Fundamental

INTRODUCTION

 Computer is the most versatile electronic machine man has ever created. The
word “computer” comes from the Greek word “compute “which means to
calculate. Another name of Computer is “System” which is also derived
from Greek word “Systema” which means a group of components is
combining with each other to perform a specific task. Hence a computer is
normally considered to be a calculating device, which can perform
arithmetic operations and also take logical decision at an enormous speed.
 In other words, a computer is an electronic digital device which accepts the
input data, stores the data does the arithmetic and logical computation in
rapid speed and outputs the required information in the desired format. More
than 80% of the work done by computers today is of non-mathematical in
nature (it can do weather forecasting, reservation, maintain records, monitor
anesthesia in hospitals, creating special effects in movies.etc). So today we
can’t say it as only a calculating machine.
 Computers have made a great impact on our day-to-day life. Their presence
is felt in almost every walk of life such as homes, schools, colleges,
universities, offices, industries, hospital, banks, railways, airways,
researches, retail stores, ATMs etc.

APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTERS

Today, computers are used in varieties of applications. It is used in every step walk
of life .So it is very difficult to list out all the applications of computers. Some
popular applications of computers are:
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 1. Office automation (maintain records, database etc.) Electronic mailing(E-
mails)
2. Industries (Payroll, personal information, meetings etc.)
3. Libraries (Book records, renewal, overdue etc.)
4. Reservation (transport, railway, airway etc.)&Educations( School, college,
University)
5. Hospital (X-Ray, ICU, Scanning etc.). Banks (Financial Transactions)
6. Traffic controls(Traffic light control)
7. Crimes (Record of crime, criminals, cops etc.)
8. Multimedia (Movies,Animatons,Presentations etc)
9. Defenses (launching missiles, Encryption, Decryption etc.)
10.Researches (Satellites communication, testing weapons etc.)
11.Entertainments(video games)
12.Retail Stores (Maintain Bills, stocks, prices etc.)

OVERVIEW OF COMPUTER ORGANIZATION

The internal architecture of computers differs from one system to another.

However, the basic organization remains same.

All computers perform the following five basic operations / processes:

1. Inputting:-The process of entering / feeding data and instruction into the

computer system is called inputting.
2. Storing:-The process of saving / holding of data and instruction in the
memory so that they are available for processing as and when required is
called storing.
3. Processing:- The process of performing operations ( arithmetic and logical)
on data in order to convert them into useful information is called processing.

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 4. Outputting:- The process of producing / retrieving / showing useful
information/ result to the user in printed form or on the visual display
( screen / monitor) is called outputting.
5. Controlling: The Process of directing the manner and sequence in which all
of the above operations are performed is called Controlling.

CHARACTERISTIC OF COMPUTERS

The term computer characteristics mean capabilities and limitation of a

computer system.

1. Speed:

A computer can perform its operations/ tasks / jobs in fraction of a second.

Imagine, what a computer can perform in one minute would take a person to take
his/her entire lifetime. Speed of computer, in earlier day is measured in terms of
mili seconds (10-3) and micro second (10-6). Now-a –days it is measured in nano
seconds (10-9) and Pico seconds (10-12).

2. Accuracy and Reliability:

Today’s computer gives 100% accurate results. Since it is very accurate. It is

reliable. It is estimated that a human being commits at least one error for every
1000 operations. But computer do millions of operation in a second committing no
error.

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 3. Storage Capacity:

Computer has its memory to store a huge amount o data. The data can be
compactly stored in computer and retrieved as and when required. As compared to
a human being who stores data only for a short time period, computers can
remember all the data for several years. It loses the data if the user wants.

4. Capability to be Programmed:

A program is a set of instructions by using a language to the computer. If a

computer is programmed once, then the same program can be executed as many
times we need.

5. Automation:

A machine is said to be automatic, if it works by itself without human intervention.

Computers are automatic, in the sense once started on a job; they carry on, until the
job is finished. However, they are only machines sp cannot start themselves.

6. Versatility :

Computers can do verities of applications. It has no limitations for computer

applications. If a problem can be broken into sequence of logical operations, then a
computer can be used to solve that problem. Computers are use in banks, in the
field of education, medicines i.e in different fields to work on different
applications.

7. Diligence :
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Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness and lack of
concentration. It can perform a task repeatedly without showing any sign of
fatigue. If ten million calculations to be performed, a computer will perform all
with the same accuracy and speed as of the first one. They do not stick days and
take coffee breaks even they work for long hours. If we program it once, it can
work as many times as we want with the same accuracy and efficiency.

THE LIMITATIONS OF COMPUTERS ARE GIVEN BELOW:

1. No I.Q. :

A computer possesses no intelligence of its own. Its I.Q is zero at least until today.
It has to be told what to do and in what sequence.

2. GIGO:

A computer has no knowledge about the correct or incorrect data as it is only a

machine. So if the user will input incorrect data to the computer, it is gives
incorrect information to the user. This phenomenon is known as Garbage In
garbage Out (GIGO).

3. No feeling / experience :

As they are machines, they have no feelings, no emotions, and no instincts.

HISTORY OF COMPUTER

 In 3000 B.C Chinese developed a calculating device name as ABACUS.

 In 1617 Scottish Mathematician Sir John Napier made Rectangular set of
rods for multiplication and division and named as Napier Bones.
 In the year of 1642 Blaise Pascal invented first mechanical calculator.

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  In the year of 1694 Barron Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz improved the
Pascaline Calculator named the device as Leibniz Calculator. Also known as
digital calculator.
 In the year of 1822 Charles Babbage tried to solve differential equations.
This Machine was named “Different Engine”. In 1842, Charles Babbage
came out with his new idea of Analytical Engine which was intended to
completely automatic. The Analytical Engine Named as Computer. So
Charles Babbage is considered as the father of Modern Digital Computer.
 In the year of 1880 Christopher Latham Sholes invented Keyboard.
 In the year of 1970 Douglas Englebart and Bill English Invented Mouse.

YEAR MACHINE INVENTOR

1937-44 MARK-I COMPUTER HOWARD H. AIKEN

1939-42 ATANASOFF BERRY COMPUTER DR. JOHN ATANANSOFF
AND CIFFORD BERRY

1943-46 ENIAC ( ELECTRONIC NUMERICAL INTEGRATOR J. PRESPER ECKERT AND

AND CALCULATOR) JOHN MAUCHLY

1946-52 EDVAC(ELECTRONIC DISCRETE VARAIBLE DR. JOHN VON NEUMANN

AUTOMATIC COMPUTER)

1947-49 EDSAC(ELECTRONIC DELAY STORAGE MAURICE WILKES

AUTOMATIC CALULATOR)

1951 UNIVAC(UNIVERSAL AUTOMATIC COMPUTER) J. PRESPER ECKERT AND

JOHN MAUCHLY ALONG
WITH DR. JOHN VON
NEUMANN

THE ELECTRONIC ERA

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

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Computers can be classified in several ways. The general methods of classification
of computers are based on various characteristics. Some important of them are
given below.

A) According to the purpose of use

Computers can be classified into the following two categories according to their
purpose:

1. Special Purpose Computers:

A computer which is used for specific work

only is called a special purpose computer.
They have been designed or programmed at
the time of manufacturing for doing this
particular task. Some examples of special
purpose computers are, computers meant for
ATM (Automatic Teller Machine), traffic
control, DTP (desktop publishing) , Robots
etc.

2. General Purpose Computers:

A computer which is used for ordinary purposes and the
ability to do any type of work is called a general
purpose computer. The software is designed / installed
by the user as per their requirement. Most of the
computers used in our day-to-day work of general
purpose computers.

B) According to the data on which it will operate

1. Digital Computer:
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These computers accept process and
produce digital data and perform
manipulation on numbers such as binary
digits 0 and 1. These are fast and give
100% accurate results. These computers
do not operate on analog quantities
directly but if the user wants to process
analog quantities, these must be converted into digital data before processing
and for this purpose ADC (Analog Digital Converter) is used.
2. Analog Computer

These computers accept process and produces continuous data or analog data
and perform manipulation on physical quantities such as pressure, temperature
etc. in form of voltages. These are faster than digital computers but give 99%
accurate results. These computers do
not operate on digital data directly if
the user wants to process digital data,
these must be converted into analog
quantity before processing and for
this purpose DAC (Digital- to-
Analog Converter ) is used.

3. Hybrid Computers:

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 These computers use good qualities of both
digital and analog computers. These are
used for space research, process control
and in medicals. It is used in ICU
(Intensive Care Unit) of hospitals to
measure the beat of a patient and give in
digital form to the doctor.

C) According to the Size and Capabilities

Computers can be classified into the following four categories to the size and
capacity. Before that we have to know about word of Computer. A set of bits
which has capable of being stored in one storage location is called WORD of
computer.

1. Micro Computers

A micro computer is very small in size

and it has the lowest capabilities. Its
word length is 8- 16 bits and today it is
of 32 bits. A micro computer has
microprocessor chip. Two types of
micro computers are in common in use.
They are Personal computers (PCs) and
Home Computers (HCs). Some of these
are desktops, laptops etc. A PC is a non-portable, general purpose computer, which
can easily fit on a normal size office table and is generally designed to be used by
one person at a time (Single User) to meet the personal computing needs of
individuals, either in their working places or at their homes. The most commonly

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used configuration consists of a system unit, a monitor, a keyboard and a mouse. A
few of the major manufactures are IBM, Apple etc. Pcs are come in all shapes and
sizes.

2. Mini Computers

A mini computer is small in size and relatively has

more capability as compared to micro computers.
These computers have many peripherals (terminals
and key board) but one CPU. A mini computer is a
medium sized computer that can perform the same
kind of applications as a mainframe but has less
storage capacity.

3. Main-Frame Computers

A main frame computer is large in size and much capability as compared to micro
and mini computers. These are also used in multi-user systems with central host
computers (or servers). These can have the ability to hold a large volume of data.
Some main frames are MEDHA, IBM, and HP. Mainframe computers are used in

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research organization, large industrial banks, airline, insurances and railway
reservation where large database is required.
4. Super Computer

Super Computer is most powerful and expensive computers. These are extremely
large storage capabilities and computing speed which at least 10 times faster than
other computers. They are primarily used for processing complex scientific
applications, weather forecasting, remote sensing, bio-medical application. These
are used for specific purposes (designing supersonic air craft’s, launching missiles,
designing satellites, weather forecasting etc.)

GENERATIONS OF COMPUTER
The history of computer development is often referred to in the different operations
of computing devices. Each generation of computer is characterized by a major
technological development that fundamentally changed the way computers operate.
Generally it is classified into five types.

1. First Generation (1942-1954)

2. Second Generation (1955-1964)
3. Third Generation (1965-1974)
4. Fourth Generation (1974-1989)

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 5. Fifth Generation (1989 till cont.)

First Generation (1942-1954)

 In this generation of computer Vacuum Tube used as the Main electronic

circuit.
 Magnetic drum for memory are used as the principle component of
computer.
 Introduction of UNIVAC is the starting of First generation.
 Large in size, requiring large room for installation.
 Computer was accessible to only one program at a time.
 The power consumption of these computers was very high, complex
maintenance schedules.

Examples:-ENIAC, EDVAC, UNIVAC, IBM 360 AND IBM 700 SERIES.(701,

704,709)

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Second Generation (1955-1964)

 The second generation computer was manufactured using transistors, instead

of vacuum tubes.
 Magnetic disk and magnetic tape were in the main storage media.
 Assembly / Symbolic language was used as the machine understands only
the binary language.
 2nd generation computer were faster than 1st generation computers.
 They are small in size; consume less power as compared to 1st generation.

Examples:-Honeywell 400, IBM (1401, 1620, 7090, 7094 I, 7094 II), CDC 1604,
UNIVAC LARC.

Third Generation Computer (1965- 1974)

 In this generation ICS (integrated

Circuits) are based technology.
 The computer was much more powerful
and fast than the second generation
computers.

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  The computers were much smaller than the 2 nd generation computer and
require small space.
 These machines are suitable for both scientific and commercial applications.
 Minicomputers were introduced in this generation.

Examples:- IBM(360,370), TDC(316,332), ICL 1900,PDP II, CDC(7600, CYBER

175,STAR 100.)

Fourth Generation (1975-1989)

 LSI (large Scale Integrated Circuit) and

VLSI (Very Large Scale Integrated
Circuit) technology were used, production
cost is very less.
 The PCs were smaller and cheaper than
the Mainframe or Micro Computers of
third generation.
 The computers consumed much less
power than the third generation
computers.
 They had faster and larger primary and secondary storage.

Examples: - IBM 4300, ICL 2900 AND PC’s (Personal Computers), Laptops.

Fifth Generation (1989- Til cont.)

 Fifth generation computing device based on Artificial Intelligence, are still

in development, through applications there are some applications, such as
Voice recognition.

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  In this generation ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integrated Circuit) used as
technology.
 Consume less power, the maintenance cost is negligible.
 Portable PCs called notebook computer introduced in this generation.
 They have faster and larger primary and secondary storage as compared to
their predecessors.

BLOCK OF COMPUTERS

A computer consists of three blocks. They are following as

1. INPUT UNIT
2. CPU
3. OUTPUT UNIT

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INPUT UNIT

Data and instruction must enter the computer system, before any computation can
be performed on the supplied data.

The functions are performed by an input unit:

1) It accepts (or reads) the instructions and data from outside world.
2) It converts these instructions and data in computer acceptable form.
Examples:-Keyboard, Mouse, BCR (Bar Code Reader), OMR (Optical Mark
Reader), MICR (Magnetic Ink Character Reader), OCR (Optical Character
Reader), Joy- Stick, Light-Pen Etc.

a) KEYBOARD

The keyboard is one of the most common input devices for computer. It allows
data entry into a computer system by pressing set of keys (labeled buttons)
which is connected to the computer system. It consists of 104 key and 256
Characters. Keys are classified into 5 Categories. They are

i. Numeric Key ( 0 to 9)
ii. Alphabetic Key (A to Z)
iii. Functional Key ( F1 to F12)
iv. Special Key (ctrl, alt, shift, enter, space, home, insert etc.)

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 v. Symbolic Key (>, <, +,-, =, ?, @, #,$ etc.)

b) MOUSE

It is also one of the most commonly used input devices. This

device is named as mouse because of its shape. It is a small hand-held device,
which can comfortably fit in a user’s palm. The cursor on the screen can be
controlled by the movement of mouse. The mouse can be used for quick
positioning of the cursor on the desired menu item or an icon. Now different types
of mouse are available such as ball mouse, optical mouse and cordless mouse.

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

(CPU) (Mother Board)

The control unit and the arithmetic logic unit of a computer system are jointly
known as the Central processing Unit. It is known as the brain of computer.
Because as compared to the brain of a human being, it also stores the data, process
the data and gives instruction to other units. In a computer system all major
calculations and comparisons are perform inside the CPU and it is a responsible
for activating and controlling the operations of other units of the computer system.
The CPU performs the actual processing of data obtained, via the system bus,
from the main memory. Results from the CPU are then sent back to main memory
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via system bus. In addition to computation the CPU controls and Co-ordinates the
operation of the other major components. The CPU is the most important
components of a computer. The CPU consists of different smaller compound like
motherboard, Hard disk, RAM, floppy disk drive, sound card etc. It consists of 3
blocks such as ALU, Memory Unit and Control Unit.

I. ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT (ALU)

This unit is used to perform all the arithmetic and logic operations such as addition,
multiplication, subtraction, division and logical operations or comparisons such as
less than, greater than. The data and instructions, stored in the primary memory
prior to processing, are transferred to the ALU where actual processing takes
place.

II. MEMORY UNIT

Whether you are writing a letter with a computer, entering accounting records, or
drawing picture, your work is sitting inside the computer’s memory or RAM. This
process is called saving your work. When your work is saved it creates a computer
FILE.

The specific functions of the storage unit are to hold (store)

 The data and instructions required for processing (received from input
devices)
 Intermediate result of processing
 Final results of processing

Memory unit is classified into two categories. They are

 Primary memory

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  Secondary memory

a) PRIMARY MEMORY

It is a faster memory compared to the secondary memory. It is also known as

main / volatile / temporary memory. These are volatile in nature i.e. contents are
lost / erased from the memory when power goes off. The current applications,
programs operating system, compiler etc. (which we are working with) are loaded
into this primary memory. It is a semi-conductor memory. It has two type of
Memory i.e. RAM and ROM.

(RAM-Random Access Memory) (ROM-Read Only Memory)

RAM

RAM (Random Access Memory) is a temporary (volatile) storage area utilized by

the CPU. Before a program can be ran, the program is loaded into the memory
which allows the CPU direct access to the program. There are two important type
of RAMs: Static RAM and Dynamic RAM.

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 STATIC RAM (S-RAM) DYNAMIC RAM (D-RAM)

1. SRAM can retain stored 1. DRAM loose the stored information

information as long as the in a very short time (in few
power supply is on. millisecond) , even though the
2. These are reliable and faster power supply is on.
than DRAMs. 2. These are cheaper and high packing
3. These consume more power. density and moderate speed.
4. Being faster, so generally used 3. These consume less power.
as for cache memory. 4. Generally used as for primary
memory.

ROM

This is known as Read Only Memory and non-volatile in nature .It is also
possesses random access properly. ROM is generally classified into three types
Such as

A. PROM

PROM stands for Programmable read-only memory. A PROM is a memory chip

on which data can be written only once. Once a program has been written onto a
PROM, it remains there forever.

B. EPROM

It stands for Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. The content of this type
of ROM can be erased by some means an again can be programmed. This is used
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for research and development purpose as the developers modifying and updating
the data several times.

C. EEP ROM

EEPROM- Acronym for electrically erasable programmable read-only memory. It

is a special type of PROM that can be erased by exposing it to an electrical charge.

b) SECONDARY MEMORY

It is a slower memory compared to the primary memory. it is also known as

auxiliary/non-volatile/permanent / backup memory. These are non-volatile in
nature i.e the contents not lost /erased from the memory when the power goes off.

(Pen Drive) (Memory Card) (Hard Disk Drive)

Examples:-Pen drive, Memory card, Hard disk Drive, CD, DVD etc.

Bit 1 bit (Value of 0 and 1)

Nibble 4 bits
Byte 8 bits
Kilobyte (KB) 1024 bytes
Mega Byte (MB) 1024 KB
Gigabyte (GB) 1024 MB
Terabyte (TB) 1024 GB
Peta byte (PB) 1024 TB

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 III. CONTROL UNIT (CU)

It acts as a central nervous system for the other components of the computer. It
manages and co-ordinates the entire computer system, including input and output
units. It fetches the information from the main memory, decodes the instruction
and interprets the instruction to know what tasks to be performed.

OUTPUT UNIT

Output data is that has been processed into useful form now called information.
The output unit receives the stored result from the memory unit, converts it into a
form the user can understand.

The functions are performed by an output unit are:

 It accepts the result produced by the computer which is in coded form.

 It converts this coded result to human acceptable (readable) form.
 It supplies the converted results to the outside world.

Some commonly used output devices are:

 Monitor/VDU
 Printers
 Plotters
 Monitor / VDU

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(LED/LCD Monitor) (CRT Monitor)

Monitors are the most popular output device used for producing soft-copy output.
A monitor is usually associated with keyboard as the input device and display unit
(VDU) as the output device. The two types of monitors used are:

 Cathode-ray- tube (CRT)

 Flat-Panel

 Printer

Printers are the most commonly used output device for producing hard-copy
output. They are the primary devices used to prepare permanent documents in
human-readable format (hard copy).

(Printer) (Dot Matrix Printer) (Laser Printer) (Ink Jet printer)

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 PRINTERS

CHARACTER PAGE LINE

NON
IMPACT DRUM
IMPACT

DOT
INK JET
MATRIX

CHAIN

DAISY
LASER
WHEEL

COMPUTER SYSTEM

It consists of 3 categories as follows:

1. Hardware
2. Software
3. USER

It is also defined as hardware +software+ user=computer system

1. HARDWARE

The physical component of the associated with computer which can be touchable,
moveable from one place to another place. Some examples are: Keyboard, mouse,
monitor etc.

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 2. SOFTWARE

Computer software or simply software is a collection of data or computer

instruction that tell the computer how to work. This is in contrast to physical
hardware, from which the system built and actually performs the work. There are
two broad classification of software i.e. System software and Application
Software.

a) SYSTEM SOFTWARE

System software is a type computer program that is designed to run a computer’s

hardware and application programs. It is classified into two categories

 UTILITY SYSTEM SOFTWARE

Utility software is software designed to help to analyze, configure, optimize or

maintain a computer. It is used to support the computer infrastructure in contrast to
application software.

 OPERATING SYSTEM SOFTWARE

An operating system is system software manages computer hardware, software

resources and provides common service for computer programs. It creates an
connection between hardware, software and user.

Examples:

DOS (Disk Operating System), WINDOWS,

UNIX, LINUX.

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TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS

There are two types of Operating system

SINGLE USER

A personal computer (PC) is a popular single user system. The PC however was
designed for use by one person at a time since it is single user oriented with MS-
DOS operating system.

MULTI USER

Larger systems, which can be used by more than one person at a time is known as
multi-user systems. Such an Operating System is more efficient and more
sophisticated than single –user OS.

Examples

 Windows 2000, Millennium, XP, NT , 2000 & 2003 server etc.

 Unix and LINUX (Redhat,SuSE etc)
b) APPLICATION SOFTWARE

An Application is any program or group of programs that is designed for the end
use. Application Software (also called end-user programs) includes such things as
database programs, word processors, web browsers and spreadsheets.

Computer Languages

The languages which are used to interact and communicate with computer. There
are three types of language in computer system. They are:

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 1. Machine Level Language (It contains the binary digit values of 0 & 1)
2. Assembly Level Language (it contains alphanumeric values and
mnemonics such as ADD, SUB , MUL , DIV)
3. High Level Language (It contain set of rules called Syntax. Examples:-
Java, c, c++ etc.)

LANGUAGE PROCESSOR

A language processor is a software program designed or used to perform tasks such

as processing program code to machine code. There are three types of language
processor. They are

 Assembler
 Compiler
 Interpreter
 ASSEMBLER
 An assembler is a program that converts assembly language to machine
code.
 It takes the basic commands and operations from assembly code and
converts into binary code that can be recognized by a specific type of
processor.
 COMPILER
 It is a software translator, compiles the whole program at a time consumes
more memory.
 It takes the source code file as input and gives the reloadable object as
output
 It is faster than interpreter.

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  It takes whole file at a time and compiles it and gives all syntax errors at
time with respect to the line numbers.
 INTERPRETER
 An interpreter is a translator program which is used for translating programs
written in high-level languages into its equivalent machine language
program.
 It translates one statement at a time ,if error-free executes
 It checks the program one line at a time, consumes comparatively less
memory.
 It takes more time than compiler.

NUMBER SYSTEM

In computer system there is four types of number system is available. They are as
follows

i) Binary Number
ii) Octal Number
iii) Decimal Number
iv) Hexadecimal Number

ADDITION RULE

0+0=0 1+0=1

0+1=1 1+1=10

SUBTRACTION RULE

0-0=0 0-1=1

1-0=1 1-1=0

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There are many methods or techniques which can be used to convert from one base
to another. We’ll demonstrate here the following

 Decimal to other base system

 Other base system to decimal
 Other base system to non-decimal

DECIMAL TO OTHER BASE SYSTEM

 Step 1-Divide the decimal number to be converted by the value of the new
base.
 Step 2-Get the remainder from step 1 as the rightmost digit(least significant
digit) of new base number.
 Step 3-Divide the quotient of the previous divide by the new base.
 Step 4-Record the remainder from step 3 as the next digit (to the left) of the
new base number.

Repeat steps 3 and 4, getting remainders from right to left, until the quotient
becomes zero in step 3.The last remainder thus obtained will be the most
significant digit (MSD) of the new base number.

Example

Decimal Number: (29)10

Calculating Binary Equivalent:

Step Operation Result Remainder

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 Step 1 29 /2 14 1
Step 2 14 /2 7 0
Step 3 7 /2 3 1
Step 4 3 /2 1 1
Step 5 1 /2 0 1
As mentioned in steps 2 and 4, the remainder have to be arranged in the reverse
order so that the first remainder becomes the least significant digit (LSD) and the
last remainder becomes the least significant (MSD)

Decimal Number 2910 = Binary Number: 111012

Other base system to Decimal System

 Step 1-Determine the column (positional)value of each digit (this depends

on the position of the digit and the base of the number system).
 Step 2- Multiply the obtained column values (in step 1) by the digits in the
corresponding columns.
 Step 3-Sum the products calculated in step 2.The total is the equivalent
value in decimal.

Example

Binary Number: 111012

Calculating Decimal Equivalent:

Step Binary Number Decimal Number

Step 1 111012 ((1*20)+(0*21)+(1*22)+(1*23)+(1*24))
Step 2 111012 (1+0+4+8+16)10
Step 3 111012 2910

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Other base System to Non-Decimal System

 Step 1-Convert the original number to a decimal number (base 10).

 Step 2-Convert the decimal number so obtained to the new number.

Example

Octal Number: 258

Calculating Binary Equivalent

Step 1: Convert to Decimal

Step Octal Number Decimal Number

Step 1 258 ((5*80)+(2*81))
Step 2 258 (5+16)10
Step 3 258 2110

Octal Number 258 =Decimal Number 2110

Step 2: Convert Decimal to Binary

Step Operation Result Remainder

Step 1 21 /2 10 1
Step 2 10/2 5 0
Step 3 5 /2 2 1
Step 4 2 /2 1 0
Step 5 1 /2 0 1

Decimal Number: 2110 = Binary Number 101012

Octal Number: 258 = Binary Number: 101012

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