Chapter 1: Current and Voltage

BEE 1013 Circuit Theory

Introduction
 Introduction
• Voltage and current are fundamental
concepts in electricity and electronics.
• We encounter voltage in everyday life
(e.g., battery ratings, household outlets).
 Introduction
• Current is less familiar but equally
important (e.g., circuit breakers tripping,
heating elements).
• This chapter introduces voltage and
current and explains their properties
and impact on circuits.
Importance of Voltage and Current
• Voltage acts as the "pressure" that sets
an electrical system in motion.
• Current is the "flow" of charge in
response to the applied voltage.
Importance of Voltage and Current
• Analogy: Consider a garden hose - water
remains static without pressure.
Applying pressure (opening the tap)
causes water to flow.
• Similarly, applying voltage to a circuit
initiates the flow of charge, which is the
current.
Atoms and Their Structure
 Atomic Structure
• Atoms consist of a nucleus (containing
protons and neutrons) orbited by
electrons.
• Protons have a positive charge, electrons
have a negative charge, and neutrons
have no charge.
• Stable atoms have an equal number of
protons and electrons. [This balance is
crucial for atomic stability.]
Atomic Structure
 Electron Shells and Subshells
• Electrons orbit the nucleus in concentric
paths called shells.
• Each shell can hold a specific number of
electrons, determined by the formula 2n2,
where 'n' is the shell number.
• Shells are further divided into subshells,
which also have limited electron capacity.
 Copper: An Example of a
Conductor
• Copper is widely used in electrical
applications due to its atomic structure.
 Copper: An Example of a
Conductor
• It has 29 electrons, with the 29th electron
residing alone in the 4th shell, which is
incomplete.
• Atoms with incomplete outer shells tend
to be unstable.
• This loosely bound 29th electron can
easily become a free electron with a little
external energy.
 Free Electrons and Conductivity
• Free electrons are electrons that have
gained enough energy to leave their
parent atom.
• Conductors, like copper, have a large
number of free electrons that can move
freely throughout the material.
• This easy movement of free electrons is
what allows conductors to carry
electrical current.
 Coulomb's Law
• The force of attraction between the
nucleus and electrons is governed by
Coulomb's Law.

where
F = Force of attraction (Newton)
k = a constant = 9.0 ×109 Nm2/C2
Q1 and Q2 = charges (Coulombs)
r = distance between the two charges (meters)
 Coulomb's Law
• This law states that the force is inversely
proportional to the square of the
distance between the charges.
• Therefore, the further an electron is
from the nucleus, the weaker the force of
attraction.
 Coulomb's Law
• Even a small increase in distance
between charges leads to a significant
decrease in the force of attraction.
• This relationship is why the 29th electron
in copper is easily freed and contributes
to conductivity.
Coulomb's Law
Voltage
 Creating Voltage
• Voltage is created by separating positive
and negative charges.
• In simpler terms, creating regions with
an excess of positive charges (+) and
regions with an excess of negative
charges (-) establishes a voltage between
them.
• The greater the separation of charge, the
higher the voltage.
 Positive Ions and Free Electrons
• When an electron is removed from a
neutral atom, it leaves behind a positive
ion.
• This separation of the free electron and
the positive ion results in regions of
positive and negative charge.
 The Coulomb and Voltage
• To discuss voltage meaningfully, we need
a unit of charge. This unit is the coulomb
(C).
• One coulomb of charge is equal to the
total charge of 6.242 × 1018 electrons.
 The Coulomb and Voltage
• Conversely, the negative charge
associated with a single electron is:
Qe = 1 / (6.242×1018) C = 0.1602×10-18 C
• Moving this amount of charge (1 C)
between two points requires energy.
Voltage quantifies this energy.
 Voltage Definition
• One volt (V) is the potential difference
between two points when 1 joule (J) of
energy is required to move 1 coulomb (C)
of charge between those points.
Voltage (V) = Energy (W) / Charge (Q)
• Units: Volts (V), Joules (J), Coulombs (C)
 Visualizing Voltage
• Imagine moving a negative charge from
near a positive charge towards a negative
charge.
• The closer you bring the charge to the same
charge (negative to negative in this case),
the more energy you need to expend due to
repulsion.
• This energy is directly related to the voltage
difference between the starting and ending
points.
Visualizing Voltage
 Example 1
• Find the voltage between two points if 60
J of energy are required to move a charge
of 20 C between the two points.
 Example 1
• Find the voltage between two points if 60
J of energy are required to move a charge
of 20 C between the two points.
 Example 2
• Determine the energy expended moving
a charge of 50 μC between two points if
the voltage between the points is 6 V.
 Example 2
• Determine the energy expended moving
a charge of 50 μC between two points if
the voltage between the points is 6 V.
 Voltage Sources
• Batteries are not the only method to get
voltage.
• Other sources include:
– Generators: Use mechanical energy (e.g.,
rotation) to separate charge.
– Power Supplies: Convert time-varying
voltages (like AC) to fixed DC voltages.
– Solar Cells: Use light energy to generate
voltage.
– Fuel Cells: Use chemical reactions to create a
continuous voltage.
 Voltage: The "Pressure" in a
Circuit
• Voltage acts as the driving force that
pushes electrons through a circuit.
• A higher voltage means a stronger "push"
on the electrons, leading to a greater
flow of charge (current).
• Voltage can be thought of as the water
pressure in a pipe system.
 Potential Difference
• Voltage is often referred to as potential
difference.
• This term highlights that voltage is about
the relative difference in electrical
potential energy between two points.
• It is this difference in potential that
drives the movement of charge.
 The Electron Volt
• A unit of energy sometimes is in electron
volt.
• It is the level of energy required to move
an electron through a potential
difference of 1 volt.
W = QV = (1.602 ×10-19 C) (1 V) = 1.602 ×10-19 J

1eV = 1.602 ×10-19 J

Current
 Understanding Current
• Current is the flow of electric charge.
• In conductors like copper, this flow
primarily consists of negatively charged
electrons moving in a particular
direction.
 Understanding Current
• Without an applied voltage (potential
difference), electrons move randomly
within a conductor, resulting in no net
flow of charge.
• However, when a voltage is applied, it
creates an electric field that pushes these
electrons in a specific direction,
establishing a current.
 Conventional Current Flow vs.
Electron Flow
• Historically, it was assumed that positive
charges were responsible for current
flow (conventional current flow).
• Later, it was discovered that electrons
are the charge carriers in metals
(electron flow).
• We will focus on conventional current
flow, the most common convention used
in education and industry.
 Current Definition
• Current (I) is defined as the rate of flow
of charge through a specific point in a
circuit.
• A current of one ampere (A) exists when
one coulomb (C) of charge passes
through a given point in one second (s).
Current (I) = Charge (Q) / Time (t)
• Units: Amperes (A), Coulombs (C),
Seconds (s)
 Example 1
• The charge flowing through a conductor
is 0.16 C every 64 ms. Determine the
current in amperes.
 Example 1
• The charge flowing through a conductor
is 0.16 C every 64 ms. Determine the
current in amperes.
 Example 2
• Determine how long it will take 4 ×1016
electrons to pass through the conductor
if the current is 5 mA.
 Example 2
• Determine how long it will take 4 ×1016
electrons to pass through the conductor
if the current is 5 mA.
 Safety Considerations
• Even small amounts of current passing
through the human body can have
serious consequences.
• Currents above 10 mA (milliamperes)
can be dangerous.
• Currents of 50 mA can lead to severe
shock, and those exceeding 100 mA can
be fatal.
 Safety Considerations
• Skin resistance typically provides some
protection against electric shock in dry
conditions.
• However, wet skin significantly reduces
resistance, increasing the risk of
dangerous currents.
• Always exercise caution and respect
electricity.
Ampere-Hour Rating
 What is Ampere-Hour Rating?
• The ampere-hour (Ah) rating indicates
how long a battery can supply a specific
current at a fixed voltage.
• Think of it as a fuel tank for electricity. A
larger Ah rating means the battery can
"store" more electrical energy.
• It's crucial for determining how long a
device can operate on battery power.
 Calculating Battery Life

• A 10 Ah battery can supply 1 A for 10

hours, 2 A for 5 hours, or 5 A for 2 hours.
• This is a theoretical calculation. Actual
battery life can vary due to many factors
such as temperature, age, and storage
conditions.
 Example
• How long will a 9 V transistor battery
with an ampere-hour rating of 520 mAh
provide a current of 20 mA?
 Example
• How long will a 9 V transistor battery
with an ampere-hour rating of 520 mAh
provide a current of 20 mA?
Conductors, Insulators, and
Semiconductors
 Conductors
• Materials that allow electrons to flow
freely with minimal applied voltage.
• Typically have a single electron in their
outermost valence ring.
• Example: Copper, silver and gold.
Conductors
 Insulators
• Materials that resist the flow of electrons,
even with a significant voltage applied.
• Hold their electrons tightly within their
atomic structure, restricting the flow of
charge.
• Example: Rubber, glass, and ceramics.
Insulators
 Breakdown Strength
• Even the best insulators have a limit to
how much voltage they can withstand.
• Breakdown Strength represents the
electric field intensity at which an
insulating material will fail and allow
current to flow.
• Factors Affecting Breakdown Strength:
Material type, temperature, and
environmental conditions.
 Safety
• Insulators can prevent accidental contact
with live wires and helps control the flow
of electricity in circuits.
• Real-World Examples:
– Power line workers wear rubber gloves.
– Electrical wires are coated in insulating
materials to prevent shocks and short
circuits.
 Semiconductors
• Materials with electrical properties that
fall between those of conductors and
insulators.
• The foundation of modern electronics—
transistors, diodes, and integrated
circuits (ICs) are all built using
semiconductors.
 Semiconductors
• Example: Silicon (Si), germanium (Ge)
and gallium arsenide (GaAs).
• Exhibit photoconductivity (increased
conductivity with light exposure) and a
negative temperature coefficient
(resistance decreases as temperature
increases).
 Key Characteristics
• Four Valence Electrons.
• Photoconductivity.
– Their conductivity increases when exposed
to light.
• Negative Temperature Coefficient.
– Resistance decreases as temperature
increases.
Ammeters and Voltmeters
 The Importance of Measurement
• Essential for Analysis:
– Measuring current and voltage is crucial for
analysing, troubleshooting, and ensuring the
proper functioning of electrical systems.
• Practical Insights:
– Measurements provide real-world data that
complements theoretical calculations and
helps identify issues not apparent on paper.
 Ammeter
• An ammeter quantifies the flow of electrical
charge (current) through a circuit.
• Current is measured in amperes (A), often
in the range of milliamperes (mA) or
microamperes (µA).
• An ammeter is connected in series with the
circuit component where current needs to
be measured, requiring a temporary break
in the circuit path.
 Connecting an Ammeter
1. Break the Circuit:
– Disconnect the positive (+) voltage source
lead from the circuit component.
2. Insert Ammeter:
– Connect the ammeter's positive (+) terminal
to the positive (+) side of the circuit and the
ammeter's negative (−) terminal to the
negative (−) side of the component.
Connecting an Ammeter
 Voltmeter
• A voltmeter measures the voltage, or
potential difference, between two points
in a circuit.
• Voltage is measured in volts (V).
• A voltmeter is connected in parallel
across the two points where voltage
needs to be measured.
 Connecting a Voltmeter
1. Identify Points:
– Select the two points across which you want
to measure the voltage.
2. Connect Voltmeter:
– Connect the voltmeter's positive (+) lead to
the point with higher potential and the
negative (−) lead (often the common lead) to
the point of lower potential.
Connecting a Voltmeter
 Analog vs. Digital Meters
– Volt-Ohm-Milliammeter (VOM): A traditional
analogue meter with a needle moving across a
continuous scale, requiring interpretation of
the pointer position.
 Analog vs. Digital Meters
– Digital Multimeter (DMM): A modern digital
meter that provides a numerical display of
voltage, current, or resistance with decimal-
point accuracy.
 Analog vs. Digital Meters
Advantages of Analogue:
–Analogue meters excel in situations where
quick visual assessment of multiple readings or
detecting fluctuations is crucial.
 Meter Impact and Accuracy
• Internal Resistance:
– Both ammeters and voltmeters have internal
resistance, which can slightly affect the
circuit's behaviour when connected.
• Minimized Impact:
– Meters are designed to minimize their
impact, but it's important to be aware of
potential loading effects, especially in
sensitive circuits.