STD 6 Science and Technology-1
STD 6 Science and Technology-1
FOR
STANDARD 6
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Written by Zikomo Masese Banda
TABLE OF CONTENTS
UNIT PAGE
WHATSAPP #s 0991295167/0993559114
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UNIT 1 SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS WRITTEN BY ZIKOMO MASESE BANDA
These six stages can be summarized into three main stages which are:
Planning stage
Implementation stage
Concluding stage
PLANNING STAGE
This stage involves a number of steps.
The second step is to write the statement of the problem in the form of a question
The third step is to predict or guess the answer to the question or problem.
These are the factors that would affect the results of the investigation which are called variables.
The next step is to identify the materials that will be required to carry out the investigation.
The last step of the planning stage is to come up with steps to be followed in the process of collecting data.
The above steps of the planning stage of an investigation are summarised as follows:
Step 1 identifying the problems to be investigated
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Step 2 writing a statement of the problem to be investigated in the form of a question
Step 3 predicting or guessing the answer to the question, that is, coming up with a hypothesis
Step 5 identifying the materials required for carrying out the investigation
Step 6 coming up with the procedures for carrying out the investigation
IMPLEMENTATION STAGE
The second stage of a scientific investigation involves implementing the plans that were developed during the
planning stage.
This is the stage which the hypothesis are tested by carrying out the investigation.
During this stage, the variables to be investigated are deliberately changed while keeping the other variables
constant.
The variables that are changed are observed and recorded as the investigation is being conducted.
If one is not satisfied with the data that has been collected, it is necessary to repeat the procedures.
The data that is collected should be organised and presented in a meaningful way.
There are several ways of presenting data. These include tables and graphs.
When data has been collected, it should be organised in such a way that it is meaningful.
Once the data has been analysed, there is need to interpret it.
The interpretation of data involves determining the relationship between variables using the analysed data.
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The methods of determining the relationships between variables include:
Looking for patterns of data in a table
Interpreting the shapes of graph lines
CONCLUDING STAGE
The last stage of a scientific investigation is the concluding stage.
During this stage, the hypothesis is evaluated against the interpretation of the data.
That is, the relationship between variables that has been determined from the data is compared with the
hypothesis of the investigation.
If the determined relationship from the analysed data agrees with the hypothesis then the hypothesis
becomes the conclusion of the investigation.
If the hypothesis is different from the relationship determined from the results of the investigation then the
hypothesis is not true.
What is important is that the conclusion must be based on the results of the investigation and not on the
investigator’s wishes.
It is composed of many bones which are joined together at places called joints.
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FUNCTIONS OF THE SKELETON
Giving support to the body
Protecting some delicate parts of the body such as heart, lungs, brain and the spinal cord
Assisting in locomotion
Giving shape to the body
A human skeleton
MUSCLES
Muscles are organs which are attached to bones by tissue called tendons
The main muscles of the body How the muscles of the arm are attached to the bones
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Muscles can contract and relax.
When a muscle contracts, it pulls the bone to which it is attached and moves it in one direction.
JOINTS
Joints are formed when two or more bones meet
Examples of points include the skull, finger, shoulder, elbow, hip and wrist.
TYPES OF JOINTS
Movable joints
Immovable joints
Hinge joints
Ball and socket joints
Gliding joints
Joints that allow movement are called movable joints. For example, finger, shoulder and elbow joints.
The joints that do not allow movement are called immovable joints. For example, the joints of the skull.
Joints that allow to and fro movement are called hinge joints. For example, the knee and elbow joints.
Those that allow rotational movement are called ball and socket joints. For example, shoulder and hip joints.
Joints at which bones move by sliding or gliding over another are called gliding joints. For example, joints of
the neck.
Muscles are attached to the bones by special tissue called tendons. The action of muscles allows movement
at a joint.
For example, there are two muscles which control movement at the elbow joint.
When the biceps muscles contract, they pull the bones of the lower arm forward and the arm bends at the
elbow joint. When the biceps muscles contract, the triceps muscles relax. When the biceps muscles relax, the
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triceps muscles contract and pull the bones of the lower arm and stretch the arm. The contraction and
relaxation of the biceps and the triceps muscles bend and stretch the arm.
Similarly, when the muscles at the back of the thigh contract, the lower leg is pulled backwards and the leg
bends at the knee joints. When these muscles relax and the muscles in front of the thigh contract, the lower
leg is pulled forward and the leg straightens.
SENSE ORGANS
The human body has five sense organs. These are the nose, tongue, ear, skin and eye. These organs have
different functions. The nose is used for smelling; the ear for hearing; the eye for seeing; the tongue for
tasting, and the skin for feeling and touching. Tasting, smelling, hearing, seeing, feeling and touching are
called senses.
A. THE NOSE
The nose is used for smelling and breathing. It has nostrils through which air passes in and out of the body.
The nostrils have hairs and mucus which trap some dust and germs, thereby, preventing it from getting into
the body.
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CARE FOR THE NOSE
Pushing or poking objects into the nose may damage it. If objects such as beans get into the nose, the victim
should try to blow them out. If this fails, ask the victim to breathe through the mouth and take him or her to
the hospital. The nose should also be cleaned regularly. Apart from this, avoid sniffing unknown substances.
B. THE TONGUE
The tongue is used for tasting things. It can detect sweet, salty, sour or bitter things. The tongue also helps
during chewing and swallowing of food. It also helps in spitting, speaking and whistling.
The tongue has a rough surface. The bumpy structures on the tongue are called taste buds.
It is also important to brush the teeth and the tongue regularly to avoid bad breath.
C. THE EYE
The eye is an organ of sight. It has different parts for different functions.
The black spot of the eye is called the pupil. It allows light to get into the eye to see things. The coloured part
of the eye is called the iris. This controls the size of the pupil. In dim light, the iris makes the pupil bigger to
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allow more light to get in. In bright light, the iris makes the pupil smaller to reduce amount of light that gets
into the eye. The eyelid and eyelashes protect the eye from dust and other particles.
D. THE EAR
The ear is an organ for hearing. The outer ear consists of the pinna and the ear canal or auditory canal.
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The pinna directs sound into the ear canal. At the end of the ear canal is a thin membrane called the
eardrum. Sound causes the eardrum to vibrate. This helps us to hear sound.
The wall of the ear canal secretes brown wax which protects the ear passage. However, excessive wax may
damage the ear drum or prevent a person from hearing.
E. THE SKIN
The skin is an organ for feeling. It has different parts for different functions.
sweat pores
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FUNCTIONS OF THE SKIN
Detecting roughness, softness, coldness and hotness of things. It also detects pain as a way of
protection
controlling body temperature. For example, when it is cold, the skin pores close and when it is hot,
the skin pores open to release sweat and heat.
Preventing germs from entering the body, for example, it acts as a barrier to the entry of germs into
the body
Acting as a shield against water, for example, when swimming or taking a bath
Several accidents happen in the home and community. These include cuts, burns, scalds, nose bleeding,
suffocation, choking, poisoning and road accidents. These can be caused by sharp objects, falls, fire, hot
water and poisoning substances.
EFFECTS OF ACCIDENTS
loss of blood
disability
blindness
death
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CAUSES AND PREVENTION MEASURES OF SOME COMMON ACCIDENTS
Accident Causes Prevention
cuts and grazes sharp instruments not properly used or never leave sharp knives or pointed
handled materials lying around
a falling object or a person falling down obstacles should be cleared from
pathways
proper placing of items (shelving
and hanging)
poisoning hazardous chemicals such as paraffin, following prescribed direction when
diesel, acids, petrol, medicines and sap taking medicines
from trees, rotten or stale food. keeping medicines and other
chemicals out of reach of children
not tasting, drinking or eating
substances one is not sure of
avoiding eating rotten or stale food
burns and scalds dry heat, hot vapour and liquids keeping ourselves especially
children away from fire, hot liquids
and dangerous chemicals
choking food entering the wind pipe avoiding talking while eating
avoiding swallowing too much food
at the same time
taking liquids slowly
suffocation poisonous gases keeping rooms well ventilated
water avoiding playing in water
plastic bag put over the head avoiding covering the head with
plastic bags
drowning falling in deep water bodies such as avoiding playing in water if one
rivers does not know how to swim
avoiding pushing each other into
water
avoiding overloading canoes and
boats
First aid treatment materials are kept in a first aid treatment box or kit
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First aid treatment materials may consist of:
cotton wool for cleaning wounds
antiseptics for killing germs
pairs of scissors and safety pins for cutting and doing up bandages
various sizes of bandages
plaster of different sizes
tablets
triangular and other types of bandages
The following additional information can help you to understand how to help a person who has nose bleeding
or choked.
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NOSE BLEEDING
If bleeding comes from the back part of the nose, it cannot be stopped by pinching.
In this case, have the person bite the cob of maize or other similar objects between her or his teeth while
leaning forward.
The patient should sit quietly and try not to swallow anything until the bleeding stops. The cob of maize helps
to keep the patient from swallowing. This gives blood a chance to clot. Eating oranges, tomatoes and other
fruit may help strengthen the veins so that the nose bleeds less.
CHOKING
The following can be done to help the person who has choked:
Stand behind the person and wrap your arms around his or her waist
Put your fist against her or his belly above the navel and below the ribs
Press into her or his belly with a sudden strong upward jerk. This forces the air from the lungs and
should clear the throat. Repeat several times if necessary.
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Pinch the nose of the victim with one of your hands while the other hand is placed just below the
chest of the victim
Breathe into the mouth of the victim while releasing the hand below the chest
Press the hand below the chest of the victim as you breathe out
Do this several times until the victim is able to breathe
Nutritional deficiency diseases occur due to lack of a particular nutrient in the diet.
A. Kwashiorkor
Kwashiorkor is caused by lack of proteins in the body.
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SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF KWASHIORKOR
Loss of weight
Poor appetite
Swelling body due to accumulation of too much water (oedema)
Failure to grow
Large, protruding abdomen due to an enlarged liver
Diarrhoea and vomiting
Skin appearance changes and peels off
Hair looks thin and straight
Upper limbs get thin
Mental retardation
B. Marasmus
Marasmus is caused by an overall deficiency of food in the body including protein and carbohydrates.
CAUSES OF MARASMUS
Low food supply
Lack of knowledge of proper weaning practices
Adhering to food taboos and beliefs
Long illness or diarrhoea in a child may prevent absorption of food
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Stunted growth
Looking small for his or her age
To preserve food means to treat it so that it is safe, does not decay or get spoiled.
Food preservation is an old practice for ensuring that people have food throughout the year.
This is important because food can be made available throughout the year.
These micro-organisms are found in the air, water, soil and almost everywhere.
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THE TYPES OF MICRO-ORGANISMS THAT CAUSE FOOD SPOILAGE OR DECAY
Bacteria
yeasts
moulds
To preserve food successfully, the micro-organisms must be destroyed to stop them from growing and
multiplying.
Once food is preserved, it should be stored safely, so that the micro-organisms are prevented from coming
into contact with it.
These are technologies used to preserve food that have been developed within a given society.
These include:
a. Sun drying
The food is exposed to strong sunlight, which evaporates the moisture in it.
This creates unfavourable conditions for the growth and multiplication of micro-organisms.
The types of food which can be preserved in this way include fish, fruit, vegetables, beans and maize.
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b. Smoking
Smoke is a preservative used to destroy micro-organisms and prevent their growth.
c. Salting
This is one of the oldest food preservation technologies.
This creates an environment that is not conducive for the growth of the micro-organisms.
Foods that can be salted and dried include meat, fish, caterpillars, mushrooms, fruit and green vegetables.
These include:
a. Freezing or refrigeration
This technology is used to preserve food by keeping it at low temperatures to inactivate micro-organisms.
b. Canning or bottling
This is one of the widely-used technologies of food preservation.
The bottles or cans are filled with food while air is removed.
Then the bottles or cans are immediately sealed, sterilised and cooled.
In most cases, preservatives are added to the canned foods to increase their life.
Canning or bottling is used to preserve foodstuffs such as fruit, fruit juices, milk, beans, fish, peas and meat.
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c. Jam making
This is a technology used to preserve fruit.
It is based on the fact that a high concentration of sugar kills micro-organisms and prevents their growth.
After the jam is made it is sealed in jars cutting off air completely so that it remains fresh for a long time.
Jam can be made from fruit such as mangoes, peaches, guavas, plums, apples and strawberries.
The storage facilities include bottles or jars, baskets, cartons, freezers or refrigerators, granaries, sacks and
food stores.
Different materials that people use in their everyday life are made through the use of scientific and
technological processes.
However, some of these materials such as soap, crayons, vim, floor polish and shoe polish can be made
manually.
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a) Crayon production
Crayons are formed by mixing melted candle wax and finely crushed coloured pieces of chalk or dye.
The wax is melted to allow the dye or crushed pieces of chalk to mix well. The mixture is left to cool down for
it to solidify.
Resources needed
candle wax
finely crushed coloured chalk or dye
10cm pieces of pawpaw straws or reed
metal containers, tins or pots
sticks
a source of heat
Process
a. heat pieces of candle wax in a pot or any metal container until it completely melts
b. add the coloured chalk powder to the melted candle wax
c. stir with a stick until it is well mixed
d. arrange pawpaw straw or reed upright in a container such as a plastic cup
e. carefully pour the contents into the straws in the container
f. let them cool down
g. peel off the straws
h. then the crayons are ready for use
Resources needed
candle wax
finely-crushed charcoal
paraffin
containers
source of heat
sticks
pots
mortar-and pestle
sieve
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Process
1. put the pot or tins with candle wax on fire
2. let the wax melt completely
3. add powdered charcoal to the wax
4. stir to mix well
5. immediately add a little amount of paraffin to the contents and keep on stirring until well mixed
6. you may pour the contents into storing containers of your choice such as used shoe polish cans
7. let the contents cool down
8. black shoe polish is ready for use
Resources needed
candle wax
pots
paraffin
sticks
red oxide
Process
1. melt the candle wax in a pot or tin
2. add a little paraffin and stir until a desired thickness is acquired
3. you may add red oxide powder to obtain red floor polish
4. let the contents cool
5. the floor polish is ready for use
Resources needed
Egg shells
Powder soap
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Mortars and pestles
Sieves
Containers
Process
1. grind the egg shells to very fine powder in a mortar
2. add a little powdered soap to the contents
3. mix well
4. the powder is ready for use
e) Soap making
Soap is made from animal fat or vegetable fat mixed with a strong alkali such as caustic soda, water and salt.
Soap is formed by the chemical reaction of fat and caustic soda or caustic potash alkalis)
When alkalis are mixed with fat, glycerine is separated and the fatty acids plus the caustic soda form soap.
Resources needed
fat
beakers or tins
water
salt
caustic soda
sources of heat
Procedure
1. melt the fat in a beaker or tin for at least one hour
2. when the mixture is thick, add salt and boil it for 10 minutes
3. let the mixture cool
4. remove the layer of soap
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UNIT 9 INFORMATIION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES
The term “information and communication technology” refers to the use of computers and other devices to
capture, process, store, retrieve, transfer and control information in a variety of forms such as numbers, text,
sound or images.
Examples of information and communication technologies are computers, telephones, cell phones, radios,
televisions, fax machines and automatic teller machines (ATMs)
The radio
The radio works by detecting waves created at a radio station.
The radio uses electronic systems to process the waves. In this way, people are able to hear music and voices
through the receiver’s speakers.
The announcer speaks or plays music into a microphone. The sound passes through the microphone as sound
waves. The transmitter picks these waves, then changes them to radio waves. The aerial of the radio receives
the radio waves from the transmitter. The speaker of the radio then changes the radio waves into music or a
voice.
The telephone
There are two types of systems that are used in transmitting messages through telephones.
In the analogue system, the telephones transmit voices over long distances electronically. In this system, the
transmission can easily be distorted or be interfered with.
In a digital system, the spoken word is converted into a digital language before being transmitted. The
receiver then converts the digital language to sound. There is no interference or distortion in this type of
telephone system.
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The cell phone
The spoken voice is converted into a digital language which travels to receiver via a transmitter. The
transmitter is used to amplify the digital language. The receiver then converts the digital signal into sound
resembling the original voice.
The computer
The computer can be used for collecting information which can be stored or analysed and made available for
later use. The uses of the computer include managing accounts, keeping information on spare parts for cars
in garages, keeping records of patients, collecting information on laboratory tests and helping diagnose
diseases in hospitals, automatic flying of planes, forecasting weather, running the different activities and
monitoring progress in factories, running radio and television programmes, sending messages quickly through
electronic mail (e-mail) , playing games, and word processing, that is, typing and formatting the typed work.
The input devices of a computer are the keyboard and the mouse. The keyboard is used to enter information
into the processor. The mouse is also an input device. It is moved around and controls an arrow that is known
as a cursor which appears on the computer screen.
The monitor or screen is one of the output devices of a computer. It enables users to see what they are
doing. The printer is another output device that produces a printed copy of the information in the computer.
The internet
This is another form of information and communication technology. The internet is a connection of millions
of computers around the world. It uses a language that allows different computers in different parts of the
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world to communicate with each other. The information on the internet is arranged on websites that can
easily be accessed. People use the internet to store and find information quickly.
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a) Leaves
These allow air to pass in and out of the plant through small openings called stomates. There are more
stomates under the leaf than on top. Leaves also make plant food from water and carbon dioxide using
sunlight in a process called photosynthesis.
Oxygen is also produced as a by-product of photosynthesis. The veins in the leaf carry water and mineral salts
and make the leaf stiff.
b) Stems
These connect the leaves, branches and the roots.
Water and mineral salts from the roots pass through the stem to the leaves.
Some stems such as sugarcane and Irish potatoes store food for the plant.
c) Roots
The roots hold the plant in the soil. Roots take in water and mineral salts from the soil which is conducted to
the leaves through the stem.
Some roots such as sweet potatoes and cassava store food for the plant while others do not.
d) Flowers
These are the reproductive parts of plants.
The colour and smell of some flowers attract some insects and birds.
These help to transfer pollen from the male part to the female part of the flower so that fertilisation of the
male and female gametes can take place to form zygotes.
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UNIT 11 LIGHT ENERGY
Objects that give out light energy on their own are called direct sources of light.
These include the sun, fire, candle flames, fireflies, neon-worms and stars.
Objects that do not produce light energy on their own are called indirect sources.
The direct sources are classified into natural and artificial sources of light energy.
An electric bulb produces light because of the heating of tungsten wire. As electric current passes through the
wire, it gets very hot and glows producing light.
These two examples show that light can be produced as a result of chemical reactions and the heating of
electricity.
Another way of producing light is by friction or rubbing two things together. When one removes a nylon cloth
from the body, it produces sparks of light.
Hitting two stones or metals together can also produce sparks of light.
Sparks of light are also produced during the use of grinding machines.
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UNIT 12 HEAT ENERGY
Fuels such as paraffin, wood, gas and charcoal also contain chemical energy which is released as heat when
burning.
The burning of substances is, therefore, one of the sources of heat energy.
Electricity is another source of heat energy. As the electric current flows in a length of wire, it meets some
resistance. The more electrical resistance to the flow of electric current, the greater the amount of heat
energy produced.
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Global warming which causes changes in climate resulting in either drought or heavy rains
Objects can be set into vibration by plucking, hitting, beating or blowing them.
For drums and string instruments to vibrate and produce sound, they must have a certain amount of tension.
Examples of sources of sound are vocal cords, stretched pieces of string, reed, drums, insects, animals, cell
phones, sirens, motor vehicles, radio and wind instruments.
USES OF SOUND
For communication
For entertainment
For giving warning signals
For telling time
For mating in animals
For determining the depth of water bodies or distance between two places
For showing happiness
For expressing sorrow
a) Boiling
This involves cooking food in boiling water until it is tender.
Suitable foods for boiling include meat, fish, starchy foods, green vegetables and root vegetables.
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COOKING FOOD USING THE BOILING METHOD GUIDELINES
The water should just cover the food
Use a saucepan with a strong base
Have the water boiling before adding the food
Pans should have close-fitting lids to reduce loss of steam
b) Steaming
These are:
1. Direct steaming
2. Indirect steaming
DIRECT STEAMING
This is a type of steaming method where the steam gets into contact with the food.
For example, when cooking mkate, the food is wrapped up in banana leaves and placed in a small amount of
water.
INDIRECT STEAMING
This is a type of steaming where the steam does not get into contact with the food.
Suitable foods for steaming include fresh fish, liver, root vegetables, pudding, egg and milk custard.
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THE ADVANTAGES OF STEAMING FOOD
There is no loss of food value
It requires less attention
It is economical as three or four dishes can be cooked at the same time
Food cooked in this way is easily digestible
It can be done even by people who are weak or have a disability
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THE IMPORTANCE OF KITCHEN HYGIENE
Prevention of accidents such as falls, scalds, burns and poisoning
Helps one to avoid excessive bending and stretching
Prevents pests such as rats and cockroaches from breeding in the kitchen
Prevention of diseases such as diarrhoea
Avoiding food contamination
KITCHEN HYGIENE
Hygiene in the kitchen starts with people who work in the kitchen.
This involves:
keeping all working surfaces clean and in good condition
emptying and washing kitchen bins regularly and keeping drains clean
preventing pets from entering the kitchen
not using dish clothes to wipe spills
not using chipped crockery and utensils
not leaving kitchen bins uncovered
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Daily cleaning of the kitchen
Weekly cleaning
In addition to daily cleaning, it is necessary to undertake thorough cleaning once a week which may involve:
cleaning the cooking centre or stove thoroughly
removing stains from walls and surfaces
cleaning drawers and work surfaces with warm soapy water
cleaning refrigerators thoroughly
sweeping, washing, rinsing and drying the floor
cleaning sinks and draining boards by using boiling water and washing soda
Occasional cleaning
Occasional cleaning of the kitchen involves all the other activities done daily and weekly, but also involves:
sweeping and smearing the floor if it is made of mud
sealing cracks on the wall
removing cobwebs and soot
cleaning windows
washing curtains
spraying or trapping and killing insects
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poor lighting
carelessness in handling equipment
sharp objects
fire
slippery floors
poisonous substances such as paraffin and detergents
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THE IMPORTANCE OF MEAL PLANNING
saving money, time and energy
avoiding monotony in the diet
ensuring that one gets all the required nutrients in the right proportions
avoiding wastage of food resources
These are:
breakfast which is eaten in the morning
lunch which is eaten around mid-day
supper or dinner which is eaten in the evenings
Meals should be planned carefully taking into account factors and guidelines for meal planning.
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Orange drink Stewed beef Stewed beans
Rice porridge Boiled kholowa Vegetable salad
Tea with milk Nsima Steamed rice
Boiled cassava Fruit drink Mangoes
Sample 2 Sample 2 Sample 2
Pawpaw salad Curried eggs Stewed fish
Mgaiwa porridge Stewed green beans Boiled nkhwani
Thobwa Boiled potatoes Nsima
Roasted sweet potatoes Mixed fruit salad Fruits in season
UNIT 17 MACHINES
Some machines such as tongs and tweezers assist in holding hot objects
TYPES OF MACHINES
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a) Inclined plane
An inclined plane is a simple machine.
The load is pushed along the inclined plane onto a higher place.
inclined planes
The inclined plane allows a small force called effort to push a heavy load onto the body of a lorry.
An inclined plane provided a mechanical advantage (MA) which is worked out by dividing the load by the
effort:
Load
MA =
Effort
The load is the weight of the object and effort is the force exerted when moving the load up the inclined
plane.
One can obtain a bigger mechanical advantage if longer, smoother surfaces and rollers are used.
b) Lever
A lever is a rigid body pivoted on an axis where it turns.
There are many examples of levers such as a bottle opener, a pair of pliers, crowbar, arm, scale, wheelbarrow
and a pair of scissors.
CLASSES OF LEVERS
Levers fall into three classes based on the arrangement of effort, fulcrum and load.
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First-order levers
pair of forceps
Examples of third-order levers are pair of forceps, fishing rod and tongs.
c) Pulleys
A pulley is defined as a wheel with a grooved rim in which ropes that lift loads pass through.
Each of the pulley system has wheels. Each wheel has a grooved rim.
If there are more pulleys, one can even lift heavier loads.
TYPES OF PULLEYS
These are:
fixed pulleys
movable pulleys
combined pulleys
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types of pulleys
For the fixed pulley, you have to use more effort than the load to be lifted. The advantage of this pulley is
that you do not pull or push the pulley up and down and that your body assists in the lifting of the load.
A movable pulley moves with the load. The effort applied in this pulley system is less than the load to be
lifted. This is the advantage of the pulley. The disadvantage of this pulley system is that one pulls or pushes
the pulley up and down.
The combined pulley makes the effort smaller than the load. The effort is less than half of the weight to be
lifted. The disadvantage is that the pulley has to move over a longer distance.
These include sitting room, dining room, bedroom, kitchen, bathroom and toilet.
In a traditional house, the kitchen, toilet and bath shelter are usually built outside the main house.
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keeping the home in good condition so that it lasts longer
It may also be used for reading, playing indoor games and listening to music.
The furniture for this room, therefore, should provide comfort and an atmosphere of relaxation.
Daily cleaning
collect the necessary cleaning equipment and materials
move light furniture and other objects to one side
close windows and doors to avoid spreading dust while sweeping
sweep the floor moving towards the door
move furniture to the swept area and then sweep the remaining part and move dust together in one
place
collect dust and wrap it in old newspapers and burn it or throw it in a dustbin
shake mats outside
dust surfaces and objects.
clean the floor according to its type. If it is plain concrete or varnished, mop with warm soapy water
rearrange furniture, magazines or newspapers, if any
open windows to let in fresh air
clean and store cleaning materials and equipment
Weekly cleaning
sweep and dust as in daily cleaning but start with removing cobwebs on the walls and floors
shake cushions to remove dust and brush off dirt from upholstery furniture
remove stains on the walls using the correct methods
clean the floor according to its type
clean windows thoroughly
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clean furniture and other objects according to their type
brush and shake mats or rugs, if any
rearrange furniture neatly.
clean and store cleaning materials properly
Special cleaning
carry out daily and weekly cleaning
clean upholstered furniture and curtains thoroughly
shampoo carpets, clean or wash mats according to their type
finish and tidy up the room
if the floor is made up of mud, smear the floor with mud or cow dung
B) Dining room
This room is usually smaller than the living room. It is used for serving meals.
The furniture for this room include the dining table and chairs, the cupboard or sideboard for keeping utensils
and table linen.
Sometimes part of the living room or kitchen can be used as a dining room.
Daily cleaning
collect the necessary cleaning equipment and materials
move light furniture and other objects to one side
close windows and doors to avoid spreading dust while sweeping
sweep the floor moving towards the door
move furniture to the swept area and then sweep the remaining part and move dust together in one
place
collect dust and wrap it in old newspapers and burn it or throw it in a dustbin
brush and shake mats outside
dust surfaces and objects.
clean the floor according to its type. If it is plain concrete or varnished, mop with warm soapy water
rearrange furniture, magazines or newspapers, if any
Weekly cleaning
remove cobwebs from the walls and floors
sweep and dust as in daily cleaning
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shake cushions to remove dust and brush off dirt from upholstery furniture
remove stains on the walls using the correct methods
clean the floor according to its type
clean windows thoroughly
clean furniture and other objects according to their type
brush and shake mats or rugs, if any
rearrange furniture neatly
open windows to allow fresh air in the room
clean and store cleaning materials properly
Special cleaning
carry out daily and weekly cleaning
clean upholstered furniture and curtains thoroughly
shampoo carpets, clean or wash mats according to their type
finish and tidy up the room
if the floor is made up of mud, smear the floor with mud or cow dung
Keeping home surroundings clean involves sweeping outside, cutting grass short around the home, removing
cobwebs, picking up litter, draining stagnant water, disposing of refuse properly and planting flowers.
It is important to keep the surroundings clean to prevent the spread of diseases such as dysentery, cholera,
diarrhoea, food poisoning and worm infections.
These are:
1. dry refuse
2. wet refuse
1) Dry refuse
This includes ashes, dust, dry leaves, waste paper, peels, broken glass, food waste and rugs
2) Wet refuse
This includes waste and from bathrooms, kitchen and sewage.
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These should be disposed of in order to prevent the spread of diseases, avoid bad smell and make the
surroundings look attractive.
Dry refuse
This should be collected in dustbins or in rubbish pits. When the bins are full, they can be collected and be
emptied in landfills or rubbish pits. Once the rubbish pits are full, they should be covered with soil. Waste
paper cab be collected and be recycled.
Wet refuse
This refuse should lead into a soak pit. Waste water from washing, bathrooms can be used for watering
plants and flowers.
UNIT 19 LAUNDRY
Laundry refers to all the processes that are involved in making clothes and household linen clean.
LAUNDRY MATERIALS
These are sometimes called laundry agents.
Water
It is one of the most important laundry agents.
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Clean and soft water is ideal for laundry work.
Soap
This is used with water to remove dirt
Bleaches
A bleach is a substance used on white articles to brighten them.
Drying white clothes in the open air where there is bright sunlight bleaches clothes naturally.
Starches
This is a laundering material to stiffen and give a smooth finish to garments and articles.
When garments and articles are starched they are easy to iron. Starch can be bought in powdered, liquid and
spray forms.
Stain removers
Stains are unwanted discolorations on a garment or article.
Some can be removed by using water and soap while others can be removed using stain removers.
LAUNDRY EQUIPMENT
Laundry equipment may be large or small.
This equipment includes laundry sink, bathtub, basins, pegs, clothes, line, pressing iron, pressing board or
table, pails, stand, hangers, pressing sheets and pressing blankets.
When not in use, the equipment should be washed, dried and kept in a cool dry place.
STEPS IN LAUNDERING
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- soaking
- washing
- drying
- pressing
- airing
- storing
TABLE LINEN
Table linen is part of household articles used to decorate the home.
These include doilies, chair backs, table cloths, place mats, serviettes and tray cloths.
This is because families use them when entertaining visitors or serving meals.
Procedures
sort according to colour and degree of dirt
soak in cold water to soften the dirt
wash in hot soapy water using the friction method
rinse in hot water first, then in cold water
use starch if required
dry in the sun
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dampen the linen before pressing, if necessary
air outside
fold and store
1) SOLIDS
Solids have definite shape and size.
2) LIQUIDS
Liquids flow, can be poured, take the shape of their container and have definite volume.
Examples include water, blood, petrol, cooking oil, paraffin and milk.
3) GASES
Gases flow in all directions, are easily compressed and fill the container in which they are placed and they do
not have a definite shape or size.
USES OF MATTER
building blocks of structures such as bricks, stones and wire
as a means of transporting nutrients in living things
keeping the shape and size of things (turgidity)
a home of animals
they are sources of energy for example paraffin and ethane
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CHANGES OF STATES OF MATTER
Matter can change its state depending on temperature.
Generally, when solids are heated they change into liquids. This is called melting.
When liquids are heated they change into gas. This is called evaporation.
When gases are cooled they change into liquid. This is called condensation.
Liquids change into solid when cooled. This is called freezing or solidification.
Some solids change from solid state to gaseous state. This process is called sublimation.
These include:
drying clothes
making ice blocks
preparation of jelly
distillation of alcohol
They, therefore, have a great need for protein, calcium, vitamins, carbohydrates and other nutrients
necessary for the body to grow properly.
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Therefore, they need to carry nutritious packed meals from home to school.
A packed meal is taken during break time to provide energy and refreshment.
Parents and guardians should be discouraged from giving money to school children because they may not buy
food, or if they do, it may not be the right kind of food.
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plastic food containers
aluminium foils
These include a sitting room, dining room, bedrooms, kitchen, toilet and bathroom.
a) Sitting room
A good sitting room should have facilities for relaxation and entertainment.
b) Dining room
A good dining room should have dining chairs, a table, a cupboard or sideboard for storing utensils.
Sometimes part of the living room or kitchen area is used as a dining room.
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The dining room can be improved by:
cleaning it regularly
improvising furniture
arranging equipment and furniture properly
decorating it with items such as floor rugs, ornamental plants, pictures and wood carvings.
c) Bedroom
A good bedroom should have facilities for sleeping.
A bedside locker or small table is also useful for keeping a bedside lamp or candle.
In addition, the two rooms can be improved by making sure that things are arranged properly, decorating the
room with floor rugs, toilet sets and shower curtains.
Bath shelters should be well constructed and have a soak pit for proper draining of water.
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PLANTING FLOWERS AROUND THE HOUSE
In order to improve the appearance of the surroundings, it is important to plant flowers around the house.
Also, well tendered flower gardens can create a beautiful environment ideal for reading, painting, composing
music and writing.
This can give members of the family an opportunity to grow and discover their potentials.
Items such as table cloths, curtains and bed sheets can be darned, patched and hems repaired.
With a little skill it can be made into many different things that can decorate different rooms in the home.
FLOWER ARRANGEMENTS
The house can also be improved by the use of flowers arranged variously.
When using flowers to improve the home consider the following factors:
the type of occasion
the colour scheme
the size of the table
the shape of the table
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UNIT 23 MANAGING INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES
WAYS OF COMMUNICATING
verbal communication
non-verbal communication
Communication can take place verbally by means of talking or singing. This is called verbal communication.
Communication can also take place non-verbally by means of body language and facial expression. This is
called non-verbal communication.
With the advancement of technology, different forms of communication have been developed.
These include books, letters, newspapers, magazines, newsletters, television, radio, films or videos, fax,
telephone, cell phone, e-mail and internet.
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Levels of poverty should be reduced
Information and communication services should be improved
Personnel working in information and communication including the users should be properly trained
a) Computers
b) Radio
c) Cell phone
d) Telephone
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not be dropped
be repaired by a qualified person
not be used for too long to minimise telephone bills
e) Fax machine
f) Television set
These include:
identifying the problem
doing research
planning
outlining the technological process
making the technological device
testing the technological device
evaluating the technological process
REFERENCE
MIE (2007), Science and Technology Teacher’s Guide for Standard 6, Domasi; MIE
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