Class Notes/B.

Tech/Semester-I/2024-2025

Linear Algebra & Differential Equations(LADE)

UNIT-III
LINEAR TRANSFORMATION

1. BASIC CONCEPT OF TRANSFORMATION

Let us think of a matrix equation Ax = b in a different way. If we think

of the matrix A as an object that acts on a vector x with respect to produce
a new vector called Ax. For instance, the following equations define that
multiplication by A transforms x into b and u into zero vector. From

this new point of view, solving the equation Ax = b indicates finding all
1
2

vectors x in R4 that are transformed into the vector b in R2 under the action
of multiplication by A.

Definition 1.1. Transformation: A transformation (or function/mapping)

T from Rn to Rm , i.e., T : Rn → Rm is a rule that assigns a vector T (x)
in Rm to each vector x in Rn . The set Rn is called the domain of T. For x
in Rn , the vector T (x) in Rm is called the image of x. The set of all images
T (x) is called the range of T .

2. MATRIX TRANSFORMATIONS

For each x in Rn , T (x) is computed as Ax, where A is m × n matrix. For

simplicity, we sometimes denote such a matrix transformation by x → Ax.
Note:
1. The domain of T is Rn when A has n columns.
2. The codomain of T is Rm when each column of A has m entries.
3. The range of T is the set of all linear combinations of the columns
of A because each image T (x) is of the form Ax.
Example 1:
     
−3
1 " # 3 3
  2    
Let A = 
3 5, u = , b=
 2  , and c = 2 .
  
−1
−1 7 −5 5
 3

Define a transformation T : R2 → R3 by T (x) = Ax so that

   
1 −3 " # x1 − 3x2
  x1  
T (x) = Ax =  3 5  =  3x1 + 5x2  .
x2
   
−1 7 −x1 + 7x2

a. Find T (u), the image of u under T .

b. Find an x in R2 whose image under T is b.
c. Is there more than one x whose image under T is b?
d. Determine if c is in the range of T .
Solution:
a)
   
−3 " #
1 5
  2  
T (u) = Au = 
3 5 =
1

−1

−1 7 −9
b)
T (x) = b ⇒ Ax = b
   
1 −3 " # 3
  x1  
3 5 =2
 (2.1)
x2
 
−1 7 −5
Applying row operations, we get
       
1 −3 3 1 −3 3 1 −3 3 1 0 32
       
1
 ∽  0 14 −7  ∽  0 11 −5  ∽  0 1 − 2
 3 5 2       
 
−1 7 −5 0 4 −2 0 0 0 0 0 0
" # (2.2)
1.5
Hence, x1 = 1.5 and x2 = −0.5. ∴ X = .
−0.5
c) From (2.2), it is clear that equation (2.1) has a unique solution. So, there
is exactly one x whose image is b.
d) The vector c is in the range of T if c is the image of same x in R2 , i.e.,
if c = T (x) for some x. ∴ if Ax = c is consistent, c will be in the range of T .
4
       
1 −3 3 1 −3 3 1 −3 3 1 −3 3
       
 3 5 2  ∽  0 14 −7  ∽  0 1 2 ∽ 0 1 2 
       
−1 7 −5 0 4 8 0 14 −7 0 0 −35
Hence, the system is inconsistent and c is not in the range of T .
Example 2:
 
1 0 0
 
If A =  0 1 0 , then the transformation x → Ax projects points in R3 onto
 
0 0 0
      
x1 1 0 0 x1 x1
      
the x1 x2 −plane because 
 x 2
 → 0 1 0  x2  =  x2 .
     
x3 0 0 0 x3 0

3. LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS

Definition 3.1. Linear Transformation: A transformation (or, mapping) T

is linear if
(1) T (u + v) = T (u) + T (v), ∀ u, v in the domain of T ;
(2) T (cu) = cT (u), ∀ scalars c and vectors u in the domain of T .

Note:
1. Every matrix transformation is a linear transformation, not vice versa.
 5

2. Linear transformation preserve the operations of vector addition and

scalar multiplication.
3. If T is a linear transformation, then

T (0) = 0 (3.1)
and
T (cu + dv) = cT (u) + dT (v), (3.2)
∀ vectors u, v in the domain of T and all scalars c, d. The condition
(3.2) is a combination of properties (1) and (2). If a transformation
satisfies (3.2), it must be linear. If we set c = d = 1, we get preser-
vation of addition and if we set d = 0, we get property (2). Repeated
application of condition (3.2) produces a useful generalization;

T (c1 v1 + · · · + cp vp ) = c1 T (v1 ) + · · ·cp T (vp ). (3.3)

Example 1: Given a scalar r, define T : R2 → R2 by T (x) = rx. T is

called a contraction when 0 ≤ r ≤ 1 and a dilation when r > 1. Let r = 3
and show that T is a linear transformation.
Solution: Let u, v be in R2 and let c, d be scalars. Then

T (cu+dv) = 3(cu+dv) = 3cu+3dv = c(3u)+d(3v) = cT (u)+dT (v).

Thus, T is a linear transformation because it satisfies property (3.2).

6

Example 2: Define a linear transformation T : R2 → R2 by

" #" # " #
0 −1 x1 −x2
T (x) = =
1 0 x2 x1
. ! ! !
4 2 6
Find the images under T of u = ,v= and u+v = .
1 3 4
Solution:
" # ! !
0 −1 4 −1
T (u) = = ,
1 0 1 4
" # ! !
0 −1 2 −3
T (v) = = ,
1 0 3 2
" # ! !
0 −1 6 −4
T (u + v) = = = T (u) + T (v).
1 0 4 6
 7

 Practice
 Problems-I
   
1/3 0 0 3 a
     
1. Let A = 
 0 1/3
0   , u =  6  and v =  b . Define
   
0 0 1/3 −9 c
3 3
T : R → R by T (x) = Ax. Find T (u) and T (v).
2. Find a vector x whose image
  T is
under b, where T (x) = Ax;
1 0 −3 −2
   
a) A =   −3 1 6 , b =  3 
  
2 −2 −1 −1
   
1 −2 3 −6
   
b) A =   0 1 −3 , b =  −4 
  
2 −5 6 −5
   
1 −3 5 −5 −1
   
3. Let A =   0 1 −3 5 , b =  1 . Is b in the range of the
  
2 −4 4 −4 0
linear transformation
 x → Ax?  
3 2 10 −6 −1
   
 1 0 2 −4   3 
4. Let A =  , b =  . Is b in the range of the
   
 0 1 2 3   −1 
   
1 4 10 8 4
linear transformation x → Ax?
5. Define a linear transformation T : R2 → R2 by
" #" #
2 0 x1
T (x) =
0 2 x2
. ! !
5 −2
Find the images under T of u = , and v = .
2 4

***************
8

4. MATRIX OF LINEAR TRANSFORMATION

! !
1 0 1
Example 1: The columns of I2 = are e1 = and
0 1 0
!
0
e2 = . Suppose T is a linear transformation from R2 into R3 such
1
   
5 −3
   
that T (e1 ) =  −7  and T (e2 ) =  8 . Find a formula for the
  
2 0
2
image of an arbitrary x in! R. ! !
x1 1 0
Solution: Let x = = x1 + x2 = x1 e1 + x2 e2 .
x2 0 1
∵ T is a linear transformation,
     
5 −3 5x1 − 3x2
     
 −7  + x2  8  =  −7x1 + 8x2
T (x) = x1 T (e1 ) + x2 T (e2 ) = x1      

2 0 2x1
∴ T (e1 ) and T (e2 ) are sufficient to determine T (x) for any x.
T (x) = x1 T (e1 ) + x2 T (e2 ) can be rewritten as
!
x1
T (x) = (T (e1 )T (e2 )) = Ax.
x2
Theorem: Let T : Rn → Rm be a linear transformation. Then there exists
a unique matrix A such that

T (x) = Ax, ∀ x in Rn , where A = (T (e1 ) T (e2 ) · · · T (en )) .

The matrix A, known as the standard matrix for the linear transforma-
tion T , is a m × n matrix whose jth column is the vector T (ej ), where ej
is the jth column of the identity matrix in Rn .

Note: Every linear transformation from Rn to Rm can be viewed as a matrix

transformation and vice versa. The term linear transformation focuses on a
property of a mapping, while matrix transformation describes how such a
 9

mapping is implemented.

Example 2: Find the standard matrix A for the dilation transformation

T (x) = 3x for x in R2 .
! !
1 0
Solution: Let us consider e1 = and e2 = .
0 1
! ! !
3 0 3 0
So, T (e1 ) = 3e1 = , T (e2 ) = 3e2 = , ∴ A=
0 3 0 3

Definition 4.1. Onto mapping: A mapping T : Rn → Rm is said to be onto

Rm if each b in Rm is the image of atleast one x in Rn , i.e., for each b in
Rm , ∃ atleast one solution of T (x) = b.

Definition 4.2. One-to-one mapping: A mapping T : Rn → Rm is said to

be one-to-one if each b in Rm is the image of atmost one x in Rn , i.e., for
each b in Rm , the equation T (x) = b has either a unique solution or none
at all.
10

Theorem: Let A be an m × n matrix. Then the following statements are

logically equivalent, i.e., for a particular A, either they are all true state-
ments or they are all false;
a) For each b in Rm , the equation Ax = b has a solution.
b) Each b in Rm is a linear combination of the columns of A.
c) The columns of A span Rm .
d) A has a pivot position in every row.

Example 3: Let T be the linear transformation whose standard matrix is

 
1 −4 8 1
 
A=  0 2 −1 3 

0 0 0 5

Does T map R4 onto R3 ? Is T a one-to-one mapping?

Solution: ∵ A is in echelon form, we can see that A has a pivot position
in each row. From the above theorem, we can say that for each b in R3 ,
Ax = b is consistent. In other words, T maps R4 onto R3 . However, ∵ the
equation Ax = b has a free variable, each b is in the image of more than
one x, i.e., T is not one-to-one.

Theorem:
1. Let T : Rn → Rm be a linear transformation. Then T is one-to-one
iff T (x) = 0 has only the trivial solution.
2. Let T : Rn → Rm be a linear transformation and let A be the stan-
dard matrix for T . Then
a) T maps Rn onto Rm iff the columns of A span Rm .
b) T is one-to-one iff the columns of A are linearly independent.

Example 4: Let T (x1 , x2 ) = (3x1 + x2 , 5x1 + 7x2 , x1 + 3x2 ). Show that T

is a one-to-one linear transformation. Does T map R2 onto R3 ?
 11

Solution:
   
3x1 + x2 3 1 !
    x1
T (x) = 
 5x1 + 7x2  =  5 7 
  
x2
x1 + 3x2 1 3
∴ T is linear transformation.
The columns of A are linearly independent because they are not multiples.
By above theorem,T is one-to-one.
∵ A is 3 × 2 matrix, the columns of A span R3 iff A has 3 pivot positions
by theorem 2.b). This is impossible since A has only 2 columns. So the
columns of A do not span R3 and the linear transformation is not onto R3 .
Practice Problems-II
1. Find the standard matrix of T ;
a) T : R2 → R4 by T (e1 ) = (3, 1, 3, 1) and T (e2 ) = (−5, 2, 0, 0) where
e1 = (1, 0) and e2 = (0, 1).
b) T : R3 → R2 by T (e1 ) = (1, 4), T (e2 ) = (−2, 9), and T (e3 ) = (3, −8)
where e1 = (1, 0, 0), e2 = (0, 1, 0), and e3 = (0, 0, 1).
2. Let T : R2 → R2 be a linear transformation such that T (x1 , x2 ) =
(x1 + x2 , 4x1 + 5x2 ). Find x such that T (x) = (3, 8).
   
x1 2x1 − 4x2
   
3. Find the standard matrix for the transformation T 
 x 2
 =  x1 − x3 .
  
x3 −x2 + 3x3
4. Let T be the linear transformation whose standard matrix is
 
−5 6 −5 −6
 
 8 3 −3 8 
A=
 

 2 9 5 −12
 
−3 2 7 −12
Is T a one-to-one mapping?
5. Show that the transformation T defined by T (x1 , x2 ) = (x1 − 2x2 , x1 −
3, 2x1 − 5x2 ) is not linear.
12

5. INNER PRODUCT

Definition 5.1. Inner product: If u and v are vectors in Rn , then we regard

u and v as n×1 matrices. The transpose uT is a 1×n matrix, and the matrix
product uT v is a 1 × 1 matrix, which we write as a single real number (a
scalar) without bracket. The number uT v is called the inner product of u
and v, and often it is written as u·v. This inner product is also referred to
as a dot product. If
   
u1 v1
   
 u2   v2 
u= .  and v =  . 
   
 ..   .. 
   
un vn
then the inner product of u and v is
 
v1
 
 v2 
[u1 u2 · · · un ]  .  = u1 v1 + u2 v2 + · · · + un vn .
 
 .. 
 
vn
   
2 3
   
Example 1: Compute u·v and v·u for u =  −5 and v =  2 .
  
−1 −3
 
h i 3 
T
Solution: u·v = u v = 2 −5 −1   2  = 2 · 3 + (−5) · 2 +

−3
(−1)(−3) = −1  
h i 2 
T
v·u = v u = 3 2 −3  −5 = 3 · 2 + (2)(−5) + (−3)(−1) = −1.

−1
Theorem: Let u, v, and w be vectors in Rn and c be a scalar. Then
a) u·v = v·u
b) (u + v) · w = u · w + v · w
 13

c) (cu) · v = c(u·v) = u · (cv)

d) u·u ≥ 0 and u·u = 0 iff u = 0.
Properties b) and c) can be combined several times to produce the useful
rule given by

(c1 u1 + · · · + cp up )·w = c1 (u1 ·w) + · · · + cp (up ·w).

Definition 5.2. Length of a vector: If v is in Rn , with entries v1 , v2 , · · · , vn ,

then the square root of v·v is defined because v·v is non-negative. The length
(or norm) of v is the non-negative scalar ∥ v ∥ defined by
√ q
∥ v ∥= v·v = v12 + v22 + · · · + vn2 , and ∥ v ∥2 = v·v.

Note:
1. For any scalar c, the length of cv is | c | times the length of v, i.e.,
∥ cv ∥=| c |∥ v ∥.
(Compute ∥ cv ∥2 = (cv) · (cv) = c2 v · v = c2 ∥ v ∥2 and take square
roots)
2. A vector whose length is 1 is called a unit vector. If we divide a non-
zero vector v by its length (i.e. v/ ∥ v ∥), we obtain a unit vector u.
The process of creating u from v is sometimes called normalizing v
and we say that u is in the same direction as v.

Example 2: Let v = (1, −2, 2, 0). Find a unit vector u in the same direc-
tion as v.
Solution: ∥ v ∥2 = v · v = (1)2 + (−2)2 + (2)2 + (0)2 = 9, ∴ ∥ v ∥= 3.
Now, u = v
∥v∥
= ( 31 , − 32 , 23 , 0).

Definition 5.3. Distance between two vectors: For u and v in Rn , the dis-
tance between u and v, written as dist(u, v), is the length of the vector u−v,
i.e., dist(u, v) =∥ u − v ∥.
14

Example 4: Compute the distance between the vectors u = (7, 1) and

v = (3, 2).
Solution: u − v = (7, 1) − (3, 2) = (4, −1)
p √
∴ ∥ u − v ∥= 42 + (−1)2 = 17.

6. ORTHOGONALITY

Definition 6.1. Orthogonal vectors: Two vectors u and v in Rn are orthog-

onal (to each other) if u · v = 0.

Note: The zero vector is orthogonal to every vector in Rn because 0T v = 0

for all v.
The Pythagorean theorem: Two vectors u and v are orthogonal iff

∥ u + v ∥2 =∥ u ∥2 + ∥ v ∥2 .

Definition 6.2.

Example 1:    
" # " # 4/3 5
−2 −3    
Let a = ,b= ,c= −1 , and d =  6 .
1 1
   
2/3 −1
a) Compute a·b a·b


a·a
and a·a
a.
b) Find a unit vector u in the direction of c.
c) Show that d is orthogonal to c. " #
a·b 7 a·b

−14/5
Solution: a) a · b = 7, a · a = 5. Hence, a·a
= 5
and a·a
a= .
7/5
 √ 
4/ 29
√ c
 √ 
b) ∥ c ∥= 29/3. Hence, u = ∥c∥ = −3/ .
29 
 √
2/ 29
   
5 4/3
   
c) d is orthogonal to c because d · c = 
 6  ·  −1
   = 0.

−1 2/3
 15

Definition 6.3. Orthogonal sets: A set of vectors {u1 , · · · , up } in Rn is

said to be orthogonal set if each pair of distinct vectors from the set is
orthogonal, i.e., if ui · uj = 0 whenever i ̸= j.

Example 2: Show that {u1 , u2 , u3 } is an orthogonal set, where

     
3 −1 −1/2
     
u1 = 
 1  , u2 =  2  , and u3 =  −2  .
    
1 1 7/2

Solution: Let us consider the three possible pairs of distinct vectors, namely
{u1 , u2 }, {u1 , u3 }, and {u2 , u3 }.

u1 · u2 = 3(−1) + 1(2) + 1(1) = 0

u1 · u3 = 3(−1/2) + 1(−2) + 1(7/2) = 0

u2 · u3 = −1(−1/2) + 2(−2) + 1(7/2) = 0

Each pair of distinct vectors is orthogonal and so {u1 , u2 , u3 } is an orthog-

onal set.

Orthonormal sets: A set {u1 , · · · , up } is an orthonormal set if it is an

orthogonal set of unit vectors. If W is the subspace spanned by such a set,
then {u1 , · · · , up } is an orthonormal basis for W .
Example 4: The simplest example of an orthonormal set is the standard
basis {e1 , · · · , en } for Rn . Any nonempty subset of {e1 , · · · , en } is or-
thonormal too.

Example 5: Show that {v1 , v2 , v3 } is an orthonormal basis of R3 where

 √   √   √ 
3/ 11 −1/ 6 −1/ 66
 √   √   √ 
v1 =  1/
 √  11  , v2 =  2/ 6  , v3 =  −4/ 66 
 √   √ 
1/ 11 1/ 6 7/ 66
16

Solution:
√ √ √
v1 · v2 = −3/ 66 + 2/ 66 + 1/ 66 = 0
√ √ √
v1 · v3 = −3/ 726 − 4/ 726 + 7/ 726 = 0
√ √ √
v2 · v3 = 1/ 396 − 8/ 396 + 7/ 396 = 0

Thus {v1 , v2 , v3 } is an orthogonal set. Also,

v1 · v1 = 9/11 + 1/11 + 1/11 = 1

v2 · v2 = 1/6 + 4/6 + 1/6 = 1

v3 · v3 = 1/66 + 16/66 + 49/66 = 1

which shows that v1 , v2 , and v3 are unit vectors. Thus {v1 , v2 , v3 } is an

orthonormal set. Since the set is linearly independent, they form a basis for
R3 .

Practice Problems-III " #

−1
1. Compute the following quantities using the vectors u = ,
2
   
" # 3 6
4    
v= ,w= −1 , and x =  −2 ;
6
   
−5 3
v·u u w x·w


a) u · u, v · u, and u·u , b) u·u , c) w·w , d) ∥ x ∥, e) x·x
x.
2. Find unit vectors in the direction ofthe given
 vectors;
" # " # 7/4
−30 8/3  
a) , b) , c) 
 1/2 .

40 2
1
" # " #
10 −1
3. Find the distance between x = and y = .
−3 −5
4. Determine which pairs of vectors are orthogonal;
 17
" # " #
8 −2
a) a = and b =
−5 −3
   
12 2
   
b) u =   3  and v =  −3 
  
−5 3
   
−3 1
   
 7   −8 
c) y =   and z =   1. Determine which sets of vectors are
   
 4   15 
   
0 −7
     orthogonal.       
−1 5 3 2 −6 3
           
a)  4  ,  2  ,  −4 , b)  −7  ,  −3  ,  1 ,
           
−3 1 −7 −1 9 −1
     
      3 −1 3
2 0 4      
 −2   3   8 
           
c)  −5  ,  0  ,  −2 , d) 
      ,  ,  
 1   −3   7 
−3 0 6      
3 4 0
2
2. Show that {u1 , u2 } is an orthogonal basis for R . Then express
" # " #
9 2
x= as a linear combination of the vectors u1 = and
−7 −3
" #
6
u2 = .
4
3
3. Show  that {u
 1 , u2 , u3 } is an orthogonal basis for R . Then  express

8 1
   
x=  −4  as a linear combination of the vectors u1 =  0 ,
  
−3 1
   
−1 2
   
u2 =   4 , and u3 =  1 .
  
1 −2
4. Determine which sets of vectors are orthonormal.
18
   
1/3 −1/2" # " #
   
 ,  0 , b) −6 8
a)  1/3 , ,
8 6
   
1/3 1/2
     √   √   
−2/3 1/3 1/ 10 3/ 10 0
     √   √   √ 
c)  1/3  ,  2/3 , d)  3/ 20  ,  −1/ 20  ,  −1/ 2 
     √   √   √ 
2/3 0 3/ 20 −1/ 20 1/ 2

ORTHOGONAL PROJECTION

Definition 6.4. Orthogonal projection: Given a nonzero vector u in Rn , let

us decompose a vector y in Rn into the sum of two vectors, one a multiple
of u and the other orthogonal to u. Thus,

y = ŷ + z (6.1)

where ŷ = αu for some scalar α and z is some vector orthogonal to u.

Given any scalar α, let z = y − αu, so that (7.1) is satisfied. Then y − ŷ
is orthogonal to u iff

(y − αu) · u = y · u − (αu) · u = y · u − α(u · u) = 0

y·u y·u
i.e., (7.1) is satisfied with z orthogonal to u iff α = u·u
and ŷ = u·u
u. The
vector ŷ is called the orthogonal projection of y onto u and the vector z is
called the component of y orthogonal to u.

Note: If c is any non-zero scalar and if u is replaced by cu in the definition

of ŷ, then the orthogonal projection of y onto cu is exactly the same as the
 19

orthogonal projection of y onto u. Hence this projection is determined by

the subspace L spanned by u (the line through u and 0). Sometimes ŷ is
denoted by projL y and is called the orthogonal projection of y onto L,
i.e.,
y·u
ŷ = projL y = u (6.2)
u·u
" # " #
7 4
Example 1: Let y = and u = . Find the orthogonal
6 2
projection of y onto u. Then write y as the sum of two orthogonal vectors,
one in Span {u} and one orthogonal to u.
Solution: Let us compute
" # " # " # " #
7 4 4 4
y·u= · = 40, u · u = · = 20
6 2 2 2
The orthogonal projection of y onto u is
" #
y·u 8
ŷ = u=
u·u 4
and the component of y orthogonal to u is
" #
−1
y − ŷ =
2
The sum of ŷ and y − ŷ is y, i.e.,
" # " # " #
7 8 −1
= +
6 4 2

(As a check, compute orthogonality i.e., ŷ · (y − ŷ) = 0)

Example 2: Find the distance in the above figure from y to L.
Solution: The distance from y to L is the length of the perpendicular line
segment from y to the orthogonal projection ŷ. This length equals the
length of y − ŷ. Thus the distance is
√
∥ y − ŷ ∥= 5 .
20

7. GRAM-SCHMIDT ORTHOGONALIZATION PROCESS

Given a basis {x1 , · · · , xp } for a nonzero subspace W of Rn , define

v1 = x1
x2 · v1
v2 = x2 − v1
v1 · v1
x3 · v1 x3 · v2
v3 = x3 − v1 − v2
v1 · v1 v2 · v2
.. xp · v1 xp · v2 xp · vp−1
.vp = xp − v1 − v2 − · · · − vp−1
v1 · v1 v2 · v2 vp−1 · vp−1

Then {v1 , · · · , vp } is an orthogonal basis for W . In addition

Span {v1 , · · · , vk } = Span {x1 , · · · , xk } for 1 ≤ k ≤ p.

 
3
 
Example 1: Let W = Span {x1 , x2 }, where x1 =   6  and

0
 
1
 
 2 . Construct an orthogonal basis {v1 , v2 } for W .
x2 =  
2
 21

Solution: Let v1 = x1 and

     
1 3 0
x2 · x1   15    
v2 = x2 −  2  − 45  6
x1 =    = 0 
x1 · x1   
2 0 2

Then {v1 , v2 } is an orthogonal set of nonzero vectors in W . Since

dimW = 2,the set  {v1 , v2 } isa basis for W. 
1 0 0
     
 1   1   0 
Example 2: Let x1 =  , x2 =  , and x3 =  . Then
     
 1   1   1 
     
1 1 1
{x1 , x2 , x3 } is clearly linearly independent and thus is a basis for a
subspace W of R4 . Construct an orthogonal basis for W .
Solution: Step 1. Let v1 = x1 and W1 = Span {x1 } = Span {v1 }.
Step 2. Let
x2 · v1
v2 = x2 − projW1 x2 = x2 − v1 (∵ v1 = x1 )
v1 · v1
     
0 1 −3/4
     
 1  3  1   1/4 
= −  =
     
 1  4  1   1/4 

     
1 1 1/4

v2 is the component of x2 orthogonal to x1 , and {v1 , v2 } is an orthogonal

basis for the subspace W2 spanned by x1 and x2 .
Step 3.
x3 · v1 x3 · v2
v3 = x3 − projW2 x3 = x3 − v1 − v2
v1 · v1 v2 · v2
       
0 1 −3/4 0
       
 0  1  1  2  1/4   −2/3 
= −  −  =
       
 1  2  1  3  1/4   1/3 

       
1 1 1/4 1/3
22

Thus {v1 , v2 , v3 } is an orthogonal set of nonzero vectors and hence a

linearly independent set in W . As W is three-dimensional (∵ it was
defined by a basis of three vectors), {v1 , v2 , v3 } is an orthogonal basis for
W.
 23

Practice Problems-IV
" #
1
1. Compute the orthogonal projection of onto the line through
−1
" #
−1
and the origin.
3
" # " #
2 7
2. Let y = and u = . Write y as the sum of a vector in
6 1
Span {u} and a vector orthogonal to u.
3. Find the closest point
  to y in the  W spanned
 subspace  byv1 and v2 ,
3 3 1
     
 1   1   −1 
where y =  , v1 =  , and v2 =  .
     
 5   −1   1 
     
1 1 −1
   
 2   4  

 

4.   −5   −1  is a given set of basis for a subspace W . Use the
 ,  

 
 1 2 
Gram-Schmidt
  process
 to produce an orthogonal basis for W .
 0   5 

 

5.  4   6  is a given set of basis for a subspace W . Use the
 ,  

 
 2 −7 
Gram-Schmidt process to produce an orthogonal basis for W .