Unit Two Writing Effective Paragraphs

2.1. Paragraph definition

According to Edwin and Lewis (1984), a paragraph is a group of sentences that deal with the
same subject or topic. One of the sentences tells the reader the main idea the topic. This
statement is called the topic sentence. The other sentences in the paragraph give additional
information about the idea stated in the topic sentence. These other sentences are called
supporting sentences. Once a writer can recognize both types of sentences, it will be easier for
him/her to use them to build paragraphs. 2.2. Nature of a paragraph

A paragraph is a group of sentences about one topic. It contains a topic sentence, supporting
details and sometimes a concluding remark. The sentences follow one another from the
beginning to the end of the paragraph. A paragraph is usually part of a longer piece of writing,
such as a letter or essay. Dear students, understanding the nature of a paragraph helps you a lot to
write good academic texts, so it is discussed below using a short sample paragraph. A. The topic
sentence - The topic sentence is usually the first sentence of the paragraph. It states the main idea
of the paragraph. A good topic sentence tells the reader exactly what the rest of the paragraph
will be about.

Terry Fox was a Canadian who suffered from bone cancer and raised awareness for cancer
research by trying to run across Canada. He attracted a lot of attention by running the distance of
a marathon daily on one prosthetic leg. He also challenged each Canadian citizen to contribute
one dollar for cancer research. Unfortunately, Fox was forced to end his run near Thunder Bay
because of health complications. The CTV network organized a nation-wide run to continue
Fox’s fundraising efforts. Clearly, Terry Fox had an impact on both cancer research and the
millions of Canadians who participate in the Terry Fox Run every year.

B. The supporting details - The supporting details are the specific sentences of the paragraph.
They provide details such as explanations or examples that expand on or support the topic
sentence. Supporting sentences are sometimes connected by transition words or phrases. C. The
concluding sentence - A concluding sentence is sometimes used in longer paragraphs to sum up
the ideas presented. It expresses the same idea as the topic sentence but in different words. It can
start with a transition such as clearly or in conclusion.

Not all academic paragraphs contain concluding sentences, especially if the paragraph is very
short. However, if your paragraph is very long, it is a good idea to use a concluding sentence. A
concluding sentence may do any of the following: o Restate the main idea.
Example: Childhood obesity is a growing problem in the United States. o Summarize the key
points in the paragraph.

Example: A lack of healthy choices, poor parenting, and an addiction to video games are among
the many factors contributing to childhood obesity. o Draw a conclusion based on the
information in the paragraph.

Example: These statistics indicate that unless we take action, childhood obesity rates will
continue to rise. o Make a prediction, suggestion, or recommendation about the information in
the paragraph.
Example: Based on this research, more than 60 percent of children in the United States will be
morbidly obese by the year 2030 unless we take evasive action. o Offer an additional
observation about the controlling idea.
Example: Childhood obesity is an entirely preventable tragedy.
2.3. Identifying topic sentence and supporting details
A topic sentence, usually the first sentence of a paragraph, is the most important sentence that
states the main idea. A good topic sentence makes a point that will be developed in the rest of the
paragraph. It also provides an accurate indication of what will follow in the rest of the paragraph.
Supporting details, however, provide details such as explanations or examples that expand on or
support the topic sentence. They are the building blocks of a good paragraph. They make up the
body of the paragraph by explaining, proving, or enhancing the controlling idea in the topic
sentence. Most paragraphs contain three to six supporting sentences depending on the audience
and purpose for writing. Supporting sentence usually offer explanations, reasons, facts, statistics,
quotations or examples. There can be both major and minor supporting details. Major details
support the topic sentence. Minor details expand on, or provide reasons and examples of, the
major details. Look at the following topic sentence with supporting details.
Topic sentence
Mother gorillas do a lot for their babies. Supporting sent 1
They nurse their babies. Supporting sent 2
They protect them from danger. Supporting sent 3
And they teach the tiny gorillas how to get along with other gorillas.
Have a look at the example paragraph below:
My favorite drink is tea and I drink a lot of it (1). I always have tea in the morning for
breakfast (2). I make a pot of tea and then I drink it all myself (3). Sometimes I have another pot
before lunch (4). At four o’clock, I make a cup of mint tea (5).
The underlined sentence (1) in the above paragraph is the topic sentence. It states the general
idea of the paragraph. The writer tells us that he/she likes tea and as a result he/she drinks a lot of
tea it. But the rest sentences (2-5) are the supporting details. They are all different from the topic
in that they are specific sentences used to explain what is stated in the topic. These sentences
give clear evidences as to what extent the writer drinks tea in a day.
2.4. Writing topic sentences
A topic sentence has a topic (the subject you will write about) and a controlling idea (how you
will approach your subject, your perspective of the subject). Look the example below: o Werabe
University (topic) offers a well-balanced academic program (controlling idea).
The topic does not necessarily come first. It may come at the end, the middle, or even interrupt
the controlling idea. Example:
o Four factors (controlling idea) establish Elvis Presley (topic) as the greatest entertainer of the
twentieth century: appearance, singing ability, style, and influence (controlling idea).
Suppose you want to write a paragraph about Police Work. The introductory part (topic
sentence) of your paragraph might look like: Police officers perform many important services.
Notice that this sentence is rather general as it stands. When we say general, the sentence by
itself does not tell enough about: What are these services? But it introduces an overall idea that
you want to discuss later in the paragraph.
2.5. Nature and position of topic sentences in a paragraph
Topic sentence is usually the first sentence of a paragraph, but not necessarily. It may come, for
example, after a transition sentence; it may even come at the end of a paragraph. In other words,
topic sentences can appear at several points in a paragraph.
A. Topic sentence at the beginning of the paragraph
Concluding remarks of a paragraph do not always restate the topic sentence and, in fact, in some
paragraphs may be missing altogether. However, a topic sentence is still needed. A second and
also common placement for the topic sentence is in the lead position with no repetition in the last
sentence. A paragraph of this nature starts with a strong, general topic statement with subsequent
supporting details narrowing from this broad beginning. Such a structure provides the reader
with immediate knowledge of the topic and scope of the paragraph and thus serves as a map for
the details that follow. This type of structure is most frequently found in newspaper articles,
where the headline may also assume the role of topic sentence. A diagram of this paragraph type
would be an inverted triangle. The following sample paragraph begins with a topic sentence.
The details which follow it repeat the controlling idea of the paragraph and are arranged in
chronological order, that is, from first to last: Constructing a wedding cake is a complicated
process. Before any baking takes place, the size of the cake and the decorative design to be used
must be determined. Then the layers are baked. On a large cake the bottom layers may be as
much as sixteen inches in diameter. Because of their size, these layers must be baked one at a
time, a process which may actually take an entire day. Once the layers are cooled, same-size
pairs are matched and frosted. Since large wedding cakes are surprisingly heavy, half-inch
dowel rods must be measured, cut, and carefully driven into the bottom layers. These wooden
posts provide hidden support for the weighty upper layers. When all the layers are set in place,
flowers, garlands and leaves of frosting are added. These delicate touches individualize the
wedding cake and transform it from merely a cake into a culinary work of art. In the paragraph
above, the topic sentence is―Constructing a wedding cake is a complicated process.
The steps involved in constructing this type of cake are told in time order, beginning with baking
and ending with decorating. Note that, although the paragraph draws to a logical conclusion, the
topic sentence is not repeated in the end position.
B. Topic sentence at the end of the paragraph
You will be spending a lot of time with this topic. Make sure that this is something that
genuinely interests you. This will make the research and writing process more enjoyable, and the
finished work will reflect your sincerity and conviction.
o Ask yourself why you choose this topic. If your broad topic is the environment, think about
what aspects of the environment you most care about. Are you most interested in conservation of
fish and game, or endangered species? Are you most concerned about preservation of wetlands,
forests, oceans, or deserts? Are there conservation measures or environmentally friendly
technologies that particularly interest you?
C. Audience and purpose
o What aspects of the topic would most be most interesting and important to your audience?
o What aspects of the topic would be new to the audience? Avoid tired topics that your audience
and your instructor are already thoroughly familiar with. For example, littering is certainly an
environmental concern, but it is likely that your audience has been reading papers or hearing
speeches about litter since they were in grade school.
How to tell if your topic is too broad or too narrow
o The number of ideas and points you plan to cover
When you have narrowed your topic in mind and have done some preliminary research, do a
rough outline or list of key points and: - If you have a number of unrelated ideas, your topic may
still be too broad. For example, conservation of wetlands and conservation of rainforests may be
unrelated. - Even if your ideas are related to each other, if you have too many key points to
support your ideas, your topic may be too broad. You should have a few key points (perhaps
three to six, depending on the length of your paper) and you have ample space to present details
and examples for each of those points. - In contrast, if you have only one or two key ideas, and
not much detail to support those ideas, your topic might be too narrow.
o The availability of high quality sources
 As you do your research, if your key word search turns up hundreds of high quality sources on
your topic, your topic may be too broad. If you can‘t find enough information about your topic, it
may be too narrow.
2.7. Structure of a paragraph
By the structure of a paragraph is meant the building or composition of it. The definition of a
paragraph indicates that the sentences must be related; they must have a particular structure. This
structure is determined by the relationship of the ideas, and it is by constructing the paragraph
properly that you develop the idea. To develop an idea is to unfold or reveal it. For instance,
when someone asks you how to do a mathematical problem, you explain the process by giving
the steps in order. The last sentence of your explanation is, of course, the last step of the
problem. The development of an idea in a paragraph follows the same procedure. The topic
sentence may inform the reader that washing an animal is a rather difficult process. From that
point you proceed in the order in which you would if you were, in fact, washing a dog. The final
sentence should bring the paragraph to a complete end; that is, it must leave the reader feeling
that you have told him all you have to say.
Such an ending may be: ―Now the dog is clean and shiny, all ready, in his opinion, to go out
and roll over in the dirt.‖ If you follow this method of developing your idea, your paragraph will
be well structured. A well structured paragraph is expected to have some salient features and will
be discussed in the section below.
2.8. Essentials of a paragraph
2.8.1. Unity The unity of a paragraph means that the paragraph only discusses one small idea.
When you have another idea you have to move to another new paragraph. Another evidence in
the unity of a paragraph is that all the supporting sentences only support one main idea of the
paragraph. Here is an example of a unified paragraph. The first sentence expresses the main
point of the paragraph and the rest of the sentences relate to the main point.
Your sister is an attractive woman. Her large, dark eyes are beautiful. Her complexion is
flawless, and she has a lovely big smile. Her long, black hair is full and shiny. She is tall and
slender, and her every movement is graceful. She also dresses stylishly, and her assortment of
passant skirts and loose-fitting blouses look great on her.

The main point of the paragraph (how attractive the woman is) is supported by a number of
specific details: beautiful eyes, flawless skin, a lovely smile, beautiful hair graceful movements,
and stylish dress. Notice that there is even more specific detail to describe some of these
features; large, dark eyes, full, shiny black hair, and passant skirts and loose-fitting blouses
2.8.2. Coherence
A paragraph has coherence when all of its sentences are organized and flow smoothly and
logically from one to the next. When a paragraph has coherence, the reader can follow the main
ideas more easily. You can achieve coherence in your paragraph by using several cohesive
devices. The following are some of these devices.
A. Pronouns: Since a pronoun refers to an antecedent, the pronoun and its antecedent form a
link. You can often make a paragraph coherent merely by using pronouns properly. On the other
hand, incorrectly used pronouns can weaken coherence. In the following examples, notice how
pronouns in the second sentence of each pair provide coherence by referring to the important
subject in the first sentence. Example:
o Self-help books continue to proliferate. They appeal to anxieties of our middle-aged society.
o Patients must fast for twelve hours before the test. They should also avoid red meats for
seventy-two hours before coming in.
B. Repetition: Substituting a pronoun for a noun is actually a kind of repetition. There are two
ways of repetitions, i.e., direct and indirect repetitions.
i. Direct repetition of a word or expression will also produce a similar effect. In other words,
you can achieve coherence by repeating some key words. Example: Exposure to too much sun
can damage the skin. This damage is irreversible and can result in skin cancer. Use direct
repetition with care. Overdoing it will give an awkward, immature ring to your writing.
Example: Daily receipts are taken to the central office. Daily receipts are then tallied….
You can get much the same transitional affect by using synonyms or slightly altered forms of the
repeated expressions.
Example 1: Bill Clinton has been somewhat distant since leaving the White House. The former
president has settled in to a life of privacy.
Example 2: A moderately honest man with a moderately faithful life, moderate drinkers both, in
a moderately healthy home: that is the true middle class unit.
II. Indirect repetition is a kind of repetition that comes to effect by using demonstrative
pronouns like this, these, that, those and other determiners like ‗such‘ and ‗the‘ which serve as a
bridge between two ideas. Using such linking devices as a substitute for a noun is actually a kind
of repetition. Example: During the great famine of Niger, people were eating grass. This was
unbelievable.
C. Transitional markers: Transitional terms make a paragraph coherent by relating ideas. They
are referred to as the ‗glue‘ to hold ideas together. Like pronouns, many of these terms come to
mind automatically, but you should carefully choose among them. The commonest markers are
the simple connectives such as ‗and‘, or ‗but‘, ‗for‘, which serve as viaducts over which the
reader may easily pass from one sentence or clause to the next. Others - sometimes called
transitional connectives - indicate the direction, which the new sentence is about to take and to
prepare the reader for what is to follow. Here is a partial list of common transitional terms:
1) Time: next, then, after, before, during, while, following, shortly, thereafter, later on, the next
day, secondly, finally
2) Place: over, above, inside, to the left, just behind, beyond
3) Contrast: however, but, on the other hand, nevertheless, nonetheless, notwithstanding, on the
contrary, conversely, yet.
4) Cause - effect: so, therefore, thus, accordingly, consequently, as a result, hence, because of
this. 5) Addition: and, furthermore, moreover, likewise, similarly, in a like manner, too, also
6) Emphasis: indeed, in fact, especially, most important
7) Summary: in other words, in short, to sum up, in conclusion, to conclude, all in all, in a nut
shell, generally, in general, finally, at last, etc.
8) Example: for instance, for example, that is, in particular
D. Sequencing – Suppose you have many notes about your ideas for a writing assignment. How
do you put all these ideas together in a logical way that will make sense to the reader? The
sentences should follow each other in the most sensible order for developing the main idea of the
paragraph. This process of putting things in their proper order is called paragraph sequencing.
There are several possible orders for sequencing: chronological sequencing, spatial sequencing,
generality sequencing, and sequence in importance.
i. Time order (chronological order) - In telling about an event the clearest way to present the
moment is to give the details in chronological order. You should use this sequence for related
details or examples when you want to state them in the time order in which they occur. In other
words, you will list the earliest details first in your paragraph and the latest or most recent details
toward the end of your paragraph. This is a very common sequence for a series of events. The
details in a paragraph of this kind tend to answer such questions as what happens first. And then
what happens last? Paragraphs that relate either a series of incidents or steps in a process often
follow such chronological order; in this way is mostly used in narrative paragraphs or essays.
The following paragraph, for example, is narrative and the details are arranged in chronological
order.
The most terrifying day in my life came in July of 1946. I was washing lunchtime dishes in our
farmhouse in middle Georgia when my husband unexpectedly appeared at the door." Appeared"
is the best word that I can think to use, because he was not walking but crawling, dragging his
left leg. I got out of him as quickly as possible that he had bitten by a copperhead of some three
feet, a snake large enough for its venom to be fatal. We lived thirty miles from the nearest
hospital, I did not have a driver’s license (and in fact, had never driven a car), but my husband
was dying before my eyes. I pushed/ pulled him into the back seat of our Chevrolet and pointed
the car toward Atlanta.
ii. Spatial order - If you want your readers to be able to picture a scene or object you are
describing, you could use a spatial sequencing of details. This sequence describes a scene or
object by going from one part of it to another in an organized. For instance if you intended your
details to describe a building of some kind you might want to sequence the details so that you
went from the bottom to the top of the building by answering such questions as what is on the
first floor ? the second floor ? the third floor? and soon, until you had covered all the floors .or
you might wish to go in the opposite direction ,beginning at the top and proceeding down , floor
by floor, to the lowest floor. Or you might describe the same building by going from side to side;
answering questions like what is on one side of the building? the section in the middle ? the other
side of the building ? And, of course, you could move in any direction inside the building; left to
right , north to south, up to down, side to side, near to far, or whatever. As you enter the library,
you are greeted by paintings on each side of the door. The painting on the right is of the town’s
high school, and on the left is a watercolor of the town’s city hall. There are several other works
of art in the main body of the building. As you face the archway on the left, you discover pieces
of pottery enclosed in a glass case. A ceiling mural appears over the archway, and on the right a
wall hanging has been hung. The entire library is filled with works of art.
iii. Sequence in importance - You generally sequence the points by their importance; you
should use this sequence when you want to give several details or examples and wish to start
your paragraph with the most important or more interesting ones. You may do this in order to
attract the attention of your readers at the very start, especially readers who may be impressed for
time or who may be uninterested in your subject.
Suppose you wanted to write a paragraph for this topic sentence: When I returned to my old
neighborhood, I was sad to see how many things had changed. re I spent hours reading was
gone. From the incidents, because it seems to be the most important would best be first in the
paragraph, it would be best discussed first in the paragraph. Take a look at the example below:

Our department needs lots of fixing-up. Though it may be difficult to fix-up all of them at the
same time, we have got to fix the leaky roof first before the September rains come. Next, we need
to patch the big holes in the bed room walls and then strip the peeling paint off the walls. Then
we can repaint the apartment. After the walls are painted, we can work on replacing the
linoleum squares in the kitchen that are loose or cracked. Later, the living room carpet needs
shampooing, and we should replace that old swaybacked sofa. Then we won’t be embarrassed to
have company over once in a while.
Of course, only the writer himself could determine which was most or least significant. The
writer can follow the opposite approach, for example, the least important ones come first in the
paragraph, the important next and the most important details come last. This arrangement allows
you to build up your reader‘s interest gradually (to create suspense if it is in fiction writing), with
your final details providing a climax.
2.8.3. Adequate development (Completeness)
A paragraph is adequately developed when it describes, explains and supports the topic sentence.
If the "promise" of the topic sentence is not fulfilled, or if the reader is left with questions after
reading the paragraph, the paragraph has not been adequately developed. How much support
does the topic sentence requires depends on how much the readers need. Giving to much
explanation may be boring but giving too little may block communication. good paragraph is
fully developed. Here are the main qualities of a well-developed paragraph.
o It provides enough supporting points for the main idea expressed in the topic sentence to be
clearly understood.
o It provides enough specific details and examples to be interesting and informative.
o It does not leave the readers with unanswered questions that could be cleared up with a little
more detail or an additional example or two.
o It concludes with a sentence that clearly" wraps up" the paragraph and relates to the topic
sentence in some manne
Paragraph development
•Description,
•Argumentation,
•Narration,
•Exposition
Description – is a verbal picture of a person, place, or thing. It is the kind of writing which
attempts to appeal to the reader's sense, recreating for him the author's original impression of the
subject being described. It is very much concerned with sensory impressions (sight, sound, smell,
taste, touch). Description can be objective or impressionistic. Description rarely appears alone in
modern writing. It is most often used with narration.
We have special sensory words which are very much concerned with description. Some words
refer to sensory experiences: to what we see, hear, touch, taste and smell. Because these words
call up sensory images, they are particularly effective in description. In the following list, some
words could fit into more than one sensory category.
Touch : chill , clammy , cold , corrugated, grainy, gritty, harsh, jarring, knobby, moist, nubby,
numb, plushy, rough satiny, slimy, slithering, smooth, sting, tingle, tickly, velvety.
Taste: bland, biting, bitter, nutty, peppery, salty, sour, spicy, sweet, tainted, vinegary, yeasty,
brackish, briny, metallic, minty
Smell: acrid, fetid, greasy, moldy, musky, musty, pungent, putrid, rancid, rank, reek, stench,
sulphurous, woodsy.
Sound: bellow, blare, buzz, chatter, chime, clang, clatter, clink, crackle, crash, creak, gurgle,
purr,ruttle,rustle,screech,snap,splash,squeak,swish,tinkle,whine,whisper,hiss, hum, murmur, pop.
Sight: blaze bleary, bloody, burnished, chalky, dappled, ebony, flame, flash, flicker, florid,
foggy, gaudy, glare, glitter, glossy, glow, golden, grimy, haze, inky, leaden, lurid, muddy, roiled,
sallow, shadow, smudged, spark, streak, tawny, turbid.
Well-chosen sensory words help a reader to experience what a writer is recording.

Example 1
A descriptive paragraph about the delights to be found at Bale National Park in Oromiyya
Region by a former student who wishes to remain anonymous.
Bale’s summer sunshine makes me delightful. I indulge myself under the shade of the strawberry
trees during the summer in Bale National Park in order to bask in its sunshine. Especially when
the wind waves the leaves and the sunlight slides through; it feels like velvet patting my body or
like a furry cat rubbing me. I like to sit on the bench, which is on the southern shore of the Wabi
River. One day, an old Abyssinian dog sat beside me. Although there were many adults jogging,
children giggling, and squirrels chasing around, the old Abyssinian was as solid as a rock; he
closed his eyes and ears and made his daydream without a pause. Sometimes, when the sunlight
stung his nose, he shifted his body one inch to avoid it, and when the flies buzzed around his
head, he twitched his muscle or his ear to dispel the greedy flies who shared his sunlight. After
absorbing enough energy, he trudged away contentedly. I love to sip this free tranquilizer during
the summer in Bale National Park.

Descriptions of People
In order to write an interesting description of somebody we must use suitable nouns and
adjectives. When we describe persons, we are concerned with their physical appearance and
with their personality. Certain noun and adjectives help us to describe the persons accurately.
Here are some examples:
A. Useful nouns for describing a person's appearance
Age: baby, toddler, youngster, youth, boy, girl, teenager, man, woman, lady, young man,
young woman, old man, old woman, elder
Parts of the Face: forehead eyes, eyebrows, nose, nostrils, ears, cheeks. mouth, lips, jaw chin
Parts of the Body: head, neck, shoulders arms lands, legs, feet
Hair: hairstyle, plaits, braids, beard, moustache
Clothes: cloth, fabric; shirt, T-shirt, tie, coat, jacket, trousers, jeans, socks, pullover, sweater; suit
overcoat, raincoat, dress, blouse, skirt, shawl, scarf; shoes, sandals, boots, hat, glasses, spectacles
Jewellery: Necklace bracelet, ring, earrings, anklet
B. Useful adjectives for describing a person's appearance
Age: young, middle-aged, old, elderly; in his/her early thirties / mid forties / late fifties etc,
Face: long, round, oval, attractive, beautiful, un-shaven
Hair: long, medium-length, short; straight, curly, wavy; dark, black, blonde, gray, fair, white,
plaited, bald
Forehead: high, low
Eyes: blue, brown, gray
Ears: big, small
Nose: long, pointed, turned-up
Body Build: tall, short, fat, plump, over -weight, thin, slim, slender, skinny, under-weight,
broad-shouldered, muscular
Clothes: cotton, woolen, hand-woven, leather, traditional, western, colorful
General appearance: handsome, good-looking; beautiful, lovely, pretty, attractive, well
dressed, smartly-dressed, dressed
C. Useful adjectives for describing a person's personality
happy, cheerful unhappy, sad, miserable
friendly, pleasant, amusing unfriendly, unpleasant
kind unkind, cruel
hard-working lazy
reliable, trustworthy unreliable
polite, well-mannered impolite, rude, ill-mannered
honest, truthful dishonest, crafty
unselfish, generous selfish, mean
clever, intelligent, wise stupid, silly, dull
quiet talkative
shy confident
modest, humble proud, boastful, arrogant
The following example shows how the writer describes his mother. Notice the sensory words
used in the description.
This picture of my mother, which was taken fifty years ago, has fascinated me from the
moment I began to study it closely. The young woman in the picture has a face that
resembles my own in many ways. Her face is a bit more oval than mine, but the softly
waving brown hair around it is identical. The small, straight nose is the same model I was
born with. My mother's mouth is closed, yet there is just the slightest hint of a smile on her
full lips. I know that if she had smiled, she would have shown the same wide grin and down
curving "smile lines" that appear in my own snapshots. The most haunting features in the
photo, however, are my mother's eyes. They are exact duplicates of my own large, dark
brown ones. Her brows are plucked into thin lines, which are like two pencil strokes added
to highlight those fine luminous eyes. I've also carefully studied the clothing and jewelry in
the photograph. My mother is wearing a blouse and skirt that, although the photo was
taken many years ago, could easily be worn today. The blouse is made of heavy eggshell-
colored satin and reflects the light in its folds and hollows. It has a turned down cowl collar
and smocking on the shoulders and below the collar. The smocking (tiny rows of gathered
material) looks hand-done. The skirt, which covers my mother's calves, is straight and
made of light wool or flannel. My mother is wearing silver drop earrings. They are about
two inches long and roughly shield shaped. On her left wrist is a matching bracelet. My
mother can’t find this bracelet now, despite the fact that we spent ours searching through
the attic for it. On the third finger of her left hand is a ring with a large, square-cut stone.

II. Descriptions of Places

As a writer, you have to observe a scene around you with great care; and you have to present
it faithfully so readers know exactly what you see. Selecting some places filled with colors,
noises and people in the midst of actions, you will present a scene that is clear and vivid for
any reader to appreciate.
Example
My bedroom is very cosy. It is a small room with thick carpeting and light blue walls.
Below the north window is my double bed covered with an imitation of leopard skin
bedspread. To the left of the bed against the wall is a nightstand with a reading lamp, an
alarm clock, and a portable radio. At the foot of the bed is a wooden stand holding my
black-and-white TV. Behind the wooden stand and in front of the closet are three
comfortable armchairs. On the east and west walls posters of famous historical and
geographical sites are plastered. The holy cross bearing the crucifixion of Christ is hung to
the wall alongside the portrait of Virgin Mary embracing infant Christ...

Argumentation
– patterns of development in which the writer attempts to support a controversial point or
defend a position on which there is a difference of opinion. When one writes argumentation, his
main purpose is to convince his reader about some issue, to persuade his reader to take some
action. The writer presumes that he and his readers hold different position on a subject. The
writer attempts to convince readers through logical reasoning. This argumentation is a process of
reasoning in which a series of facts and judgments are arranged to establish a conclusion.
Look at the following model argumentative paragraphs, and notice how they are organized.
Immigration contributes to the overall health of the American economy. Despite recent
concerns related to the costs created by illegal and some legal immigration to the United States,
this country has largely benefited from the skills, talents, and ambition that immigrants bring
with them. American businesses gain from a good source of affordable labor, while town and
cities are revitalized by immigrant families who strengthen communities through civic
participation the generation of new economic activity. The United States must continue to
welcome new arrivals and help those who already here; otherwise, the country will lose the
advantages it has over other industrialized countries who compete against us in the global
marketplace and seek to recruit from a vast pool of unskilled and skilled global workers.
Steps to develop an argumentative Discourse
So, what do you write about? Pick a well-defined, controversial issue. (Spend some time
with the latest copies of several news magazines, watch TV, or listen to National Public Radio to
generate ideas.) Readers should understand what the issue is and what is at stake.
The issue must be arguable, as noted above. After stating your thesis, you will need to discuss
the issue in depth so that your reader will understand the problem fully.
A clear position should be taken by the writer. In your thesis sentence, state what your
position is. You do not need to say: "I believe that we should financially support the space
station." Using the first person weakens your argument. Say "Funding for the space station is
imperative to maintain America's competitive edge in the global economy." The thesis can be
modified elsewhere in the essay if you need to qualify your position, but avoid hedging in
your thesis.
3. Your argument should be convincing. An argumentative essay does not merely assert an
opinion; it presents an argument, and that argument must be backed up by data that persuades
readers that the opinion is valid. This data consists of facts, statistics, the testimony of others
through personal interviews and questionnaires or through articles and books, and examples.
The writer of an argumentative essay should seek to use educated sources that are nonbiased,
and to use them fairly. It is therefore best to avoid using hate groups as a source, although
you can use them briefly as an example of the seriousness of the problem. Talk shows fall
into the same category as they are frequently opinionated or untrue.
4. Your premises should be reasonable. Assume that your reader will disagree with you or be
skeptical. It is important, therefore, that your premises be reasonable, professional, and
trustworthy. By anticipating objections and making concessions, you inspire confidence and
show your good will.
5. Once your paper has been written, check every quotation in it for accuracy. Your reader
may require that every quotation should be directly copied and included with what you turn
in. All quoted matter should be clearly marked on the copy.
In other words, you can follow the following guidelines to write your argumentative essays.
 Search for a topic which interests you (perhaps in your major field).
 Try to come up with something fairly controversial, but avoid subjects that have been
overdone (abortion, capital punishment).
 Try a heuristic strategy (free writing, brainstorming, clustering, journal writing,
journalistic formula, etc.).
 After doing the appropriate pre-writing and organizing activities, write a draft which
supports a thesis or conclusion of your own.
 Be sure it is an arguable one so that you can clearly choose one side. At this point some
research may be necessary (library, interviews of experts, polls, surveys, experiments,
etc.) to find data to support your conclusion more strongly than you can from your own
background knowledge.
 Structure your argument similarly to the following:
Introduction - Give background or perhaps an illustrative example to show
the significance of the subject or the nature of the controversy. Consider
stating the conclusion of your argument here as the thesis of your essay.
Refutation - Give a brief statement of a refutation of the opposing view(s) to
make your reader aware that you have considered but rejected it (them) for
good reasons. This refutation may be more appropriately placed last, just
before your conclusion, or even interspersed at effective locations throughout
the essay. You must choose the best location.
Presentation of your argument - Throughout the body of your essay you
should build your case one point at a time, perhaps devoting one paragraph to
the defense of each of your premises, or setting forth your evidence in
separate, meaningful categories.
Conclusion - After all your evidence has been presented and/or your premises
defended, pull your whole argument together in the last paragraph by
showing how the evidence you have presented provides sufficient grounds for
accepting your conclusion. You may also add here some conventional device
to finish your essay, such as a prediction, a new example, a reference to the
example with which you began (now seen in a new light) etc.
Revise and edit, and be sure to apply the critical process to your argument to be
certain you have not committed any errors in reasoning or included any fallacies
for which you would criticize some other writer
Narrative
Narration - is a discourse in which a writer tells the story of something that happened. It is
concerned with describing a series of events, happenings or incidents which may be either real or
imaginary that lead to a conclusion. It is the kind of writing most people habitually turn to
recreation, it is found in short stories and novels as well as in news stories and essays. Rarely
does narrative writing occur in pure form; most often it includes description and exposition for
additional interest. It usually involves some kind of conflict, its resolution and conclusion.
Brief Guide to Writing Narrative writing
Narrative writing tells a story. In paragraph the narrative writing could also be considered
reflection or an exploration of the author's values told as a story. The author may remember his
or her past, or a memorable person or event from that past, or even observe the present.
When you're writing a narrative paragraph, loosen up. After all, you're basically just telling a
story to someone, something you probably do every day in casual conversation. Use first person
and talk it through first. You might even want to either tape record your story as if you were
telling it to someone for the first time or actually tell it to a friend. Once you get the basic story
down, then you can begin turning it into a paragraph. If you feel that you lack life experience,
then you may choose to write about someone else or write about an observation you've made
about a recent event. You could write about your children, your parents, or your favorite sport or
hobby. The important aspect to remember is that you should have a story. In a successful
narrative paragraph, the author usually makes a point.
Features
1. The story should have an introduction that clearly indicates what kind of narrative essay it is
(an event or recurring activity, a personal experience, or an observation), and it should have a
conclusion that makes a point.
2. The essay should include anecdotes. The author should describe the person, the scene, or the
event in some detail. It's okay to include dialogue as long as you know how to punctuate it
correctly and as long as you avoid using too much.
3. The occasion or person described must be suggestive in that your description and thoughts
lead the reader to reflect on the human experience. For instance, I read an excellent student essay
that told the story of a young woman forced to shoot several wolves that were attacking her
cattle. She told her story and included the inner struggle she faced as she made the choice of
saving the cattle or saving the wolves.
She shot the wolves, but learned that whatever her choice had been, she would not have been
comfortable with it. One of life's lessons is that sometimes there is no right choice, and that was
the point of the essay.
4. The point of view in narrative essays is usually first person. The use of "I" invites
your readers into an intimate discussion.
5. The writing in your essay should be lively and show some style. Try to describe
ideas and events in new and different ways. Avoid using clichés. Again, get the basic
story down, get it organized, and in your final editing process, work on word choice.

Expository paragraph
Expository is a kind of writing that explains, defines or interprets. The purpose of exposition is
simply to make clear to the order that how something works, how something is made, or how
something happened. It is to make the reader believe the writer and to make a reader understands
the writer‘s idea. It gives information about people, places, things or ideas. This is usually done
by using a combination of all or some of the following methods of developing idea: cause and
effect, classification, definition, and comparison and contrast, etc. We will have a closer look at
these techniques of developing ideas in the following section.
Techniques of paragraph development
We can develop an idea in to a paragraph by using varieties of paragraph development methods.
The common methods of paragraph development are:
 Definition
 Exemplification ( Illustration)
  Classification
 Cause
 Effect
 Cause-effect
 Comparison
 Contrast
 Comparison-contrast
 Definition paragraph
A definition paragraph is a paragraph explaining a term or subject, so your audience
comprehends the topic of the paragraph. It answers the question ―What is it? Usually expository
or informational, the definition may be one sentence or extended to be a paragraph, theme, or
even a book. It is usually combined with other methods of development. The definition is
intended to clarify meaning; thus, it should identify essential qualities and limit the term‘s
meaning.
One way to make a term or idea clearer is to answer the question what does the term or idea
mean. To answer this question, you can give a sentence defining the term or idea, followed
by examples. Or you can try to answer the question by relating the term or concept to some
term or idea the reader already knows about or understands.
Suppose, for instance, that the topic of a paper you are writing is empathy and that the
statement you plan to make about it is the basis for all good public relations. A reader who
does not know the meaning of the term empathy will find the paper difficult to understand.
To help your reader to follow and to accept the ideas about empathy expressed in your paper,
you will need to supply a paragraph of definition.
Read the paragraph below and notice that the term “empathy” appears in the first sentence and
that a definition immediately follows the term in the same sentence. The writer has chosen to
follow the definition with a list of several examples of how empathy helps in police work, using
a simple topical- listing sequence details. The writer’s purpose in this paragraph is to help the
reader understand more fully the meaning of the term “empathy”.
Example 1
Empathy is the ability to completely understand another person’s point of view. It is a great
asset in police work. By practicing empathy, police officers can avoid being closed- minded. It
will help them to see all sides of a traffic accident or a criminal incident. Empathy eliminates
bias and, instead, introduces tolerance, understanding and sympathetic human relations.
 EXEMPLIFICATION
An example paragraph is one that uses specific examples to illustrate a point made in the
writing. An example can be a fact, a historical example, a statistic, an event or a behavior.
Here is a sample example paragraph:
Computer software programs come in a variety of types, each offering different functions to
users. The programs most often used are word processors. These programs can produce letters,
reports, articles, announcements as well as other documents. Another kind of computer program
is the database, which allows the users to sort all kinds of information in a variety of ways. You
might put on a database a library catalog, all the business products in inventory, or all the
names and addresses of students attending a school. Another kind of program is the
communications program, which allows the user to connect to the Internet and to send
electronic mail to others. If you can access the Internet, you can search thousands of databases,
files, and Web sites for information. You can access university libraries, company Web sites,
government information agencies. The computer offers many kinds of programs for users, each
with a distinct function or benefit to the users. In this sample paragraph three main examples of
computer software programs are given: word processors, data bases, and communications
programs. With in each main example are more specific examples that further explain and
illustrate the writer’s ideas.

Examples are often introduced by transitions like the following:

for example to illustrate

for instance such as
as an illustration including
 COMPARISON AND/OR CONTRAST
A writer uses this pattern when he/she wants to make something clearer to his/ her reader by
showing how it is like or unlike something else. When using this pattern, the writer would
need to answer these questions for his or her readers:
- How is (something) similar to (something else)?
- How is it different from (something else)?
In a paragraph a wrier may be discussing two or more topics. These could be two objects,
events, places, persons, or ideas, or some aspects of these. Usually the writer will want to
discuss their similarities only, or their differences only, with in a single paragraph. The
paragraph is called a comparison paragraph when it describes similarities and it is called a
contrast paragraph when it describes differences.
Some writing topics will ask you to consider the relationship between two things, for
example, your hometown (that is, the town where you were born or grew up) and your
university town. Such topics may allow you to organize your paragraph either around the
similarities between these two subtopics (for example, between your hometown and your
university town) or around the differences between them. If you write about the similarities,
the paragraph will be a comparison paragraph. On the other hand, if you want to write about
the differences, your paragraph will be a contrast paragraph.

This lesson will show you some ways in which you can structure sentences to write a
comparison or contrast paragraph. We will first look at comparison paragraph and then
briefly look at contrast paragraph.

Sample Comparison Paragraph 1

Consider the following paragraph.
My hometown and my college town have several things in common. First, both are small
rural communities. For example, my hometown, Gridlock, has a population of only about
10,000 people. Similarly, my college town, subnormal, consists of about 11,000 local
residents. This population swells to 15,000 people when the college students are attending
classes. A second way in which these two towns are similar is that they are both located in
rural areas. Gridlock is surrounded by many acres of farmland which is devoted mainly to
growing corn and soybeans. In the same way, Subnormal lies in the center of farmland which is
used to raise hogs and cattle…
The passage above is from a comparison paragraph. That is, a paragraph which discusses the
similarities between two subtopics.
 CLASSIFICATION
Classification is the process of putting a large number of items or behaviors into smaller, well-
defined groups. Each group’s members or items share similar traits or characteristics that are
unique; no other group has the same traits. The writer should put similar looking or acting items
or behaviors into the same group and describe one group’s unique traits, behaviors, attitudes, or
other characteristics. Many classification systems are already in place; for example, movies are
classified by genre: Western, Romance, Science Fiction, and Thriller; subjects in school are
classified by discipline: Science, Mathematics, English, and Home Economics. Since this
categories, already exist, they do not present much challenge to the reader.
Example 1
Homework assignments can be categorized according to the various emotional traits they
produce. For example, “The I- Will-Do-It-Later-Tonight” assignment is a relatively easy
assignment which takes no more than five or ten minutes and causes the student little
inconvenience or worry. Related to this type is “The- I- Thought-I-Could-Do-It-LaterTonight”
assignment, which seems simple but is in reality much more than the student bargained for. This
type often causes a sleepless night for the panicking student. “TheImpossible-
Dream”assignment also causes the student a certain amount of panic. These assignments also is
known as semester projects , are designed to take the majority of the semester to complete , and
they seem to hang over the students head like a dark cloud of doom .mach like this assignment ,
but perhaps ever more traumatic ,is “ The -I‘m- Going To- Fail –This- Course” assignment. The
purpose of this one is to read the instructor of It is the process of putting a large number of items
or behaviors into smaller, well-defined groups. Each group’s members or items share similar
traits or characteristics that are unique
 Cause/effect paragraph
A cause is what makes something happen. An effect is what happens as a result of something.
The main point reflects the writer‘s purpose i.e. to explain causes, effects, or both. If the purpose
is to explain causes, it gives real causes, not just things that happened before. For example, the
fact that you ate a hot dog before you got the flu does not mean that the hot dog caused the flu. If
the purpose is to explain effects, it gives real effects, not just things that happened after. For
example, getting sick was not the effect of eating the hot dog; it simply happened after you ate
the hot dog. Look carefully at the connectives or markers of cause – effect relationships,
particularly how they are used in a sentence construction
Look at the following excerpt:
Air pollution comes into picture due to the accumulation of hazardous substances into the
atmosphere that danger human life and other living matter. The most dominant player
responsible for pollution is automobiles; apart from that the other causes are Combustion of
coal, Acid rain, Manufacturing buildings, automobiles; apart from that the other causes are
Combustion of coal, Acid rain, Manufacturing buildings, Tobacco smoke, Paint fumes, Aerosol
sprays, Nuclear weapons and wild fires. As far as effect of air pollution is concerned,
respiratory diseases tops the chart of health problems. The second one is heart diseases, it
caused due to increased level of carbon monoxide in the air. In addition to that you can avoid a
risk of Asthma, Eye Irritation and a range of bronchial disease due to air pollution. If statistics
is to be believed, this year air population segment will count for 80% of premature deaths.