The Hong Kong Polytechnic University

Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering

High Voltage Engineering

EE509
Prof. Derek S. W. Or

2023 / 2024
 Chapter 3 Breakdown of Liquid Insulation ....................................................................................... 3-1
3.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................ 3-1
3.2 Purification and Breakdown Test ...................................................................................................... 3-2
3.2.1 Purification .......................................................................................................................... 3-2
3.2.2 Breakdown Test................................................................................................................... 3-3
3.3 Breakdown in Pure Liquids ............................................................................................................... 3-5
3.4 Breakdown in Commercial Liquids .................................................................................................. 3-7
3.4.1 Breakdown due to Gas Bubbles .......................................................................................... 3-8
3.4.2 Breakdown due to Water Droplets ...................................................................................... 3-9
3.4.3 Breakdown due to Solid Particles ..................................................................................... 3-12
3.4.4 Power Law Dependence between Breakdown Voltage and Gap Distance ...................... 3-13
3.5 References........................................................................................................................................ 3-14

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Chapter 3
Breakdown of Liquid Insulation
3.1 Introduction

Pure liquids are chemically pure, structurally simple, and do not contain impurities even in traces of 1 in 109.
Commercial liquids are not chemically pure and usually have impurities.

In highly purified liquids, the dielectric breakdown strengths are on the order of 1,000 kV/cm. This order of
magnitude is not only several times higher than the preferred high-pressure gases (e.g., ~250 kV/cm for SF6) but
also several ten times larger than that of air (30 kV/cm) at both room temperature (20 ºC) and atmospheric pressure
(760 torr). The basic breakdown mechanisms of this type of liquid insulation can be described by the ones used for
gaseous insulation.

Under actual service conditions, liquids are easily contaminated by the presence of impurities such as
“gas bubbles”, “water droplets”, “solid (dust) particles”, etc. In fact, gases may dissolve from the liquids and form
gas bubbles. Since these gas bubbles have lower dielectric breakdown strengths than their parental liquids, and if
more gases are dissolved, more gas bubbles are formed and ultimately cause a breakdown. Water droplets, due to air inside
their polar nature, may experience shape instability, become elongated, and eventually bridge the two electrodes
under applied electric fields. Solid (dust) particles may line up in the applied field direction, causing a local
enhancement of electric fields and breaking down at relatively low field levels. Fortunately, as the line-up action
needs time to establish, breakdown may not occur with short-duration pulses (<10 μs). ~1

Because of the tendency to become contaminated at elevated temperatures and prolonged operating cycles,
commercial liquids are not usually used alone in continuously energized equipment with electric field stress
>100 kV/cm. They act as barriers to filling up the voids in solid dielectrics at an elevated stress level of 100–200
kV/cm. gas breakdwon first, so leaves only the shell of
liquid, which becomes solid
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 distillation column: distillation process, remove heavy and big particles
cooling tower: condensation process, restore liquid from vapor
3.2 Purification and Breakdown Test vacuum pump, degassing process, pump out gas,
drying agent, drying process, remove water vapor
filter, filtration process, remove small and light particles
3.2.1 Purification

Fig. 3.1 shows a closed-cycle liquid purification system to prepare purified liquids by removing the main
impurities in unpurified liquids, e.g., gas bubbles (O2, CO2, N2, H2, etc.), water droplets, solid (dust) particles, etc.
First, the unpurified liquid stored in the reservoir is subject to a distillation process by a distillation column to
remove solid particles of relatively heavy masses and large sizes, but to allow the gases, water vapor, and small-
light solid particles to flow into a cooling tower together with the liquid vapor. Second, the liquid is restored from
the liquid vapor by a condensation process in the cooling tower; the gases are pumped out by a degassing process
with a vacuum pump; the water vapor is removed by a drying process using a drying agent, a vacuum drying or a
low-temperature freezing bath; the small-light solid particles are removed by a filtration process using a filter upon
the condensation of the liquid vapor into liquid. With further degassing, some purified liquid can be used in a test
cell for a breakdown test. The used liquid, after being degassed, flows back into the reservoir.

condensation process/ in colling tower:

gas pumped out; water vapor elimated only small and light particles
Drying
by pump; agent can pass through filter,

LV,
gas bubble -> gas;
water -> water vapor
solid only has light and small type left

gas bubble+water+solid; solid has two types,

1. heavy and big 2. light and small
Fig. 3.1 A closed-cycle liquid purification system with test cell.
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 for liquid, the gap is smaller
3.2.2 Breakdown Test

The breakdown test for liquid dielectrics is commonly conducted using a test cell. For pure liquids, the test cell
is generally integrated with a fluid purification system similar to the one in Fig. 3.1. The test cell is usually small,
and only a small amount of liquid is required. Sphere electrodes of 0.5–1 cm in diameter with minimal gap
distances of 100–200 µm are used to reduce the test voltages to 50–100 kV. Parallel-plane, uniform-field electrodes
are sometimes used. The gap distance and quality of the electrodes greatly influence the measurement's accuracy.
The dielectric breakdown strengths of pure liquids are on the order of 1,000 kV/cm (Table 3.1). These values are
several times higher than those of commercial liquids (Table 3.2).
pure liquid will eventually become commerial
Table 3.1 Maximum breakdown strengths of some pure liquids. liquid

liquid o2 is higher, because when

liquid o2 becomes gas, o2 is
electronegative, so with
attachment process in unit2,
more stable

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Table 3.2 Electrical properties of some commercial liquids.

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 3.3 Breakdown in Pure Liquids

Fig. 3.2 shows the typical current growth curve of pure liquids. Three distinct regions are observed. At low
fields (<200 kV/cm), the presence of conduction current is due to the dissociation of ions. At intermediate fields
(200–800 kV/cm), the conduction current increases rapidly because the electrons liberated from the cathode by
field emission get multiplied in the liquid or at the liquid-impurity interfaces by a process similar to Townsend’s
primary ionization process in gases (at uniform fields and low pressures). At high fields (>800 kV/cm), the
conduction current rises even more greatly because the liberated positive ions reach the cathode and generate
secondary electrons by a process similar to Townsend’s secondary ionization process in gases. The increase in
conduction current by the Townsend-type ionization processes continues till breakdown occurs (see Chapter 2,
Section 2.3). This type of breakdown is called the electronic breakdown, involving the emission of electrons
either at the electrode surface irregularities or the liquid-impurity interfaces for fields >100 kV/cm, and the
subsequent multiplication of electrons by the Townsend-type ionization processes, leading to a breakdown.

similar to townsend's secondary ionization process

in gases
townsend's primary
ionization process in
different from townsend, gases
this is about how gas bubble is
generated

Fig. 3.2 Typical current growth curve of pure liquids.

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 If the dissolved gases are electronegative in character (like oxygen gas), breakdown stress increases (Fig. 3.3).
Similarly, when liquid hydrostatic pressure increases, breakdown stress increases (Fig. 3.4).

pressure within liquid

Fig. 3.3 Effect of partial pressure of dissolved oxygen Fig. 3.4 Effect of hydrostatic pressure on the
gas on the breakdown stress of n-hexane. breakdown stress of n-hexane.

electronegative in character/
liquid hydrostatic pressure -> breakdown
stress increases

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 3.4 Breakdown in Commercial Liquids

Commercial liquids are not chemically pure and have impurities like gas bubbles, water droplets, solid (dust)
particles, etc. These impurities not only considerably reduce their breakdown strengths but also greatly influence
their breakdown mechanisms. When a breakdown occurs in these liquids, gases are dissolved, gas bubbles are
evolved, and solid decomposition products are formed. The electrode surfaces become rough, and explosive sounds
are produced due to the generation of impulsive pressure through the liquids. The breakdown phenomena in
commercial liquids vary significantly and depend highly on the nature of the containing impurities. They are
classified as follows:

(a) Breakdown due to Gas Bubbles – Gas bubbles have breakdown strengths much lower than their
parental liquids, so the gas inside the bubbles breaks down relatively quickly and thus induces total
breakdown of the liquids.

(b) Breakdown due to Water Droplets – Water droplets have shape instability, producing elongation under
applied electric fields and leading to a total breakdown by forming a low resistance bridge of droplets
across the electrodes.

(c) Breakdown due to Solid (Dust) Particles – Solid (dust) particles line up in the applied electric field partial
direction and cause local enhancement of electric fields in liquids, thereby initiating a localized discharge
breakdown and hence a total breakdown.

when gas dissolved, gas bubbles evolved,

and solid decomposition products are
formed

if no e field, just lay if little e field, then maybe only partial

at bottom connection

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3.4.1 Breakdown due to Gas Bubbles

Gas bubbles may exist in impure liquid dielectrics due to the dissolved gases, temperature and pressure
variations, or other causes. Once a gas bubble is formed, it will be forced into the applied electric field E under the
influence of the electrostatic force F by

1 (𝜀g − 𝜀l ) 2
𝐹= ∙ 𝛁𝐸 (3.1)
2𝑟 3 2𝜀l + 𝜀g

where r is the initial radius of the spherical gas bubble, 𝜀l is the relative permittivity of the liquid, and 𝜀g is the
relative permittivity of the gas inside the bubble.

As 𝜀g < 𝜀l , the electrostatic (negative) force tends to stress the gas bubbles against the applied electric field. The
gas bubbles will be stressed continually while undergoing continuous elongation with increasing field levels. At a
critical field level, the gas inside the bubbles (which has lower breakdown strength) breaks down, causing
decomposition of the liquid molecules into solid decomposition products and then producing total breakdown. The
critical electric field intensity can be expressed as
1/4
π𝜎 𝜀l 8𝐴2 𝐵
𝐸c = 600√ [ − 𝐺] [ ] √cosh 𝜃 (3.2)
𝜀l 𝑟 (𝜀l − 𝜀g ) 3𝛽(𝜀l − 𝜀g )
where 𝜎 = Surface tension (in N/m),
𝛽 = Ratio of the longer to the shorter diameter of the gas bubble, don;t need to remember
1 𝛽 cosh −1 𝛽
𝐺= [ 1 − 1],
𝛽2 −1 (𝛽2 −1)2
2 1
𝐴= −1− , 𝐵 = 2𝜀l 𝛽3 − 𝜀g (1 − 𝛽2 ),
𝛽 𝛽2
5 3 1/2
1 −1 𝑃𝑟 27𝛽 (𝜀l −𝜀g )
𝜃 = cosh [ { } ], and
3 𝜎 2𝐵3

P = Hydrostatic pressure.

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3.4.2 Breakdown due to Water Droplets

If an insulating liquid contains suspended water (or other liquid) droplets, a breakdown can result from the
shape instability of the droplets in the electric field and the subsequent formation of a low resistance bridge of
droplets across the electrodes (Fig. 3.5).
at specific e field, the thingy will extend automatically cathode

Fig. 3.5 Breakdown of silicon oil due to the instability of a water droplet in the electric field.
anode

The droplets, because of their incompressible nature, can elongate and take the shape of elongated spheroids at
constant volume under the influence of the applied electric field. The critical electric field intensity producing the
shape instability can be written as

π𝜎 𝜀l no need to remember this too

𝐸c = 600√ [ − 𝐺] 𝐻 (3.3)
𝜀l 𝑟 (𝜀l − 𝜀d )
where 𝜎 = Surface tension (in N/m), r = Initial radius of the spherical droplet (in m),
𝜀l = Relative permittivity of the liquid, 𝜀d = Relative permittivity of the droplet (𝜀d > 𝜀l ),
1 𝛽 cosh −1 𝛽 1 1
𝐺= [ 1 − 1], 𝐻2 = 2𝛽 (2𝛽 − 1 − ),
𝛽2 −1 (𝛽2 −1)2 3 𝛽2

𝛽 = Ratio of the longer to the shorter diameter of the droplet.

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 Fig. 3.6 shows the plot of Eq. (3.3) for the variation of 𝛽 on E at different 𝜀d ⁄𝜀𝐥 .

For “𝜀d ⁄𝜀𝐥 > 20”, and when the applied electric field reaches the critical value 𝐸c , the droplets become unstable
and no longer depend on 𝐸. They keep elongating instead, eventually bridging the electrodes and causing total
breakdown. The corresponding 𝛽c at 𝐸c is ~1.85, and now 𝐸c can be simplified as

𝜎 if ed/e1 >20, can directly

𝐸c = 1.524√ in kV/cm (3.4)
𝜀l 𝑟 apply this eq.
el:Relative
permittivity of the
liquid,
ed: Relative
permittivity of the
droplet

Fig. 3.6 Variation of 𝜷 on E at different 𝜺𝐝 ⁄𝜺𝐥 .

extend automatically, don;t

depend on Ec anymore
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 er = e/eo
Case Study

Consider a water droplet having an initial radius r = 1 μm with a relative dielectric permittivity 𝜺𝐝 = 90 and
a surface tension 𝝈 = 4310–3 N/m suspended in transformer oil with 𝜺𝐥 = 2.

𝜀d 90
Since = = 45 >> 20, Eq. (3.4) can be used, giving the critical electric field intensity for producing shape
𝜀l 2
instability as
<= in the range of commerial
𝜎 43×10−3
𝐸c = 1.524√ = 1.524√(2)(10−6 = 223 kV/cm liquid
𝜀l 𝑟 )

This 𝐸c value agrees with the dielectric breakdown strength of commercial oils of 150–300 kV/cm (see Table 3.2),
indicating that the presence of water droplets as small as 1 μm radius (quite unobservable) can significantly reduce
the dielectric breakdown strength of liquids.
diameter = 2
micro,m
Now, if r is reduced to 0.05 μm (i.e., 50 nm), an increased 𝐸c of ~999 kV/cm is obtained.

This 𝐸c is approximately the dielectric breakdown strength of “pure liquid” of ~1,000 kV/cm (Table 3.1),
suggesting that pure liquids should contain droplets smaller than 0.05 μm or 50 nm radius.

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3.4.3 Breakdown due to Solid Particles

In commercial liquids, solid (dust) particles cannot be avoided and will be present as dispersed particles or
particulate chains. If the particles are considered to be spheroid in the shape of relative permittivity 𝜀p (𝜀p > 𝜀l ) and
are present in a liquid of relative permittivity 𝜀l , they will experience an electrostatic force as described by
1 (𝜀g −𝜀l )
Eq. (3.1): 𝐹 = ∙ 𝛁𝐸 2 . The different way is that 𝜀p is generally larger than 𝜀l in the current case so that
2𝑟 3 2𝜀l +𝜀g
the electrostatic (positive) force tends to move the particles towards the regions of stronger fields.

If there is only a single (or a few) particle between the electrodes, the particle will be subject to local field
enhancement depending on the shape of the particle. If the applied field exceeds the dielectric breakdown strength
of the liquid (𝐸 > 𝐸c ), local breakdown will occur near the particle. This will result in the formation of gas bubbles
which may, in turn, lead to the breakdown due to gas bubbles as described in Section 3.4.1, thereby initiating local
breakdown and hence total breakdown.

If the number of particles in the liquid is large, the particles may become aligned due to the electrostatic force,
thus forming stable particulate chains to bridge up the electrodes and cause a breakdown between the electrodes
(Fig. 3.7).

Fig. 3.7 Particles forming particulate chains to bridge up the electrodes and cause a breakdown.

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3.4.4 Power Law Dependence between Breakdown Voltage and Gap Distance

While all the breakdown phenomena discussed above are not simple, they often fall short of describing
experimental observations. The phenomena all try to account for the maximum obtainable dielectric breakdown
strength without considering the effect of electrode gap distance. In fact, an easily understandable and relatively
accurate breakdown mechanism for commercial liquids containing various impurities is being developed. The
relationship between the breakdown voltage 𝑉𝑏 (in kV) and the electrode gap distance d (in mm) for a given liquid
is essentially determined by an experimental approach via the following expression:
logVb = LogA + nlogd 𝑉𝑏 = 𝐴𝑑 𝑛 two unknown, (3.5)
=> y= c+mx
where A and n are constants with n always less than unity. It is noted that 𝑉𝑏 obtained for small volumes should not
be used in the case of large volumes.

Table 3.3 shows the typical breakdown strengths for highly purified liquids and the design field strengths used.
A design safety factor of ~10 is generally employed.

Table 3.3 Comparison between the maximum breakdown strengths for several highly purified liquids and the design
field strengths used for insulation systems.
breakdown strength/10

20 - 50 kV/cm

130-200 kV/cm

logVb

<= y= mx +c
also called power law equation

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3.5 References

1. Adam Czewski, L, lonization, Conduction and Breakdown in Dielectric Liquids, Taylor and Francis, London (1969).
2. Gallager, T.J., Simple Dielectric Liquids, Clarendon Press, Oxford (1975).
3. Hawley, R. and Zaky, A.A., Conduction and Breakdown in Mineral OU, Peter Peregrinus, London (1973).
4. Alston, L.L, High Voltage Technology, Oxford University Press, Oxford (1968).
5. Lewis, TJ., Progress in Dielectrics, Vol. 1, Heywood, London (1959), pp. 97-140.
6. Sharbough, A. and Watson, P.K., Progress in Dielectrics, vol. 4, Heywood, London (1962), pp. 199-248.
7. Specifications for new insulating oils for transformers and switchgear", IEC No. 269 (1969).
8. Wilson, A.C.M., Insulating liquids: Their uses, manufacture and properties, Peter Peregrinus and IEE, London (1980).
9. BEE Colloquim on New Dielectric Fluids for Power Engineering" IEE, London (1980).

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