MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Functions and Limits

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected])

DBS&H, CEME-NUST

November 19, 2020

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

When a cake is removed from an oven, its temperature is
measured at 300o F. Three minutes later its temperature
is 200o F. How long will it take for the cake to cool off to
a room temperature of 70o F?

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

When a cake is removed from an oven, its temperature is
measured at 300o F. Three minutes later its temperature
is 200o F. How long will it take for the cake to cool off to
a room temperature of 70o F?
Newton’s law of cooling

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

When a cake is removed from an oven, its temperature is
measured at 300o F. Three minutes later its temperature
is 200o F. How long will it take for the cake to cool off to
a room temperature of 70o F?
Newton’s law of cooling
Mathematical Sol
rate of heat loss of a
body is proportional to dT
the difference in = k(T − T0 ),
dt
temperatures between
the body

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

When a cake is removed from an oven, its temperature is
measured at 300o F. Three minutes later its temperature
is 200o F. How long will it take for the cake to cool off to
a room temperature of 70o F?
Newton’s law of cooling
Mathematical Sol
rate of heat loss of a
body is proportional to dT
the difference in = k(T − T0 ), T (t) = 70 + 230e−0.19018t
dt
temperatures between
T (t) is a function of t
the body

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

What is a Function?

A function f is a rule that assigns exactly one element y in a set B to

each element x in a set A.

In this case, we write y = f (x). We call the set A the domain of f . The
set of all values f (x) in B is called the range of f . That is, the range of
f is {f (x)|x ∈ A}.

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Vertical Line Test
Vertical Line Test
If any vertical line intersects the graph in more than one point, the
curve is not the graph of a function.

Example
Determine which of the curves in Figures correspond to functions.

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Vertical Line Test

Vertical Line Test

If any vertical line intersects the graph in more than one point, the
curve is not the graph of a function.

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Vertical Line Test

Vertical Line Test

If any vertical line intersects the graph in more than one point, the
curve is not the graph of a function.

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Function, domain, range

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Even Functions and Odd Functions: Symmetry
A function y = f (x) is an

even function of x if f (−x) = f (x),

odd function of x if f (−x) = −f (x)
1 The graph of an even function is symmetric about the y-axis.
Since f (−x) = f (x).
2 The graph of an odd function is symmetric about the origin.

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Functions y = xn where n ∈ N

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Functions y = xn where n ∈ N

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Functions y = xn where n ∈ N

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Trigonometric Functions

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Functions y = x−a where a = 1 and a = 2

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Functions y = x−a where a = 1 and a = 2

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Functions y = x−a where a = 1 and a = 2

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Piecewise Functions

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry
Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry
Limits

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Limits
Tangent line and limits Q → P

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Limits
Tangent line and limits Q → P

Area and limits ∆x → 0

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

 x2 −4
Limit of f (x) = x−2 as x approaches to 2

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

 x2 −4
Limit of f (x) = x−2 as x approaches to 2

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

 x2 −4
Limit of f (x) = x−2 as x approaches to 2

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

 x2 −4
Limit of f (x) = x−2 as x approaches to 2

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

 x2 −5
Limit of g(x) = x−2 as x approaches to 2

x2 − 5
lim g(x) = =?
x→2 x−2

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

 x2 −5
Limit of g(x) = x−2 as x approaches to 2

x2 − 5
lim g(x) = =?
x→2 x−2

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

 x2 −5
Limit of g(x) = x−2 as x approaches to 2

x2 − 5
lim g(x) = =?
x→2 x−2

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Existence of limit

A limit exists if and only if both corresponding one-sided limits exist

and are equal.
That is,

lim f (x) = L, for some number L, if and only if

x→a

lim f (x) = lim f (x) = L.

x→a− x→a+

The above expression ca also be written as

f (x) → L as x → a.

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Find lim x2 − x + 1.
x→1

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Find Limits

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Find Limits

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Find Limits

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Find lim √x−1
x−1
.
x→1

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Find lim √x−1
x−1
.
x→1

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Find lim √x−1
x−1
.
x→1

How to do it analytically?
Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry
Some Basic Limits

Our strategy for finding limits algebraically has two parts:

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Some Basic Limits

Our strategy for finding limits algebraically has two parts:

1 First we will obtain the limits of some simple functions.
2 Then we will develop a repertoire of theorems that will enable us
to use the limits of those simple functions as building blocks for
finding limits of more complicated functions

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Theorem
Let a and k be real numbers.
1 1
(a) lim k = k, (b) lim x = a, (c) lim = −∞, (d) lim = +∞.
x→a x→a x→0− x x→0+ x

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Theorem
Let a and k be real numbers.
1 1
(a) lim k = k, (b) lim x = a, (c) lim = −∞, (d) lim = +∞.
x→a x→a x→0− x x→0+ x

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

The Limits Laws

If L, M , a, and k are real numbers and

lim f (x) = L lim g(x) = M, then

x→a x→a

Sum Rule: lim (f (x) + g(x)) = L + M

x→a
Difference Rule: lim (f (x) − g(x)) = L − M
x→a
Constant Multiple Rule: lim k.f (x) = k.L
x→a
Product Rule: lim (f (x).g(x)) = L.M
x→a
Quotient Rule: lim (f (x)/g(x)) = L/M M 6= 0
x→a
Power Rule: lim [f (x)]n = Ln
x→a
p √
Root Rule: lim n f (x) = n L.
x→a

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

The Limits Law

lim [f (x) ∗ g(x)] = lim f (x) ∗ lim g(x)

x→a x→a x→a

∗ can be any opterion among +, −, × or /

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Limit of Polynomial. Find lim (3x2 − 5x + 4)
x→2

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Limit of Polynomial. Find lim (3x2 − 5x + 4)
x→2

lim (3x2 − 5x + 4) = lim (3x2 ) − lim (5x) + lim (4)

x→2 x→2 x→2 x→2
= 3 · lim (x2 ) − 5 · lim (x) + lim (4)
x→2 x→2 x→2
2
= 3 · (2 ) − 5 · (2) + 4 = 6

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Limit of Polynomial. Find lim (3x2 − 5x + 4)
x→2

lim (3x2 − 5x + 4) = lim (3x2 ) − lim (5x) + lim (4)

x→2 x→2 x→2 x→2
= 3 · lim (x2 ) − 5 · lim (x) + lim (4)
x→2 x→2 x→2
2
= 3 · (2 ) − 5 · (2) + 4 = 6

Theorem
For any polynomial

p(x) = c0 + c1 x + + cn xn

and any real number a,

lim p(x) = c0 + c1 a + + cn an = p(a)

x→a

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

 p(x)
Let f (x) = q(x) be a rational function, and let a be any real number.
(a) If q(a) 6= 0, then lim f (x) = f (a).
x→a
(b) If q(a) = 0 but p(a) 6= 0, then lim f (x) does not exist.
x→a
(c) If q(a) = 0 and p(a) = 0, then we have to do some
calculations.
3
lim x x−5x+4
2 −2
x→3 lim 2 2−x
x→4 x −2x−8
q(x) = x2 − 2, a = 3
q(3) = 9 − 2 6= 0 q(x) = x2 − 2x − 8, p(x) = 2 − x
x3
− 5x + 4 a = 4, q(4) = 0, p(4) = −2
lim =f (3)
x→3 x2 − 2 2−x
x3 − 5x + 4 16 lim 2 = −∞
lim = x→4 x − 2x − 8
x→3 x2 − 2 7

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

In the case where f (x) = p(x)
q(x) is a rational function for
which p(a) = 0 and q(a) = 0, the numerator and
denominator may have one or more common factors of
x − a.

In this case of common factor the limit of lim f (x) = lim p(x) can
x→a x→a q(x)
be found by canceling all common factors of x − a.
Second option may be rationalization.

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Limit of Rational Function
x3 − 5x + 4 x2 − 1
lim VS lim
x→3 x2 − 2 x→1 1 − x

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Limit of Rational Function
x3 − 5x + 4 x2 − 1
lim VS lim
x→3 x2 − 2 x→1 1 − x

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Limit of Rational Function
x3 − 5x + 4 x2 − 1
lim VS lim
x→3 x2 − 2 x→1 1 − x

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Find

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Limit by Rationalizing

Evaluate √ √
x+2− 2
lim
x→0 x

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Limit by Rationalizing

Evaluate √√
x+2− 2
lim
x→0 x
√ √
First, notice that both the numerator x + 2 − 2 and the
denominator x approach 0 as x approaches 0. We can’t factor the
numerator.

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Limit by Rationalizing

Evaluate √√
x+2− 2
lim
x→0 x
√ √
First, notice that both the numerator x + 2 − 2 and the
denominator x approach 0 as x approaches 0. We can’t factor the
numerator.
However, we can rationalize the numerator,

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Limit of Piecewise Defined Function

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Limits at Infinity

If the values of a variable x increase without bound, then we write

x → +∞.
If the values of x decrease without bound, then we write x → −∞.
The behavior of a function f (x) as x increases without bound or
decreases without bound is sometimes called the end behavior of the
function.

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

If the values of f (x) eventually get as close as we like to a number L as
x increases without bound, then we write

lim f (x) = L or f (x) → L as x → +∞

x→+∞

Similarly, if the values of f (x) eventually get as close as we like to a

number L as x decreases without bound, then we write

f (x) = L or f (x) → L as x → −∞
x→−∞

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

 4x2 − x
lim .
x→−∞ 2x3 − 5

In case of lim or lim

x→+∞ x→−∞
Divide each term in the numerator and denominator by the highest
power of x that occurs in the denominator.
Then we use
1 1 1
lim = lim = lim = ··· = 0
x→±∞ x x→±∞ x2 x→±∞ x3

!
4 1
4x2 − x −
 
x x2
lim = lim 5 = 0
x→−∞ 2x3 − 5 x→−∞ 2− x3

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry
Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry
Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry
Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry
Limits Involving Radicals

Find √ √
x2 + 2 x2 + 2
(a) lim (b) lim
x→+∞ 3x − 6 x→−∞ 3x − 6

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Limits Involving Radicals

Find √ √
x2 + 2 x2 + 2
(a) lim (b) lim
x→+∞ 3x − 6 x→−∞ 3x − 6

In both parts it would be helpful to manipulate the function so that the

powers of x are transformed to powers of 1/x. This can be achieved in
both cases by√dividing the numerator and denominator by |x| and using
the fact that x2 = |x|.

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Find
p p
lim ( x6 + 5 − x3 ) and lim ( x6 + 5x3 − x3 )
x→+∞ x→+∞

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Find
p p
lim ( x6 + 5 − x3 ) and lim ( x6 + 5x3 − x3 )
x→+∞ x→+∞

An important result  x
1
lim 1+ = exp
x→∞ x

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Limits for Trigonometric Functions

For any real number a

lim sin x = sin a and lim cos x = cos a

x→a x→a

1
This is not always possible.
Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry
Limits for Trigonometric Functions

For any real number a

lim sin x = sin a and lim cos x = cos a

x→a x→a

Find the limit

x2 − 1
 
lim cos
x→1 x−1

1
This is not always possible.
Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry
Limits for Trigonometric Functions

For any real number a

lim sin x = sin a and lim cos x = cos a

x→a x→a

Find the limit

x2 − 1
 
lim cos
x→1 x−1
We can use  
lim cos (g(x)) = cos lim g(x) 1
x→1 x→1

1
This is not always possible.
Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry
lim sin x =1
x→0 x

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

lim sin x =1
x→0 x

Theorem (Sandwich/Squeeze Theorem)

Suppose that

f (x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x) for all x in some interval (c, d),

except possibly at the point a ∈ (c, d) and that

lim f (x) = lim h(x) = L,

x→a x→a

for some number L, then

lim g(x) = L.
x→a

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry
Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry
 sin x
lim =1
x→0 x

π
tan x ≥ x ≥ sin x, 0<x< .
2
1 1
cot x ≤ ≤
x sin x
sin x
cos x ≤ ≤ 1
x
sin x
lim cos x ≤ lim ≤ lim 1
x→0 x→0 x x→0

sin x
Gives lim =1
x→0 x

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

  
2 5
lim x sin + 1 = 1
x→0 x

5
−1 ≤ sin( ) ≤ 1
x

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

End Behavior of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

lim ln x = +∞ lim ln x = −∞
x→+∞ x→0

lim ex = +∞ lim ex = 0 lim ex = 0

x→+∞ x→0 x→−∞

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry
Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry
Dr. Yasir Ali ([email protected]) MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry