the office (dependent or subordinate clause)
 I did not bring my umbrella. (independent clause)
 When the little boy saw his mom (dependent or subordinate clause)
 Collect your parcel from the courier office. (independent clause)
 Though we left home early (dependent or subordinate clause)

Difference between Phrases and Clauses

Take a look at the table given below to find out how phrases and clauses differ from
each other.
Phrases Clauses
A phrase does not have a subject and A clause has a subject and a predicate
predicate.
A phrase is not complete, cannot make In some cases, a clause can look
sense or convey meaning if it stands on complete, convey meaning and make
its own. sense when separated from the sentence.
There are five types of phrases namely There are two types of clauses namely
noun phrase, verb phrase, adverb phrase, independent clause and dependent
adjective phrase and prepositional clause.
phrase.
Example: There is an unidentified Example: I am sick, so I am going to see
vehicle in front of our house. the doctor.

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Exercise
Identify the phrases and clauses in the following sentences and state which of them is a
phrase and a clause.
1. I completed my project, but I was not satisfied with it.
2. Jacob knew about it; however, he kept asking everyone about it.
3. I was waiting at the park.
4. They all sang extremely well.
5. The girls in the black dresses are the ones who won the competition last year.
6. In the meantime, I will help you with your domestic chores.
7. Santana and Brittany are good dancers.
8. When we reach home, we will call you.
9. We were planning our summer vacation.
10.She finally agreed to come with us to the slumber party.

Answer
1. I completed my project, / but I was not satisfied with it. [Clause / Clause]
2. Jacob knew about it; / however he kept asking everyone about it. [Clause / Clause]
3. I was waiting / at the park. [Clause / Phrase]
4. They all sang / extremely well. [Clause / Phrase]
5. The girls in the black dresses are the ones / who won the competition last year.
[Clause / Clause]
6. In the meantime, / I will help you with your domestic chores. [Phrase / Clause]
7. Santana and Brittany are good dancers. [Clause]
8. When we reach home, / we will call you. [Clause / Clause]
9. We were planning our summer vacation. [Clause]
10.She finally agreed to come with us / to the slumber party. [Clause / Clause]

MAIN CLAUSE OR INDEPENDENT CLAUSE

What is a Main Clause or Independent Clause?
A Main Clause or Independent Clause –is a clause that can stand on its own as a distinct
sentence. It is also a group of words that contain a subject and a verb that have a
relationship. Take a look at these examples:
 I love eating cookies.
 My dog barks a lot.
 The kids ate lunch.
 His truck is green.
As you can see, independent clauses aren’t long or complex sentences. They can
certainly be part of complex sentences, but by definition, they are known as simple
sentences. Other types of sentences include complex sentences, compound sentences,
and compound-complex sentences. Each type of sentence is created by a unique

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combination of independent and dependent clauses. We’ll get into the ways to combine
clauses to create different kinds of sentences shortly.

A main clause is a group of words with a subject and a verb. It is one that can stand
alone and makes complete sense. That is why it is called an independent clause. The
main clause has the ability to convey meaning and make complete sense even if taken
separately from the sentence, and so, it is also referred to as the independent clause. A
subject and a verb are required to form a main clause.
Now, have a look at the definitions provided by various dictionaries to understand
clearly what a main clause is.

Definition of a Main Clause or Independent Clause

According to the Oxford Learner’s Dictionary, a main clause is defined as “a group of
words that includes a subject and a verb and can form a sentence.” A main clause,
according to the Cambridge Dictionary, is defined as “a clause in a sentence that would
form a complete sentence by itself.”

The Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines a main clause as “a clause that could be used
by itself as a simple sentence but that is part of a larger sentence”, and according to the
Collins Dictionary, a main clause is defined as “a clause that can stand alone as a
complete sentence.”

Examples of Main Clauses

Here are a few examples, with main clauses in bold, to show you how they can be used
in sentences.
 Usha is a teacher.
 Suresh has been running all around as it is his son’s wedding.
 Though we had no interest in watching a movie, we went along with our friends
to the theatre.
 Nobody knows anything about the new neighbours, so we decided to go talk to
them.
 After a short break, the New Directions will be performing.
 In today’s event, the final dance by the Loyola Dance Crew will be the highlight
of the entire event.
 My brother is not keeping well, so my father is taking him to the doctor.
 I am sure my team will win as they have been practicing for months.
 Even after hours of explanation, the students were not able to understand the
mathematical theorems.
 She does not think she can make it here in time; however, she told me she will
come.

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How to Use a Main Clause in a Sentence? – Rules and Points to Remember

As already discussed, a main clause or an independent clause must contain at least a
subject and a verb. It can also have compound subjects. This is the most fundamental
rule to be followed when using a main clause. There are some other points you will have
to remember when forming and using main clauses in sentences. Take a look at the
following points.
 You can form different types of sentences using main clauses.
 A simple sentence can be considered a main clause.
 A compound sentence is formed with two main clauses connected by a
coordinating conjunction such as for, and, nor, but, or, yet and so. Conjunctive
adverbs like however, meanwhile, in addition to, etc. can also be used to link two
main clauses to form a compound sentence.
 A complex sentence is formed with a main clause and a subordinate clause joined
by a subordinating conjunction such as when, after, because, since, as, etc. The
main clause can be placed in the former or latter part of the sentence.

Difference between a Main Clause and a Subordinate Clause

Learning what makes a main clause different from a subordinate clause will help you
understand a lot more clearly how to use them. Take a look at the table given below.
Main Clause Subordinate Clause
It contains a subject and a verb and can It can be used in a simple sentence, a
stand alone. It contains a subject and a compound sentence and a complex
verb but cannot stand alone. It merely sentence. It can be used in a complex
complements the rest of the sentence. sentence and a compound-complex
sentence.
Coordinating conjunctions and Subordinating conjunctions can be used
correlative conjunctions can be used to to link a subordinate clause and a main
combine main clauses to form compound clause when forming complex sentences.
sentences and subordinating
conjunctions can be used to a main clause
and a subordinate clause to form a
complex sentence.
For example: For example:
I had tea and chicken samosas. After I reach home, I will give you a call.
Jose had finally decided to go for a trip I did not go to the museum with my
for it had been months since he even got friends as I was sick.
out of the house.

Exercise
Identify the main clause in the following sentences:

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1. ’The Jungle Book’, written by Rudyard Kipling, is one of the most enjoyed story
collections.
2. The little girl was crying because she lost her favourite doll.
3. Carry a shawl or a sweater with you, so you can use it in case you feel cold.
4. If you think it will rain, it is better to carry an umbrella.
5. The boy, who helped me unload my luggage, lives in the next street.
6. I love listening to songs, but that does not mean I like all songs.
7. I am on the right track.
8. Thomas lives in the city.
9. I will help you find a taxi or I will come drop you at the bus stand.
10.Soumia didn’t go to college yesterday, for she was unwell.

Answers
1. ’The Jungle Book’, written by Rudyard Kipling, is one of the most enjoyed story
collections.
2. The little girl was crying because she lost her favourite doll.
3. I am feeling a bit under the weather today, so I don’t think I’ll be going out.
4. If you think it will rain, it is better to carry an umbrella.
5. The boy, who helped me unload my luggage, lives in the next street.
6. I love listening to songs, but that does not mean I like all songs.
7. I am on the right track.
8. Thomas lives in the city.
9. I will help you find a taxi or I will come drop you at the bus stand.
10.Sumaiyya didn’t go to college yesterday, for she was unwell.

SUBORDINATE CLAUSE

What is a Subordinate Clause?

In contrast, a dependent clause is not a complete sentence. Dependent clauses are
sometimes known as subordinate clauses. As their name implies, these clauses depend
on independent clauses to clearly express ideas. Here are a few examples of dependent
clauses:

 When I grow up
 Although he sings well
 The mouse that was hiding
To turn these dependent clauses into full sentences, you need to combine them with
independent clauses:
 When I grow up, I want to be a doctor.
 Although he sings well, he hates karaoke.
 I searched through the basement and found the mouse that was hiding.

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Take a look at these three sentences and see if you can pick out the differences between
the first two and the last one.

In the first two examples, the dependent clause comes before the independent clause
and the two clauses are separated by commas. Keep this in mind when you’re writing:
Whenever the dependent clause comes first in a complex sentence, it’s followed by a
comma.
Types of Subordinate Clauses
Subordinate clauses or dependent clauses can be classified into various types based on
the role they play in a sentence. The types of subordinate clauses are:
 Noun clauses
 Adjective clauses
 Adverb clauses
 Conditional clauses
 Relative clauses
 Comparative clauses
 Verbless clauses
 Complementary clauses

Exercise
Identify the subordinate clause in the following sentences.
1. With reference to the instructions provided, I think it is compulsory to submit a
consent letter from our parents.
2. We did not see the man, who sells balloons in front of our school, today.
3. Although my stomach was so full, I managed to finish my food.
4. After I reach home, I will give you a call.
5. Even though the little dog was blind, it found its way to Arjun.
6. When we have a break, we will discuss the movie.
7. If you don’t want it, make sure you let them know.
8. Since Simba was blind, he moved from one place to another with the help of
sounds.
9. I am taller than my brother.
10.When I was six years old, I participated in the singing contest for the first time.

Answers
1. With reference to the instructions provided, I think it is compulsory to submit a
consent letter from our parents.
2. We did not see the man, who sells balloons in front of our school, today.
3. Although my stomach was so full, I managed to finish my food.
4. After I reach home, I will give you a call.
5. Even though the little dog was blind, it found its way to Arjun.

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6. When we have a break, we will discuss the movie.

7. If you don’t want it, make sure you let them know.
8. Since Simba was blind, he moved from one place to another with the help of
sounds.
9. I am taller than my brother.
10.When I was six years old, I participated in the singing contest for the first time.

GERUND
To understand what a gerund is, imagine your doorbell rings on Halloween. “Trick or
treat!” yell a ghost, a vampire, and a werewolf. Why don’t you run away, screaming in
terror? Because you know they’re not really scary creatures — they’re just kids dressed
up in costumes so they can get candy. That’s what gerunds do: They pretend to be a
different part of speech to make a sentence work. (Now hand over the candy.)
What Is a Gerund?
Gerunds (pronounced jer-unds) are verbs that end in -ing but function as nouns in a
sentence. They keep verb-like qualities, such as using adverbs or taking objects.
Like nouns, gerunds can function in various ways in a sentence.
 Running is Olivia’s favorite activity. (Subject)
 Olivia loves running around her block. (Direct object)
 Olivia spends her free time running. (Indirect object)
 Olivia even dreams about running. (Object of the preposition)
 Olivia’s passion is running. (Predicate noun)
Gerund Phrases (phrases that begin with gerunds) can also function as nouns in a
sentence.
For example, in the sentence “Olivia loves running around her block,” the gerund phrase
is running around her block.
How to use gerunds in a sentence
Now that you know that a gerund is really just a verb dressed up as a noun (like the kid
dressed up as a ghost), you’ll find them everywhere in your sentences. As long as you’re
using them as nouns, you’re using them correctly.
Gerund Function Example Sentence
 Subject Swimming helps me unwind.
 Direct Object The team practiced kicking
 Indirect Object The ballerina Taught us dancing
 Object of a preposition After studying we took a break
 Predicate Noun Her occupation is studying

Examples of Gerunds as Subjects

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When the gerund is performing the action in the sentence, it's functioning as the subject.
The gerund usually appears before the verb in these cases.
 Reading became my favorite hobby.
 Swimming helps me unwind.
 Writing is an exchange of ideas.
 Smoking impacts your lungs in a negative way.
 Apologizing seems like the right response.
Gerund phrases can also function as subjects when they perform the action.
 Reading romance novels became my favorite hobby.
 Swimming with friends helps me unwind.
 Writing with a partner is an exchange of ideas.
Examples of Gerunds as Direct Objects
When the gerund receives the action in the sentence, it’s the direct object.
 John enjoys grilling.
 My sister avoids cooking.
 The team practiced kicking.
 We don't mind paying.
 She considered quitting.
You can also use gerund phrases as direct objects when they receive the action and
follow the verb.
 John enjoys grilling steaks.
 My sister avoids cooking large dinners.
 The team practiced kicking from the sideline.
Examples of Gerunds as Indirect Objects
When gerunds function as indirect objects, they receive the direct object of the sentence.
 I gave gardening another chance.
 The ballerina taught us dancing.
 My mother spent her life teaching.
 She made jogging her routine.
 Mrs. Taylor gave painting a try.

Gerund phrases can also function as indirect objects.

 I gave gardening in the backyard another chance.
 The ballerina taught us dancing to music.
 My mother spent her life teaching children.

Gerunds as Objects of Prepositions

When a gerund follows a preposition, it's an object of the preposition.
 My love for reading was immediate.
 After studying, we took a break.

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 Kira is obsessed with texting.

 We got in trouble for cheating.
 Iman has received ten job offers since graduating.
Gerund phrases as objects of prepositions include:
 My love for reading novels was immediate.
 After studying for six hours, we took a break.
 Khairat is obsessed with texting her friends.

Gerunds as Predicate Nouns

Predicate nouns, also known as predicate nominatives, follow a form of the verb "to be"
and rename or explain the subject of the sentence. Gerunds function as predicate nouns
when they provide more information about the subject of the sentence.
 Dawn's favorite activity is drawing.
 Her occupation is writing.
 The dog's worst habit is barking.
 My least favorite transportation is flying.
 His passion was biking.

Gerund phrases can also function as predicate nouns.

 Dawn's favorite activity is drawing sketches of her family.
 Her occupation is writing newspaper articles.
 The dog's worst habit is barking at the door.

Gerunds vs. Present Participles

Present participles are another type of verbal that also end in -ing, but they function as
adjectives to modify nouns. Gerunds only function as nouns.
 Gerund - The girls enjoy playing with cars.
 (Playing is the object of the verb enjoy)
 Participle - The playing girls shared their cars.
 (Playing modifies the noun girls)
 Gerund - Hiking is great exercise.
 (Hiking is the subject)
 Participle - The hiking family enjoyed the exercise.
 (Hiking modifies the noun family)

Gerunds vs. Verbal Nouns

Are all -ing words that function as nouns gerunds? Not exactly. Verbal nouns are another
type of that’s derived from a verb, but doesn’t function as a verb.

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Remember that gerunds keep verb-like qualities, such as using adverbs and taking
objects. Verbal nouns function purely as nouns. If you want to describe them, you use
adjectives — just word like any other noun.
 Gerund - Khaleed focused on carefully building the block tower.
(Building takes the block tower as an object, and is modified by adverb carefully)
 Verbal noun - Khaleed finished his tall block building.
(Building has no object and is modified by adjective tall)
 Gerund - The film critic spends her time diligently rating movies.
(Rating takes movies as an object, and is modified by adverb diligently)
 Verbal noun - Why did you give that movie such a poor rating?
(Rating has no object and is modified by adjective poor)

LINKING VERB
Linking verbs, also known as copular verbs, connect nouns with their descriptions. The
subject of the sentence performs them, but instead of showing an action, they provide
more information about the subject.

What Is a Linking Verb?

Linking verb: links nouns with their descriptions and provides more information about
the subject of the sentence.
Example:
 My cat is hungry.
 your feet smell terrible.
 Ahmad Asiwaju Tinumbu became president
Linking Verbs Connect Subjects to Complements
The extra information on the other side of a linking verb is called a subject complement.
Together, the linking verb and the subject complement form the predicate of the
sentence.
 My cat is hungry. (The linking verb is links my cat and its description — hungry)
 Your feet smell terrible. (The linking verb smell links feet and their description
— terrible)
 Ahmad Asiwaju Tinumbu became president
 (The linking verb became links Ahmad Asiwaju Tinumbu became — president)

List of Common Linking Verbs

The forms of to be can function as linking verbs. But other linking verbs show states of
being or the five senses in a sentence.
Forms of “Be” States of Being Five Senses
 Is become appear
 Am get feel
 Are has look

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 Was remain smell

 Were seem sound
 Being stay taste

How to use Linking Verbs in a Sentence

Linking verbs connect two types of subject complements: predicate adjectives and
predicate nouns — to their subjects.
The linking verb you choose depends on the description you’re trying to create.
How to Use Linking Verbs With Predicate Adjectives
Adjectives often come before nouns to describe them, but sometimes you’ll find them
after the noun. These adjectives are known as predicate adjectives (because they’re in
the predicate).
 My teacher is strict.
 The orchestra sounds amazing.
 Carlos seems upset.
 Maria’s cake tasted delicious.
You can also use linking verbs when an adverb or intensifier modifies the predicate
adjective.
 My teacher is incredibly strict.
 The orchestra sounds so amazing.
 Carlos seems very upset.
 Maria’s cake tasted perfectly delicious.
How to use Linking Verbs with Predicate Nouns
Linking verbs can also connect predicate nouns (also called predicate nominatives) to
rename or identify the subject of a sentence. Predicate nouns can be one word or they
can be longer noun phrases.
For predicate nouns, you’re more likely to use forms of be or become in a sentence.
 They are friends.
 We became a family.
 Laura was a neurologist.
 Joe became a trombone player.
Note that when you add an adjective in front of the predicate noun, it’s still a predicate
noun (and you still use a linking verb).
 They are good friends.
 We became a loving family.
 Laura was a famous neurologist.
 Joe became a skilled trombone player.

Linking Verbs vs. Helping Verbs

While linking verbs function as the main verb in a sentence, helping verbs “help” other
verbs create the verb tense of a sentence.

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The three main helping verbs (forms of be, have, and do) appear in verb phrases, such
as:
 I am swimming
 I have been swimming
 I do swim every day.
Of these helping verbs, forms of be (is, am, are, was, were) can also function as linking
verbs if they’re the only verb in the sentence. Otherwise, they’re helping verbs.
 Linking verb - I am a doctor.
 Helping verb - I am studying to be a doctor.
 Linking verb - You were so mean yesterday.
 Helping verb - You were yelling at everyone yesterday.

Using Helping Verbs with Linking Verbs

You can use be, have, and do with linking verbs in a sentence, since linking verbs are
the main verbs.
Additionally, you can use other types of helping verbs, including modal verbs (could,
would, can, will, may, etc.) with linking verbs.
 I became interested in marine biology. (Linking verb only)
 I will become interested in marine biology.
 I have become interested in marine biology.
 I may become interested in marine biology.
 Mike is a firefighter. (Linking verb only)
 Mike has been a firefighter.
 Mike might be a firefighter.
 Mike can be a firefighter.

Can Linking Verbs Also Be Action Verbs?

Linking verbs aren’t as showy as action verbs. Action verbs make people talk, dogs bark,
and phones ring — behavior that you can hear, see, and do. But are there any linking
verbs that are also action verbs?
Forms of be, seem, and become never function as action verbs. But many other linking
verbs can act as action verbs when they’re transitive verbs — meaning that they take a
direct object instead of a subject complement.
Linking verbs that refer to senses describe the subject of the sentence. When they’re
used as action verbs, they refer to what the subject is doing.
Linking Verb Action Verb
 The soup tasted spicy. Hank tasted the soup.
 That bridge looked dangerous. I looked at the bridge.
 Her perfume smells sweet. She smells her perfume.
 I don’t feel well. My mom feels my forehead.

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 The house appeared fine. He appeared in the doorway.

Likewise, when a linking verb describes a state of being, it connects the subject to its
description. But when it functions as an action verb, it’s meant more literally.
Linking Verb Action Verb
 We got too cold outside. We got our jackets.
 The crowd went wild. The crowd went home.
 I’m growing impatient. I’m growing tomatoes in the backyard.
 Lucy fell silent. Lucy fell down.
 They stayed friends. They stayed in town.

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CHAPTER SIX
SENTENCE

A
Sentence is a combination of words put together to convey an idea, a fact, a
question, a thought, a request or a command. Does that mean that you can
assemble words in any order? Will it still be a sentence? No! Learn what a
sentence is and how they are formed in this book. Furthermore, go through the
components of a sentence, the types of sentences, and the given examples to understand
how they are structured.

What Is a Sentence? – Meaning and Definition

A sentence is an array of multiple words arranged in a particular order. It has to be
complete in itself and should convey meaning. It can express a general idea, pose a
question or argument, provide a suggestion, make an order or request, and so much more.

The Oxford Learner’s Dictionary defines a sentence as “a set of words expressing a

statement, a question or an order, usually containing a subject and a verb”. According
to the Cambridge Dictionary, a sentence is defined as “a group of words, usually
containing a verb, that expresses a thought in the form of a statement, question,
instruction, or exclamation”.

Formation of Sentences in English

When constructing sentences, you have to follow a particular word order. They consist
of words, phrases and clauses that have to be arranged sequentially in order to make
sense. In most cases, the subject with or without the determiner comes first, followed
by the verb.
Let us look at the parts and components of a sentence and understand further how
sentences are formed.

PARTS OF A SENTENCE
The basic division of sentences is in terms of,
 Subjects – A noun, noun phrase or pronoun that does the action mentioned in the
sentence. It mostly occurs at the beginning of the sentence.
 Predicates – The remaining part of the sentence. It begins with the verb.
Here are a few examples.
Example 1: Daisy teaches English.
Subject – Daisy
Predicate – Teaches English
Example 2: Amina called me yesterday.
Subject – Amina
Predicate – Called me yesterday
Example 3: The girl wearing the yellow dress is my new neighbour.
Subject – The girl wearing the yellow dress

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Predicate – Is my new neighbour

COMPONENTS OF A SENTENCE
There are five components that can make up a sentence. They are,
 Subject – The doer of the action
 Verb – The action in the sentence
 Object – The receiver of the action
 Complement -A word/phrase that modifies the subject or object in the sentence
 Adjunct – An adverb or an adverb clause that provides us with more information
about the verb, complement or another adjunct in the sentence
While most sentences contain a subject and a verb, there are sentences that start with a
verb.
Go through the article on sentence structure to learn the different ways in which
sentences can be constructed.

TYPES OF SENTENCES
Sentences can be classified based or according to two aspects –
 Their functions
 Their structures
Sentences according to their functions are categorized into five types based on their
function these are as follows:
 Optative sentence
 Assertive/declarative sentence
 Interrogative sentence
 Imperative sentence
 Exclamatory sentences

Types of Sentences According to their Function

1. An Optative sentence is the types of sentence that show a desire or wish.
Examples:
 We wish you the best of luck.
 I wish you success.
 May you score the marks you prayed for.
 May Allah guide you to the right path.
2. An assertive/declarative sentence this is the types of sentences that states or
mention something known to be true. It is also a general fact, a habitual action,
or a universal truth.
For example:
 Today is Wednesday.
 The sun shine during the day
 Goats are animals

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 A cat has no wings

3. An imperative sentence: This is the types of sentence that is used to give a
command, an advice or make a request. Imperative sentences do not always
require a subject; they can start with a verb.
For example
 Turn off the lights and fans when you leave the class.
 Would you direct me to the railway station, please?
 Do not accuse anyone falsely
 Go and release the man immediately
4. An interrogative sentence: This is the types of sentence that asks a question.
For example:
 Where do you stay?
 Do you want to see me?
 Who is the richest person in your area?
5. An exclamatory sentence This is the types of sentence that expresses sudden
emotions or feelings.
For example:
 What a wonderful sight!’
 Oh! This is the first time I have seen this.
 Lord! Have mercy on us.

Types of Sentences According to their Structure or Nature of Clauses in

the Sentence
The three types or classifications of sentences according to their structures are:
 Simple sentences
 Compound sentences
 Complex sentences
 Complex-compound sentences
1. Simple sentences: This is the type of sentence that contain one independent clause.
Examples:
 Umar is a good boy
 Umar drives. [Umar (subject) ………. drives (predicate)]
2. Compound sentences This is the type of sentence that contains two independent
clauses which are joined together by a coordinating conjunction.
For instance,
 I like watching Kanywood movies, but my friend likes watching Nollywood
movies.
 Aisha and Maryam went to the market yesterday but they were driven away
by tax collector
 Abdullahi is an engineer and his friend, Aliyu, is a medical doctor.

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 She wanted to go on vacation, so she saved up her money.

 I like apples, but my sister loves bananas.
 Tinimu loves to read, and he also loves to hike.
3. Complex sentences: This is the type of sentence that contains an independent clause
and one or more dependent clauses.
Example:
 This is the women, who insulted my friend last week.
 When I was going to mosques yesterday, I saw a man beating his two children.
 Though we were tired, we played another game of football.’
 She went to class even though she was sick.
 As John was arriving to work, he realized he forgot his lunch.
 While I enjoy classical music, I prefer rock and roll because I play the drums.
4. Complex-compound sentences This is the type of sentence that contains two
independent clauses and a dependent clause.
Example:
 Although we knew it would rain, we did not carry an umbrella, so we got wet.
 Amina entered her room, recite the holy Qur’an, and sat down on her mat.
 Although she felt guilty for missing her friend’s birthday, she took her out to
dinner the next day, and they had a great time.
 I try to eat healthy food, but because fast food is so convenient, I cannot
maintain a healthy diet.
 If he got the job, he would have to commute 50 miles to work, so he decided
the job was not worth it.

What Are the Functional Purposes of each Type of Sentence?

Because each type of sentence can serve various functions, the writer should use the
type of sentence that best communicates the purpose of his or her idea.
 Choose the sentence type that will most clearly and accurately convey the logic of
your idea.
 Consider the amount of information your readers need, and consider the links the
readers need to process the information.
 Vary sentence structures to pace your readers through your argument.

Functions of Simple Sentences

Use simple sentences when presenting a limited amount of information. Although
simple sentences may be shorter, they are not any less academic than other sentence
types.

To declare a direct  First, I will give background information about my project.

statement  This conclusion is supported by extensive evidence.

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To display a simple list  The researchers created their hypothesis, conducted some tests, and
drew their conclusions.
 My evidence comes from journal articles, periodicals, and books.
To give concise  Please consider my application for the internship.
directions  Turn to Table 1 in the appendix.
To ask a question  What is the true meaning of the poem?
 What will this study mean to medical research in a decade?

Functions of Compound, Complex, and Compound-Complex Sentences

Compound, complex, and compound-complex sentences can serve similar purposes. The writer can
tailor the amount of information he or she provides by adding independent and dependent clauses to
simple sentences.
To combine similar  Compound: Recycling is an effective way of helping the
ideas environment, and everyone should recycle at home.
 Complex: Since recycling is an effective way of helping the
environment, everyone should recycle at home.
 Compound-Complex: Since recycling is an effective way of helping
the environment, everyone should recycle at home; we can all work
together to protect our planet.
To compare or contrast  Compound: Van Gogh was a talented and successful artist, but he
ideas had intense personal issues.
 Complex: Although he was a talented and successful artist, Van
Gogh had intense personal issues.
 Compound-Complex: Although he was a talented and successful
artist, Van Gogh had intense personal issues; indeed, many say his
inner turmoil contributed to his beautiful art.
To convey cause and  Compound: The researchers did not come to the correct conclusion,
effect or chain of so they restructured their hypothesis.
events  Complex: Since the researchers did not come to the correct
conclusion, they restructured their hypothesis.
 Compound-Complex: Since the researchers did not come to the
correct conclusion, they restructured their hypothesis, and they will
attempt the experiment again.
To elaborate on a claim  Compound: Cell phones should not be permitted in class, for they
or extend reasoning distract students and teachers.
 Complex: Since cell phones distract students and teachers, they
should not be used in class.
 Compound-Complex: Since cell phones distract students and
teachers, they should not be used in class, and I encourage faculty to
forbid their use.

EXERCISE 1
Directions: Identify the sentence type. Circle any coordinating or subordinating conjunctions.
Underline independent clauses once and dependent clauses twice. Then, explain what function the
sentence is performing.
1. Harry Potter was rejected from many publishers before J.K. Rowling found success.
Sentence type: _________________________________________________________________

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Function: _____________________________________________________________________
2. Even though the patients showed various symptoms, the clinical study found that lack of sleep
contributes to the inability to focus, irritability, and poorer health.
Sentence type: _________________________________________________________________
Function: _____________________________________________________________________
3. More and more students are relying on online databases to find sources.
Sentence type: _________________________________________________________________
Function: _____________________________________________________________________
4. The business analysts proposed higher numbers for next quarter, and they expect to exceed those
numbers the following quarter.
Sentence type: _________________________________________________________________
Function: _____________________________________________________________________
5. Homeless teens face intense obstacles, but when it comes to schooling, they do have the chance to
receive an education if they enroll in a special program.
Sentence type: _________________________________________________________________
Function: _____________________________________________________________________

EXERCISE 2
Directions: Practice composing your own sentences given the information provided. Consider what
sentence type will be best to express the information.
1. You are telling the reader about three important qualities of a character in a book.
Sentence: _____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. You are showing both sides of an argument.
Sentence: _____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. You are wondering about the types of resources available to students at SJSU.
Sentence: _____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. You are describing a sequence of events.
Sentence: _____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
5. You are providing extensive detail about a particular event.
Sentence: _____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Answer Key for Exercise 1

1. Complex; convey a chain of events
2. Complex; compare/contrast ideas
3. Simple; declare a simple statement
4. Compound; combine similar ideas
5. Compound-complex; elaborate on a claim, cause/effect

Answer Key for Exercise 2

Since answers will vary, bring your sentences from this activity to the Writing Center so you can
review them with a tutor.

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CHAPTER SEVEN
PUNCTUATION OF SENTENCES

T he punctuation of a sentence depends on the type of sentence. One rule that

applies to all sentences is the capitalization of the first letter of every new
sentence. The end of sentences is marked by punctuation marks such as a full
stop, a question mark or an exclamation mark. A full stop is used at the end of assertive
sentences and imperative sentences. Interrogative sentences end with a question mark,
and exclamatory sentences end with an exclamation mark.
While these are the basic punctuation rules, other punctuation marks like commas and
semicolons are found between different clauses in compound and complex sentences.
When you list something, you will have to separate them with commas. When you want
to provide a list, introduce them with a short sentence and a colon to indicate the list.
Go through the article on punctuation and capital letters in English to learn more about
punctuation sentences.
Examples of Sentences
 What are you doing?
 I am feeling sleepy.
 This game is interesting.
 Do not go that way.
 That really hurt!
 When is the next train to Maduguri?
 We could not witness the sunset because we reached late.
 Though we had some discomfort, we enjoyed ourselves.
 Children generally like playing outdoor games.
 Saratu and Nana are best friends.

Exercise
Unjumble the following sentences to form meaningful sentences. Also, punctuate them
appropriately.
1. student/a/hajara/grade/fourth/is
2. way/we/which/take/lotus/to/should/the/mahal/reach
3. was/mom/she/us/although/my/keeping/cooked/all/well/of/not/for
4. a/nearby/is/hospital/there
5. morning/i/up/chirping/woke/this/of/listening/the/birds/to/the
6. be/and/8/wake/ready/early/before/up
7. novel/the/small/arundhati/things/won/prize/1997/god/in/of/a/roy/the/booker
8. your/when/moms/is/birthday
9. you/are/there/multiple/choose/for/options/from/to

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Answers
1. Hajara is a fourth-grade student.
2. Which way should we take to reach the Lotus Mahal?
3. Although my mom was not keeping well, she cooked for all of us.
4. Is there a hospital nearby?
5. I woke up this morning listening to the chirping of the birds.
6. Wake up early and be ready before 8.
7. ‘The God of Small Things’, a novel by Arundhati Roy, won the Booker Prize in
1997.
8. When is your mom’s birthday?
9. There are multiple options for you to choose from.

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CHAPTER EIGHT
SUBJECT OF A SENTENCE

I magine someone asked you, “What is the subject of a sentence?” How would you
define it? We know three things are generally required to create a complete sentence:
subject + verb + direct object. But, what are they exactly?
The subject of the sentence is the noun that is doing or being something. The verb is
carrying out the action or linking the subject to further information. And the direct object
is receiving the action of the verb.
None of this could exist without the subject of the sentence. So, let’s talk a little bit more
about the place where every sentence starts.

Defining the Subject

You could also say the subject of a sentence is what it’s about. That’s true enough. But,
it’s more than that. The subject is the noun that’s doing or being something. Let’s look
at an example.
 The dog ran to greet his friend.
What is the sentence about? The dog. But, the better question is, “Who or what ran?”
The dog. And there we have the subject of the sentence. It’s doing something, in this
case, running. "His friend" is not the one doing something in this sentence. The dog is
carrying out the action.

THREE TYPES OF SUBJECTS

With this in mind, let’s discuss three main types of subjects. They are: simple subjects,
compound subjects, and noun phrases. We’ll start with the most basic form.

Simple Subjects
In the example above, “the dog” is a simple subject. It’s one person or thing, or one word
(in addition to the article “the”). Here’s another example:
 Toni sat by the fire.
Can you identify the verb? It’s “sat.” Who sat? Toni. Simple subjects are just that.
They’re simple and singular. This also includes singular nouns that describe a group as
a whole, like "the team" or "the committee."

Compound Subjects
The next type of subject is a compound subject. These subjects contain two or more
nouns or pronouns. The easiest example is this:
 Toni and Luke sat by the fire.

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Clearly, we have two people sitting by the fire, and they’re both the subject of the
sentence. You might also see something like this:
 Toni and her brother sat by the fire.
Here, we have a mix of nouns and pronouns, but they’re all part of the sentence. Who
or what sat by the fire? Both Toni and her brother.
Noun Phrases
A noun phrase is a group of words that function together like a noun. They provide more
detail than a singular - or even compound - subject. Here’s an example:
 The next person to speak out of turn will spend the afternoon in detention.
Here, we have a noun phrase. Who will spend the afternoon in detention? You might be
tempted to single out the word "person," but the subject is not just any person; it's "the
next person to speak out of turn."

Finding the Subject

Although the typical sentence construct is subject + verb + direct object, not every
sentence follows this exact formula. Here’s a curveball:
 Even more valuable is the time we spend with our children.
In this sentence, the predicate (the part that’s modifying, or providing further
information about the subject) is placed at the beginning of the sentence. This may (or
may not) confuse you when trying to pinpoint the subject, as the subject isn't necessarily
at the beginning of the sentence. You can begin by asking yourself what’s valuable?
You’ll know the answer is “time.” More to the point, you could even say the noun phrase
"the time we spend with our children" is the subject.
The verb in this sentence is “is.” It’s one of the most popular linking verbs, which are
slightly more difficult to label than action verbs. Linking verbs do not depict any action.
Rather, they link the subject to further information. Just remember the core question
here: “Who or what is valuable?” Here’s another example:
 At the start of each morning, we must rise with the sun and meditate for 30
minutes.
Can you identify the subject in this sentence? It’s headed off with a prepositional phrase
("at the start of each morning") and none of that is part of the subject. Let’s look for the
verb - “must rise.” Who must rise? We must rise. And there you have the subject.
The Subject-Verb Dance
It’s interesting to seek out the verb first and then search for the subject. But, if you can
identify the verb, you can identify the subject. For more on this topic, here are 20 rules
of subject-verb agreement.
Or, perhaps the better approach is to become a verb master. If you can spot the verb in
a sentence from a mile away, then the subject isn’t far behind. To beef up your verb
skills, read through these 15 classifications of verb tenses. It’ll help you pinpoint future
verbs with ease and accuracy.

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WHAT IS A PREDICATE?
"It's the basis of ordinary etiquette / to be sure of your subject and your predicate." This
lyric from a children's play about acceptable grammar is certainly true; however, not
everyone can point out the predicate in a sentence (even if they are sure of the subject).
Learn more about what a predicate is with the predicate meaning and how to identify
one in a sentence.

What Is a Predicate in a Sentence?

The predicate of a sentence is the part that modifies the subject of a sentence or clause
in some way. The predicate specifies what the subject is or does or tells what is done to
the subject. Because the subject is the person, place or thing that a sentence is about, the
predicate must contain a verb explaining what the subject does. It can also include a
modifier, an object or a compliment.
 The verb (or verb phrase) alone is the simple predicate.
 The verb paired with all of the other words that describe its action form the
complete predicate.
Basic Examples of One-Word Predicates
A predicate can be as simple as a single word that shows the action in a sentence. It is
used to tell you what the subject of the sentence does. Look at a few of the shorter
sentences in the English language. The subjects are underlined and the predicates are
bold.
 She danced. - The subject of the sentence is "she," the person being spoken about.
But what is being conveyed or expressed about this person? She performed an
action, of course; she danced. The word that modifies the subject "she" is the past-
tense verb "danced," which is the predicate.
 It talked! - "It" might be a baby saying a word for the first time, a parrot
squawking "Hello" or even an inanimate object somehow bestowed with the
power of speech. What you know about "it" is that, according to the sentence, it
spoke. "Talked" modifies the subject "it," so "talked" is the predicate.
 I sing. - The subject of the sentence is "I." What is the point of the sentence? For
the subject to specify an action that they perform, which is to sing. "Sing" is the
verb that is the predicate of this sentence.

More Examples of Short Predicates

Predicates vary in length and complexity. The sentences below are very simple
examples of what predicates are since the predicate is expressed entirely by one verb. A
simple predicate may also be a short verb phrase.
In the examples below, the complete predicate is in bold in each example, while the
subject is underlined. The simple predicate is noted in parentheses after each sentence.
 He was cooking dinner. (simple predicate - cooking)
 We saw the cat outside. (simple predicate - saw)

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 I walked the dog. (simple predicate - walked)

 Anthony wrote to his friend. (simple predicate - wrote)
 They ate all the candy. (simple predicate - ate)
 My aunt moved. (simple predicate - moved)
 The house has a new roof. (simple predicate - has)
 Andrew threw the ball. (simple predicate -threw)
 He is sad. (simple predicate - is)

Examples of Longer Complete Predicates

A complete predicate is the verb that shows the action and the modifying phrase that
completes the thought, basically everything in the sentence that isn't the subject.
As with the section above, the complete predicate is in bold in each example, while the
subject is underlined. The simple predicate is noted in parentheses after each sentence.
 She is dancing on stage for the first time. (simple predicate - is dancing)
 My family is arriving early tomorrow. (simple predicate - is arriving)
 She was upset for a long time over the break-up. (simple predicate - was upset)
 I have been studying for hours. (simple predicate - have been studying)
 We are going to the movies later. (simple predicate - are going)
 My parents just finished repainting their house. (simple predicate - just finished)
 You were visiting us this time last year. (simple predicate - were visiting)
 He has left his hometown for the big city. (simple predicate - has left)
 The children believe in Santa Claus. (simple predicate - believe in)
 Our new puppy has been crying all night. (simple predicate - has been)

Examples of Compound Predicates

In addition to simple predicates, there are also compound predicates. A compound
predicate gives two or more details about the same subject and has two or more verbs
joined by a conjunction. For example: "She visited her cousins and met all their friends."
In this example, "she" is the subject and "visited her cousins" and "met all their friends"
are the compound predicates joined by the conjunction "and."
In the examples below, the subject is underlined, the complete predicates are bold and
the simple predicate is noted in parentheses after each sentence.
 He did homework and played video games. (simple predicates - did, played)
 She likes dolls but hates trains. (simple predicates - likes, hates)
 The mail was late but arrived later that evening. (simple predicates - was, arrived)
 He lives in Italy and speaks English and Italian. (simple predicates - lives in,
speaks)
 We completed the project and won a prize. (simple predicates - completed, won)
 She slept in and was late for work. (simple predicates - slept in, was late)
 My sister fell and hurt her shoulder. (simple predicates - fell, hurt)

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 Mark broke his computer, so he borrowed one from his friend. (simple predicates
- broke, borrowed)
 The cat chased the mouse and trapped it in the kitchen. (simple predicates - chased,
trapped)
 We shopped and ate lunch at the mall. (simple predicates - shopped, ate)

Understanding Other Examples of Predicates

English grammar is known for exceptions and special circumstances, so you're probably
not surprised to learn that there are a few special cases to consider with predicates.
Making Sense of 'I Am.'
"I am" is often described as the shortest sentence in the English language, but this is not
exactly true. While it can be a complete thought and does contain a subject and a verb,
it doesn't explain what "I am."
 An additional piece of the phrase is usually necessary to complement the verb.
When you answer "I am," you are usually leaving out an implied word that
completes the sentence.
 Whatever you add to "I am" technically forms the predicate of the sentence. For
example: "I am playing guitar." You must add "playing guitar" to complete what
you are doing in the sentence.
 Another example would be "I am tired." The word "tired" is used to describe what
you are.
Now that you know "I am" is not technically a complete sentence, you'll probably be
quick to notice other examples that seem like complete sentences but lack a predicate,
such as "I can" and "I will." What might confuse you is the sentence that seems to lack
a subject.
Making Sense of 'Go.'
As surprising as it may sound, the shortest complete sentence in the English language is
the imperative statement, "Go!" How can this be? After all, "go" is a verb seemingly
without a subject or a predicate. There are two things you'll need to understand before
this example will make sense.
 If you tell a person to do something, they are the implied subject of the sentence.
What the imperative (meaning, "do this!") form of the "to go" verb is addressing
is the person to whom you are speaking. What you really mean when you shout
"go!" is, "(You) go!"
 Unlike the "to be" verb used above in the "I am" example, "go" is an action verb,
not just a state of being. "Go" is, therefore, a complete predicate in and of itself
— it needs no further explanation or qualification to make sense. (You) can go
anywhere, as long as (you) heed the imperative.

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Finding the Predicate

Every sentence has two parts: a subject and a predicate. The predicate is used to tell the
reader what the subject does. It contains a verb and shows action. Predicates can be one
verb or verb phrase (simple predicate), two or more verbs joined with a conjunction
(compound predicate), or even all the words in the sentence that give more information
about the subject (complete predicate). To find the predicate, simply look for what the
subject is doing. Now that you're familiar with predicates, take the time to explore
different parts of sentences.

What Are the Different Parts of a Sentence?

You may know that the basic parts of speech come together to make a sentence. But
what parts of a sentence are required to form a complete thought? Learn more about
identifying parts of a sentence, which parts of a sentence are required and how they
work together.
The black cat slept all day
Subject Predicate
Required Parts of a Sentence
The eight parts of speech — nouns, verbs, adjectives, prepositions, pronouns, adverbs,
conjunctions, and interjections — form different parts of a sentence. However, to be a
complete thought, a sentence only needs a subject (a noun or pronoun) and a predicate
(a verb). If you only include one of these two parts, you will have only a sentence
fragment, which is grammatically incorrect.

SUBJECT OF A SENTENCE
In general, the subject refers to the part of the sentence that tells who or what the
sentence is about. The subject is a noun, pronoun or noun phrase.
Examples of subjects in sentences include the words seen in bold below:
 Kalu walked down the street. (Kalu is a noun)
 They went to school. (They is a pronoun)
 The black cat slept all day. (The black cat is a noun phrase)
There are a few different types of subjects. A simple subject is just one word, without
any modifiers, usually a noun or pronoun. A complete subject is the simple subject plus
all modifiers. A compound subject is made up of more than one subject element.
 Simple subject - Kadija is a nice girl.
 Complete subject - Jafaru's poem about his mother made the class cry.
 Compound subject - Paul and Tommy joined the soccer team at the same time.
Notice that the subject comes before the verb in each sentence (is, made, joined). No
matter how long the subject is, it is always the noun performing the object.

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PREDICATE OF A SENTENCE
The predicate of a sentence includes the verb and everything that follows it. This
typically tells what the subject does with an action verb or describes the subject using a
linking verb and a complement.
 Kalu walked down the street. (What did Kalu do?)
 They went to school. (What did they do?)
 The black cat slept all day. (What did the black cat do?)
All of these words make up the complete predicate of the sentence. The verb alone is the
simple predicate. As with subjects, it's also possible to have a compound predicate that
consists of two different actions.
Take a look at the examples below to note the differences:
 Simple predicate - Harry cried.
 Complete predicate - The mouse slowly ran towards the food.
 Compound predicate - She laughed at the dog's tricks and decided to adopt him.
Predicates can contain a good deal of information and may be quite long. They often
have several parts in addition to the verb, including objects and complements.

OPTIONAL PARTS OF A SENTENCE

Now that you know the two main parts of a sentence, take a look at how optional
elements work. These elements include objects, complements and modifiers.
Direct and Indirect Objects
Objects are noun phrases that are included in the predicate. Direct objects are the things
being acted upon by the verb. They answer questions that begin with what.
 Sani bought the gift. (What did Susan buy?)
 He wrote a letter. (What he write?)
 The boy threw the ball. (What did the boy throw?)
Indirect objects include more information about the person or thing towards which the
action is directed. They answer the questions that begin with who.
 Sani bought him the gift. (Who did Susan buy the gift for?)
 He wrote me a long letter. (Who did he write a letter to?)
 The boy threw his mother the ball. (Who did he throw the ball to?)
You can also rephrase these sentences so that the indirect object appears after the direct
object in a prepositional phrase. For example, "Sani bought the gift for him" is also a
correct way to state the sentence.

SUBJECT AND OBJECT COMPLEMENTS

In predicates that use linking verbs rather than action verbs, nouns following the verb
are known as complements. Complements can be nouns, noun phrases, pronouns, or
adjectives. Subject complements, also known as predicate nominatives, modify the
subject by describing it further.

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 I am a mother.
 The cat was the laziest creature.
 The woman is blonde.
Object complements function the same way, but for the object of the sentence instead.
They follow transitive verbs, which express action performed toward an object.
 I named my son Carson. (The noun Carson complements the object son)
 The cat considers me his servant. (The noun phrase his servant complements the
object me)
 The woman dyed her hair blonde. (The adjective blonde complements the object
her hair)
These complements help to explain more in a sentence. You can see how they fit into a
sentence when you practice sentence diagramming.

Adjectival and Adverbial Modifiers

Like complements, modifiers add additional information. Adjectival modifiers modify
nouns and pronouns, while adverbial modifiers modify verbs, adjectives, and other
adverbs. It is possible for parts of speech to do this work alone in the sentence in either
the subject or the predicate.
 The blue boat sank. (The adjectival modifier blue modifies the subject boat)
 The boat slowly sank. (The adverbial modifier slowly modifies the verb sank)
Not all modifiers are single words. Sometimes they are groups of words, known as
phrases, that work together.
 She exercised in the morning.
 The boy fell asleep at school.
 They bought a very expensive house.
Modifiers are optional when it comes to writing sentences. They merely give additional
information and are not required the way a subject and verb are. Note that complements
are considered to be a type of modifier as well, but they are more important to the
meaning of a sentence.

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CHAPTER NINE
SENTENCE STRUCTURE

H aving learnt the parts of speech in the English language, not knowing how to
use them and where to place each part of speech to form a sentence would not
be ideal. Right? In fact, sentence structure is one among the most important
grammatical components that acts as the foundation of a language. So here is what you
need to know. In this book, you will learn what a sentence structure is and the different
sentence structures. You will also find examples for every sentence structure that you
can refer to. Also, try out the practice questions given.

What is Sentence Structure?

Sentence structure is a grammatical component that tells you exactly where and how
each component of a sentence should be placed in order to blend and make sense. The
Collins Dictionary defines sentence structure as “the grammatical arrangement of words
in sentences.” In other words, the sentence structure is what defines the way a sentence
will look and sound.

BASIC PARTS AND COMPONENTS OF A SENTENCE

Before we look into how sentence structure works with some Examples, we will have
to first learn about the basic structure of a sentence and the components that make up a
sentence.

Parts of a Sentence
A sentence, in the English language, consists of at least a subject and a predicate. In
other words, a sentence should have a subject and a verb.

Subject
The subject can be a noun or a pronoun that does the action.
For example:
 The sun is shining.
 The sky is clear.
 Today is Wednesday.

Predicate
The verb is the action performed by the particular subject in the sentence.
For example:
 I love macaroni and cheese.
 Maryam has a pet.
 Ayuba can draw.

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COMPONENTS OF A SENTENCE
Like a sentence has two parts, it has five main components that make up the structure
of a sentence, and they are,
 Subject
 Verb
 Object
 Complement
 Adjunct
Now, let us look at each of these components in detail.

Subject
A noun that performs the action in a sentence is considered as the subject. It answers
the question ‘who’ or in other words, a subject can be identified by asking the question
‘who’. A subject takes the first place in most cases, especially in declarative or assertive
sentences.
For example:
 The child kept crying.
 Our school team won the match.
 My son is in the eighth grade.
 Hard work pays.
 No one came to the wedding.

Verb
In every sentence the most important word can be said to be the verb. A verb shows
action or activity or work done by the subject. Remember that all verbs including main
verbs, helping verbs, stative verbs and action verbs come under this category. Most often,
verbs appear immediately after the subject.
For example:
 Neena is writing a letter.
 It was too dark.
 I feel tired.
 My phone is not working.
 Tarun’s dog ran away.

Object
An object is a noun or pronoun that receives the action done by the subject. Objects are
of two types and they are,
 Direct Object
 Indirect Object

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Direct Object
A noun or pronoun that receives the action directly is the direct object in the sentence.
It answers the question ‘what’. Direct objects mostly appear immediately after the verb
and are the primary objects in the sentence.
For example:
 Harry bought a new car.
 My mom made a cake.
 I met my friend.
 She knows all the songs.
 We watched a movie.

Indirect Object
An indirect object is a noun or pronoun that is a secondary object. It can be identified
by asking the question ‘whom’. When there is an indirect object in a sentence, it is
mostly placed after the verb and before the direct object.
For example:
 Vandhana gave Keerthana a cake.
 My mom bought me a new dress.
 I gave him a chocolate.
 They gave us coffee with breakfast.
 He lent his friend a pen.

Complement
The words required to complete the meaning of a sentence can be referred to as the
complement of the sentence. A complement can be an adjective, a name, a position or a
profession.
For example:
 It grew dark.
 He is a dentist.
 That’s her dog, Bruno.
Complements are further divided into two types based on which component it speaks
about. The two types of complement are,
 Subject Complement
 Object Complement

Subject Complement
The complement which expresses the quality or identity or condition of the subject is
called Subject Complement.
For example:
 She is a doctor.
 I am Sindhu.

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 Nandhu is clever.
 The students are very excited.
 My brother is a teacher.

Object Complement
The complement which expresses the quality or identity or condition of an object is
called Object Complement.
For example:
 They made her angry.
 The students elected Sreya the class leader.
 They named their daughter, Thara.
 Marley met her friend, Ryan.
 Nobody found the movie interesting.

Adjunct
An adjunct is a word or a phrase that gives more information about an action, an event,
a quality and so on. In short, it can be said that these words can include adverbs and
adverb clauses. Adjuncts can be identified by asking questions ‘when’, ‘where’, ‘why’,
‘how’, ‘how often’ and ‘to what extent’. When using adjuncts, keep in mind that
adjuncts can be used in the beginning, middle or end of the sentence and that there can
be more than one adjunct in a sentence.
Take a look at the following examples to understand how adjuncts can be used.
 Yesterday, we met at the park.
 He is very tired.
 Due to his ill-health, he could not come home for Christmas.
 My father reads the newspaper everyday.
 This workout routine is extremely exhausting.

The Different Types of Sentence Structures in English Grammar

In English grammar, there are a number of sentence structures as study above that you
can use to make your speech or writing sound or look a lot more organized, interesting
and professional. Some of the commonly used sentence structures with Examples are as
follows.
1. SUBJECT + VERB (SV)
 The stars / are shining.
Subject / Verb

 The birds / are chirping.

Subject / Verb

 It / is raining.

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Subject / Verb

2. SUBJECT + VERB + OBJECT (SVO)

 Children / love / ice creams.
Subject / Verb / Object
 Noah / does not like / bitter gourd.
Subject / Verb / Object
 I / have / a pencil.
Subject / Verb / Object

3. SUBJECT + VERB + COMPLEMENT (SVC)

 I / am / an Indian.
Subject + Verb + Complement
 Carol / is / a nurse.
Subject + Verb + Complement

 My name / is / Gina.
Subject + Verb + Complement

4. SUBJECT + VERB + ADJUNCT (SVA)

 Maimuna / reached / early.
Subject / Verb / Adjunct

 All of us / are leaving / for Tokyo.

Subject / Verb / Adjunct
 He / went / upstairs.
Subject / Verb / Adjunct

5. SUBJECT + VERB + OBJECT + COMPLEMENT (SVOC)

 We / lost / our cat, / Quinny.
Subject / Verb / Object / Complement

 My friends / make / me / happy.

Subject / Verb / Object / Complement

 Everyone / found / the book / controversial.

Subject / Verb / Object / Complement

6. SUBJECT + VERB + OBJECT + ADJUNCT (SVOA)

 It / is / my birthday / next month.
Subject / Verb / Object / Adjunct
 Lukman / reached / school / after 9 a.m.

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Subject / Verb / Object / Adjunct

 My brother / plays / football / everyday.

Subject / Verb / Object / Adjunct

7. SUBJECT + VERB + INDIRECT OBJECT + DIRECT OBJECT (SVIODO)

 The Board / offered / me / the job.
Subject / Verb / Indirect Object / Direct Object
 Umar / gave / Rabi / his favourite book.
Subject / Verb / Indirect Object / Direct Object
 Naimatu / bought / herself / a hat.
Subject / Verb / Indirect Object / Direct Object

8. ADJUNCT + SUBJECT + VERB + COMPLEMENT (ASVC)

 Suddenly, / it / grew / dark.
Adjunct / Subject / Verb / Complement
 Normally, / the weather / is / good.
Adjunct / Subject / Verb / Complement
 Occasionally, / my dog / gets / restless.
Adjunct / Subject / Verb / Complement

9. ADJUNCT + SUBJECT + VERB + OBJECT (ASVO)

 Last week, / we / celebrated / Holi.
Adjunct / Subject / Verb / Object
 Usually, / we / get / a token.
Adjunct / Subject / Verb / Object
 Every year, / we / visit / the orphanage.
Adjunct / Subject / Verb / Object

10. ADJUNCT + SUBJECT + VERB + INDIRECT OBJECT + DIRECT OBJECT

(ASVIODO)
 Today, / the teacher / gave / us / our papers.
Adjunct / Subject / Verb / Indirect Object / Direct Object

 Yesterday, / my mom / bought / me / a bicycle.

Adjunct / Subject / Verb / Indirect Object / Direct Object

 Every time he comes home, / my brother / gets / my mom / her favourite

chocolates.
Adjunct / Subject / Verb / Indirect Object / Direct Object

11. SUBJECT + VERB + ADJUNCT + ADJUNCT (SVAA)

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 They / go / to work / by bus.

Subject / Verb / Adjunct / Adjunct
 We / meet / every evening / on the way back home.
Subject / Verb / Adjunct / Adjunct
 Zainab / went / to the grocery store / last Saturday.
Subject / Verb / Adjunct / Adjunct

12. ADJUNCT + SUBJECT + VERB + ADJUNCT + ADJUNCT (ASVAA)

 Normally, / my parents / come / by bus / to Pondicherry.
Adjunct / Subject / Verb / Adjunct / Adjunct
 Last year, / my friends and I / went / to Meghalaya / for a month.
Adjunct / Subject / Verb / Adjunct / Adjunct
 Usually, / Finn’s parents / would come / to the airport / as soon as his flight lands.
Adjunct / Subject / Verb / Adjunct / Adjunct

Exercise
Now that you have gone through a number of examples, apply your knowledge to
identify the sentence structure of the following sentences. Make sure you split the
sentences according to the sentence structure.
1. My dog is acting weird lately.
2. It is getting too cold here.
3. The sky is blue.
4. Every year, the company updates its registry.
5. Brittany bought me a pair of shoes.
6. Nobody knows the answer.
7. The movie was great.
8. I will come home as soon as I finish work.
9. In September, she will be travelling to New York.
10.My brother’s phone is not working.

Answers

1. My dog / is acting / weird / lately.

Subject / Verb / Complement / Adjunct (SVCA)
2. It / is getting / too /cold / here.
Subject / Verb / Adjunct / Complement / Adjunct (SVACA)
3. The sky / is / blue.
Subject / Verb / Complement (SVC)
4. Every year, / the company / updates / its registry.
Adjunct / Subject / Verb / Object (ASVO)
5. Brittany / bought / me / a pair of shoes.
Subject / Verb / Indirect Object / Direct Object (SVIODO)

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6. Nobody / knows / the answer.

Subject / Verb / Object (SVO)
7. The movie / was / great.
Subject / Verb / Complement (SVC)
8. I / will come / home / as soon as I finish work.
Subject / Verb / Adjunct / Adjunct (SVAA)
9. In September, / she / will be travelling / to New York.
Adjunct / Subject / Verb / Adjunct (ASVA)
10.My brother’s phone / is not working.
Subject / Verb (SV)
Frequently Asked Questions on Sentence Structure
1. What is sentence structure?
2. What are the parts of a sentence?
3. What are the components of a sentence?
4. Give some examples of sentence structure.

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CHAPTER TEN
PARAGRAPH WRITING

P aragraph writing has been a part of the writing process in every student’s life. Not
only for any examination but also in our personal lives, we will need to write
about different topics. Paragraph writing is a simple process, and yet it needs
special attention as you have to be short, precise and to the point.

What Is Paragraph Writing?

As we all know, a paragraph is a group of sentences that are connected and make
absolute sense. While writing a long essay or letter, we break them into paragraphs for
better understanding and to make a well-structured writing piece. Paragraph writing on
any topic is not only about expressing your thoughts on the given topic, but it is also
about framing ideas about the topic and making it convenient for the readers to follow
it. In English paragraph writing, it is essential to focus on the writing style, i.e., the flow
and connection between the sentences.
Therefore, a paragraph must be written in simple language in order to avoid any
interruption while reading. In order to write a paragraph on any topic, you can refer to
the samples given below and write a paragraph without any hindrance.

How to Write a Paragraph?

In order to determine how to write a paragraph, you will have to find a good topic and
collect enough information regarding the topic. Once you find the supporting details,
you can start framing the sentences, connect the sentences following a sequence, and
find a perfect concluding sentence. To understand it better, we have provided a few
paragraph writing examples for your reference.

Find a Topic Sentence: It is the first sentence which is an introduction to the given topic.
It gives the main idea of what the paragraph would be about.
Supporting details: These are the details that can be collected from various sources. It
comprises information related to the topic that gives strong support to the main topic.
Closing sentence: It is the last sentence that ends the paragraph and restates the whole
idea of the paragraph. It is basically the concluding sentence that gives the basic idea of
the whole topic.

Types of Paragraph Writing

It is essential to know the types of paragraph writing before you write about any given
topic. Therefore, check the below information to understand the various types of
paragraph writing.

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Majorly, there are four types of paragraph writing, i.e., narrative, descriptive, expository,
and persuasive.
Descriptive: This kind of writing basically describes the topic and appeals to the five
senses.
Narrative: These kinds of writing are basically a narration of a story or a situation that
includes a sequence.
Expository: These kinds of writing are a definition of something. These paragraphs
require a lot of research.
Persuasive: These kinds of writing aim to make the audience admit a writer’s point of
view. These are mostly used by the teachers to provide a strong argument.

Paragraph Writing Topics

A paragraph can be written on various topics. For example, a student of Class 1–3 would
write a paragraph on topics like ‘A Cow’, ‘My School’, ‘My Mother’, etc. With classes,
the topics may vary, and when writing for yourself, the topics can be anything that
comes to your mind. Check the various paragraph writing topics provided below and
refer to the paragraph writing samples for a better understanding of the writing style.

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